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Joe Jared
Dr. Dietel-McLaughlin
WR 13300
14 November 2014
Persuasive Player 1: The Use of Rhetoric in Modern Video Games
Video games have become an increasingly polarizing topic in pop culture. Media outlets
often report on the video game backgrounds of gunmen in school shootings, claiming that their
psychological state of being is negatively impacted by violent games. Some people argue that
computer games are effecting obesity rates and social abilities in younger generations. Society
continues to perceive video games as mindless entertainment on a screen. This general
perception overshadows the positive impacts video games can provide to popular culture. Video
games deserve to be appreciated as an art form with the ability to tell elaborate and emotional
stories while still providing engaging gameplay. The level of sophistication in the video game
industry lacks the recognition it truly deserves. Jon Cogburn, Associate Professor of Philosophy
at Louisiana State University and Mark Silcox, Assistant Professor of Humanities and
Philosophy at the University of Central Oklahoma believe video games are more than, mere
novelty as an entertainment medium, and argue that, the appeal of many video games is closer
to that of great poetry than it is to the transparent and forgettable charms of push-pin (an inane
gambling game from the sixteenth century) (viii). Accepting video games as an art form is the
first step into appreciating their greater impact on society. Video games can act as a rhetorical
medium more effectively than other forms of media and deserves acceptance as a viable
rhetorical medium.

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This essay will primarily focus on two games as examples to show the artistic qualities of
video games. The first is Bioshock Infinte, developed by Irrational Games, follows the story of
Booker DeWitt as he travels to the floating city of Columbia in order to wipe away his debt.
Classified primarily as a first person shooter; Bioshock Infinite is the third game in the popular
series, its predecessors Bioshock and Bioshock 2 also received critical acclaim and were lauded
for their groundbreaking entrance into video game culture. Miguel Sicart classifies Irrational
Games as one of the few, companies that dare to try something new, and the games that result
from the combination of daring, innovation, and talent are often heralded as the symbols of what
computer games can contribute to both popular and fine arts (152). The other game used as an
example is The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker. Developed by Nintendo and released in
December of 2002, this entry into the famous The Legend of Zelda series follows a young boy
named Link on his adventure across the world of Hyrule to save princess Zelda from the clutches
of evil. Both games focus on a single-player experience with emphasis on combat and solving
puzzles. Overall, both represent a large number of games that function rhetorically to elicit
particular emotional responses from its audeince.
Although there are many characteristics of a rhetorical work, the driving purpose behind
rhetoric is to persuade an audience. Video games act effectively as a persuasive medium. Herrick
classifies, Four resources of symbols have long been recognized as assisting the goal of
persuasion. () I will call them: arguments, appeals, arrangement, and aesthetics (13). For
video games, argument and arrangement often work as one. Developers specifically choose to
reveal certain claims about an overall argument in different parts of the story line. However,
video games generally do not specifically state the arguments at hand. The overall plot of the
game pushes the audience towards a specific viewpoint or thematic idea through the content of

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the story. Bioshock Infinite, tackles many incendiary topics in the modern age, despite being set
in alternate reality 1912. Ranging from, racism, sexism, nationalism, and religion, these topics,
are all put directly in front of you (). It makes a point simply by confronting you with these
uncomfortable issues and forcing you to at least think about them (McCaffrey). For example,
Booker has multiple interactions with the Vox Populi, an group made up of the working class
and oppressed citizens of Columbia protesting the inequality between social classes. However,
due to certain events throughout the storyline, the Vox Populi turns to violence and begins an
open rebellion against the oppressive government of Columbia and an all-out war. Eventually,
the Vox Populi takes control of the city, but instead of bringing equality to Columbia, they
commit atrocious crimes against those that oppressed them. However, Booker fights alongside
the Vox Populi as well as against them, so it is often unclear for the audience how they are
supposed to interpret the rebellious group. In addition, the dialogue between major characters
provides claims supporting both sides of the controversy, making sure not to show particular bias
towards one view. Bioshock Infinite stealthily makes its claims, but allows the audience to form
their own opinions from the evidence presented throughout the narrative. Video games create
their arguments differently than other rhetorical mediums, but are still effective in presenting
claims and composing a valid argument.
The different styles of arrangement of these arguments presents an interesting case for
rhetorical video games. Some games arrange the narrative in a linear fashion, forcing the
audience to take a particular, definite path throughout the plot. This proves effective in most
cases, the developers control what the audience experiences and when this occurs. However,
there is another method of arrangement of the narrative that has a different effect on the
audience, a free roam game. These games offer no linear storyline, the player has complete

