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Basic concept of communication
FDM v.s. TDM
FDD v.s. TDD

Radio Wave Propagation

Path loss
Shadowing
Multipath propagation

FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

Channel characteristic

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Three main components of radio propagation:
mean path loss: loss due to distance attenuation
shadowing: long term fading
multipath propagation: short term (Rayleigh) fading

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Path attenuation is usually proportional to the logarithm
of the mobile to base station distance (if there is no terrain
obstacles)
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Shadow fading
Arise due to shadowing by obstacles
Hills, buildings, trees
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Shadowing by large obstructions (larger than the terrain
database resolution) can be predicted by propagation
models in computerized planning tools.
Shadowing by obstructions smaller than the database
resolution, such as individual buildings, can only be dealt
with statistically.

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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Log-normal fading
Standard deviation normally around 7 to 9 dB (urban and suburban).
Distribution applies to locality of about 50m x 50m to 500m x 500m
Add a margin to local median so that probability of coverage better than
50%
  

   

  

   

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Multipath or Rayleigh fading

The result of multipath propagation

Constructive and destructive interference
Location dependent
Time dependent
Frequency dependent

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Multipath propagation - Short term fading
The superposition of several reflected waves arriving at
the receiver on different paths cause peaks and deep
fading dips of the received level.
The length scale of variation (e.g. peak to peak) is given
by the half of the transmission wavelength
~ 15 cm for GSM 900
~ 7.5 cm for DCS 1800

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Methods to combat Rayleigh fading:
Averaging of Rayleigh fading over speech frames (interleaving of
8 bursts)
Frequency Hopping
spacing between frequencies in hopping sequence >> coherence
bandwidth

Motion
Ex. V=50 km/h, TDMA frame length=4.6 ms
Distance between MS positions at subsequent bursts D=6.4 cm
Distance for 8 burst ~ 50 cm > 3 * wavelength

Combining of signal received at positions of mutually

uncorrelated fading
Antenna diversity
spacing between RX antenna >> half wavelength

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Protocol Team

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Equalization and error protection (burst error).

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Protocol Team

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Partition the time axis into frame of n slots and assign

slots in some fashion
require synchronization between users
allow variable rate sources (e.g. assign multiple slots per frame to
a user)
easy to control peak power of total power
low battery consumption

Time orthogonality!!

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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Partition the spectrum into a set of bands and assign a band
to each user
no-need for synch. in time between users
different RF carrier frequencies
variable peak power in the total signal
inflexible to variable data rate per terminal
the idle channel cannot be used by other users to increase or share
capacity
low complexity to implement

Frequency orthogonality!!

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Protocol Team

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Assign a specific spreading code to each user, code acts
like a channel
DS: spreading codes
code period = data symbol period: short codes
code period>> data symbol period: long codes

FH: hopping sequences

share the same frequency band and time axis

Code orthogonality!!

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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Multiple Access Communication Technique

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Direct Sequence CDMA
Narrow-band CDMA
Wideband CDMA

Frequency Hopping CDMA

Slow FH CDMA
Fast FH CDMA

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Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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Advantages

Jam resistance
Low probability of intercept
Resistance to multi-path fading
Frequency sharing
Channel sharing, soft capacity, soft blocking
Soft handoff

Disadvantages
Self-jamming
Near-far problem
Implementation is more complex

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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Space Division Multiple Access ( SDMA ) serves different
users by using spot beam antennas.
These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be
served by the same frequency ( in a TDMA or CDMA system)
or different frequencies ( in an FDMA system ).
Use array antenna to separate the simultaneously received
signals of spatially separated subscribes by exploiting the
directional selectivity of the mobile radio channel.
The SDMA technique can be combined with each of the other
multiple access techniques ( FDMA, TDMA, CDMA ) to
increase the network capacity.

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

22

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GSM System

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Add the frequency

diversity by frequency
hopping to reduce the
frequency-selective
interference.
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TDMA/FDMA
FDMA

CDMA/FDMA

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

25

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Spread spectrum (SS)
Military communications
CDMA commercial communications

Definition
SS is a scheme which has a bandwidth that is much larger than the
minimum bandwidth typically required for the given data rate.
typical bandwidth = data rate

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

Protocol Team

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Type of spread spectrum

Direct sequence (DS)
Multiplied by a wider spreading waveform
IS-95, W-CDMA,

Frequency hopping (FH, slow and fast)

Random carriers
WLAN, DECT,

Time hopping
Hybrid FH/DS

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

26

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Protocol Team

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Symbol/Bit Rate

Chip Rate
Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

27

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P o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y

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Protocol Team

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T w o k in d s

( c o d e p e r io d v e r s u s d a t a s y m b o l d u r a t io n )

Sh o rt co d es
T y p i c a l s e q u e n c e p e r i o d e q u a l t o d a ta s y m b o l p e r io d

L on g cod es
S e q u e n c e p e r io d m u c h l o n g e r t h a n d a ta s y m b o l p e r io d
M o re ran d o m

C a t e g o r y o f s p r e a d in g c o d e s ( p r o p e r t i e s a n d g e n e r a ti o n m e t h o d s )
M sequ en ces
G o ld c o d e s

Pseudo random
Pseudo noise
PN
Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

29

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F o r s e p a r a t in g c h a n n e l s f r o m s a m e s o u r c e
c h a n n e liz a t io n c o d e s

F o r s e p a r a t in g d if f e r e n t c e lls ( D L )
G o ld c o d e s w it h 3 8 4 0 0 c h ip s ( 1 0 m s )
A s e g m e n t o f a c o d e w it h 2 1 8 -1 c h ip s

F o r s e p a r a t in g d if f e r e n t U E s ( m o b ile , U L )
lo n g s c r a m b lin g c o d e ( G o ld c o d e s ) w it h 1 0 m s p e r i o d
s h o r t c o d e s 2 5 6 c h ip p e r io d

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E a c h C D M A c h a n n e l i s d is t in g u is h e d v ia a u n iq u e
s p r e a d in g c o d e
T h e s e s p r e a d i n g c o d e s s h o u ld h a v e lo w c r o s s - c o r r e la t i o n v a lu e s
I n 3 G P P W - C D M A , O r t h o g o n a l V a r ia b le S F ( O V S F ) c o d e s a r e
u sed
P r e s e r v e t h e o r t h o g o n a lit y b e t w e e n a u s e r s d if f e r e n t p h y s ic a l
c h a n n e ls

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Protocol Team

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S c r a m b l in g c o d e s a r e u s e d t o s c r a m b le t h e s p r e a d
seq u en ces
M u lt ip l y t h e s p r e a d s e q u e n c e s @ c h ip r a t e
m o re ra n d o m a n d o rth o g o n a l
UL
L o n g s c r a m b lin g c o d e s
S h o r t s c r a m b lin g c o d e s
p o s s i b i li t y o f m u l ti - u s e r d e t e c tio n a t b a s e s ta ti o n s

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T h e r e c e iv e r r e q u ir e s a r e p lic a o f t h e P N c o d e w it h a
c o r r e c t c lo c k p h a s e in o r d e r t o d e - s p r e a d t h e s ig n a l.
F o r e x a m p le
in it ia l c e ll s e a r c h ( p o w e r o n )
T o c a p t u r e t h e s lo t t im in g o f t h e c h o s e n B S

h a n d o ff
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B a s e s t a t io n s a lw a y s t r a n s m it P N c o d e s in s y n c h r o n iz a t io n
ch an n el
I n 3 G P P , a s y n c h r o n iz a t io n c o d e o f 2 5 6 c h ip s is u s e d .

1
-1
Tc

Synchronization code

MS is synchronized to BS
with the aid of synch. code

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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T h e p r o c e s s o f s y n c h r o n iz in g t o a P N c o d e c o n s is t s o f t w o
ste p s:
c o d e a c q u i s it io n ( c o a r s e s y n c h r o n iz a t io n )
a s m a ll t im in g e r r o r [ -1 / 2 T c 1 / 2 T c ]

1
-1/N
c o d e t r a c k in g ( f in e s y n c h r o n iz a t io n )

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O p e r a t io n
a c q u is it i o n , t r a c k i n g + d e m o d u la t io n
lo o s e t r a c k in g
a c q u is it i o n , t r a c k i n g + d e m o d u la t io n ,

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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U n iv e r s a l f r e q u e n c y r e u s e t o a c h ie v e o p t im a l c a p a c it y a n d
t o e lim in a t e f r e q u e n c y p la n n in g
F a s t p o w e r c o n t r o l t o o v e r c o m e n e a r - f a r p r o b le m
S o f t h a n d - o f f t o im p r o v e c o v e r a g e r e lia b ilit y a n d t o
r e d u c e in t e r f e r e n c e a t c e ll e d g e s .
R a k e r e c e iv e r s t o r e s o lv e a n d t o c o n s t r u c t iv e ly c o m b in e
m u lt ip a t h s
S e c t o r iz a t io n a n d s o f t e r h a n d o f f t o r e d u c e in t e r - s e c t o r
in t e r f e r e n c e a n d t o im p r o v e s y s t e m c a p a c it y

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Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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C e ll b r e a t h in g t o b a la n c e f o r w a r d a n d r e v e r s e lin k s a n d t o
s u p p o r t h ig h s y s t e m lo a d in g
V a r ia b le r a t e v o c o d in g t e c h n iq u e t o u t iliz e v o ic e in a c t iv it y
t o in c r e a s e c a p a c it y
F o r w a r d li n k s m a in t a i n r a t e b y r e p e a t in g s u b r a t e d a t a b u t r e d u c e
t r a n s m it p o w e r
R e v e r s e l in k s m a in t a i n p o w e r b u t r e d u c e r a t e b y r a n d o m g a t i n g
fo r su b ra te d a ta

T h r e e w a y t r a d e - o f f a m o n g s t c a p a c it y , c a ll q u a lit y a n d
c o v e r a g e t o m a x im iz e s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e a n d e c o n o m ic s

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

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N e a r f a r s ig n a l le v e l d if f e r e n c e s c a n b e la r g e r t h a n
p r o c e s s g a in .
A C D M A u s e r is in t e r f e r e d b y u s e r s w it h in it s o w n c e ll a s
w e ll a s u s e r s i n a ll s u r r o u n d in g c e lls .
E x c e s s f o r w a r d c o v e r a g e m a y c a u s e ilo t P o llu t io n ?
R a p id ly c h a n g e o f R F p o w e r m a y m a d e h a n d o f f a n d
p o w e r c o n t r o l u n r e lia b le .
F o r w a r d a n d r e v e r s e lin k s a r e m u t u a lly c o u p l e d a n d
c a n n o t b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e ly .
C D M A h a n d s e t s m a y e x p e r ie n c e I n t e r M o d u la t io n
in t e r f e r e n c e f r o m o t h e r s y s t e m s .
Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

Protocol Team

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N e a r - F a r P r o b le m
o n e c lo s e - i n u s e r m a y d o m i n a t e t h e r e c e iv e s ig n a l a t a R X e n d
s o lu t io n : p o w e r c o n t r o l, m u lt i- u s e r d e t e c t io n

MAI
S in c e t h e r e c e iv e d s p r e a d in g c o d e s a r e u s u a ll y n o t c o m p le t e l y
o r t h o g o n a l, m u lt ip le a c c e s s in t e r f e r e n c e ( M A I ) is g e n e r a t e d in t h e
r e c e iv e r .
S o lu t io n : m u lt i- u s e r d e t e c t io n

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

36

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O p e n lo o p
M o b ile s t a t io n s e t s it s t r a n s m it p o w e r in v e r s e ly w it h t h e r e c e iv e d
f o r w a r d lin k p o w e r s o t h a t t h e b a s e s t a t io n r e c e iv e s s ig n a ls o f t h e
s a m e le v e l f r o m a ll m o b i le s t a t io n s w i t h i n t h e c e ll.

I n n e r C lo s e d lo o p
B a s e s t a t io n c o n t r o ls r e v e r s e lin k t o a c h ie v e d e s ir e d E b / N o b y
in s e r t in g t h e p o w e r c o n t r o l b it i n t o f o r w a r d lin k p o w e r c o n t r o l
s u b - c h a n n e l.

O u t e r C lo s e d lo o p
B a s e s t a t io n a d ju s t s t h e E b / N o t o a c h ie v e a d e s ir e d F E R .

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

Protocol Team

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H a n d o f f o c c a s io n
B a d s ig n a l q u a l it y o n c u r r e n t c h a n n e l
n o is e o r in t e r f e r e n c e

T r a f f ic o v e r lo a d in c u r r e n t c e ll
lo a d b a la n c in g

H a rd v s. S o ft h a n d o ff
H a rd h a n d o ff
A M S s o w n e r s h ip s w it c h e s f r o m t h e o ld B S t o a n e w o n e d u r in g t h e
h a n d o ff p ro ce ss

S o ft h a n d o ff
A M S s o w n e r s h ip b e l o n g s t o b o t h f r o m t h e o ld B S t o a n e w o n e
d u r in g t h e h a n d o f f p r o c e s s

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

37

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S o ft H a n d o ff
D u r in g s o f t h a n d o f f , a m o b ile s t a t io n s i m u lt a n e o u s ly e s t a b li s h e s
c o m m u n ic a t i o n s w it h t w o o r m o r e b a s e s t a t io n s .
I n s o f t h a n d o f f , M T S O s e le c t s t h e b e t t e r f r a m e t o a c h ie v e m a x im a lr a t io d iv e r s it y . A 1 % F E R a f t e r s e le c t io n i m p l ie s a 1 0 % F E R o n
e a c h lin k .

S o fte r h a n d o ff
D u r in g s o f t e r h a n d o f f , a c o m m u n ic a t io n l in k is s im u lt a n e o u s l y
s u p p o r t e d b y t w o o r m o r e s e c t o r s o f t h e s a m e c e l l.
I n s o f t e r h a n d o f f , a b a s e s t a t io n u s e s t h e R A K E r e c e iv e r s t o
a c h ie v e m a x i m a l- r a t io d iv e r s it y .

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

Protocol Team

F r e q u e n c y d iv e r s it y
S p a c e d iv e r s it y
P o la r iz a t io n d iv e r s it y
T im e d iv e r s it y
M u lt i- p a t h d iv e r s it y

'LYHUVLW\

W it h w id e b a n d C D M A m o r e m u lt ip le d iv e r s it y c a n b e r e c e iv e d t h a n
w it h n a r r o w b a n d C D M A i n t h e s a m e e n v ir o n m e n t .
T h e m o r e m u lt i- p a t h d iv e r s it y i s a v a ila b le , t h e s m a l le r is t h e p o w e r r is e .
T h e r e f o r e , a t h ig h m o b ile s p e e d s t h e d iv e r s it y h e lp s t o k e e p t h e r e c e iv e d
p o w e r le v e l c o n s t a n t .

Protocol Team

Acer Mobile Networks Inc.

38