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control over what the character wants to do. There is a basic storyline to the game that takes up a
large amount of play time, but the game offers vast array of other objectives to entertain players.
When given this opportunity to freely explore the vast world around them, players tend to spend
time completing side quests, searching for secrets, or just enjoying the scenery. Developers take
this into account, and often include small details in these areas off the beaten path of the
narrative. Bioshock Infinite hides a number of voxophones throughout the game. Each
voxophone contains a small audio segment voiced by a character in the story, revealing
anything from thematic concepts, character backgrounds, and other features of the world. The
effort that players put into locating these small details creates a stronger and more memorable
overall impact of the narrative. Both linear and free roaming narrative arrangement are effective
in presenting a persuasive argument and making a lasting impression on its audience.
Perhaps the most important aspects of persuasion in video games are appeals and
aesthetics. Herrick defines appeals as, strategies that aim either to elicit an emotional response
or to engage the audiences loyalties or commitments (13). It makes sense that when one finally
completes a game they feel an overwhelming sense of pride and accomplishment; all of the
painstaking hours progressing through the game have finally paid off. However, Jonathan Frome
looks at other emotional reactions audiences experience throughout the course of a game that are
not as easy to explain. He specifically looks the game, The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker,
and focuses on the relationship players have with the protagonists, Link and Zelda. Frome
believes there are multiple instances throughout the narrative that show the humanity of these
fictional characters and strike the emotional heartstrings of the player (4). Why do we react when
Link leaves his grandmother, or when his sister gives him her looking glass as a birthday gift,
moments before she is kidnapped? Even some of the monsters throughout the game can cause,

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your eyes (to) widen and your heart rate increases just a little as you look at this threatening
monster (Frome 4). Part of this comes from the relationships audiences build with characters as
a result of intimate interactions throughout the narrative, but why do audiences feel this way
about characters on a screen that they know are fictional? From a neurological standpoint, Frome
argues that subconscious parts of the human mind interpret these events as if they were real
people. He continues, claiming that, we react to video games and other art forms in some ways
as if they are representations and in some ways and some ways as if they were reality. Different
parts of our minds react differently to the same stimuli (14). Although most video games do not
realistically represent the real world, they still successfully invoke human sympathy and other
emotions necessary for an effective rhetorical medium.
The aesthetics of a game play an equally important role in the rhetorical effectiveness of
video games. Herrick describes aesthetics as, elements adding form, beauty, and force to
symbolic expression (14). Companies spend millions of dollars developing advanced graphics
for their hardware. Game developers and artists create beautiful worlds ranging from medieval
Europe to post-apocalyptic planet Earth. Even the characters themselves have detailed body
language, facial structure, and clothing. So why put so much time and effort into creating a game
with beauty? The emphasis on aesthetics strives to make the overall gaming experience as
memorable as possible. In addition, the surrounding scenery in a game acts as another trigger for
an emotional response from the audience. Aesthetics in video games strive to, enhance the
impact of () discourse and to make it more vivid and memorable (Herrick 15). This parallels
with Boghosts claim that a more vivid medium invokes a greater emotional reaction from the
audience. Bioshock Infinite depends on aesthetics to enchant the player into believing its
mesmerizing world. Creating a floating city is impossible even now, yet the game takes place in

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1912. Although it is slightly difficult to believe at first, the world of Coumbia comes alive the
moment the player steps onto the streets. Architectural and clothing styles reflect the time period
and citizens walking by speak with proper grammar. The aesthetic details give the game its
character and manages to make this city that can fly something that the audience fondly
remembers. Overall, aesthetics serve to invoke a stronger emotional reaction in an audience that
has a memorable and lasting impact.
Boghost also claims that a closer a games aesthetics are to reality, the better the overall
experience and the greater the rhetorical effect. However, games should not strive to reproduce
reality in their works. Although making the game seem as realistic as possible encourages
players to invest themselves in the world they are exploring, it is equally as important to appeal
to the audiences sense of fantasy. To keep these two qualities balanced and create the greatest
rhetorical effect, the narrative should draw its audience to particular aspects of the game.
Whether an emotional cutscene, a detailed sunrise, or an epic battle with a dragon, developers
draw their audiences attention to specific moments. These memorable instances stick with a
player years after completing the game. Fusing rhetorical ideas into these key moments is vital to
creating a lasting impression on an audience.
Video games themselves present a more immersive medium than other forms of
rhetorical media. Galloway argues that video games, are an active medium that requires
constant physical input by the player: action, doing, pressing buttons () it follows a structural
sense that the player has a more intimate relationship with the apparatus itself (83). As a
rhetorical medium, video games differentiate themselves through action. The constant pushing of
buttons in a certain pattern mirrored by the movements of the character on screen strengthens the
parallel between audience and medium. Boghost coins the term, procedural rhetoric, the art of

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persuasion through rule-based representations rather than the spoken word, writing, images, or
moving pictures (IX). This idea claims that a major aspect of the procedural rhetoric found in
video games comes from the success garnered from completing in-game procedure. Instead of
simply watching film or reading text, the audience actively completes the tasks given to them.
This makes the overall gaming experience more memorable and reinforces the rhetorical
effectiveness of the game. Procedural rhetoric uses these repeated actions of pressing buttons as
the defining characteristic separating itself from other forms of rhetorical media.
Another aspect of video games that makes them an effective rhetorical medium is its
ability to give players an image to identify themselves with. Many games allow players to create
and design an avatar or character to represent themselves on screen. The audience obtains
complete control over these characters, they control their movement, make decisions for them,
and control how they interact with other characters. One could argue that after enough exposure
to a particular character, the audience personifies themselves with their avatar. Players are more
dedicated to the overall experience of the game and this interactive relationship formed with
onscreen characters heightens the rhetorical effectiveness of the medium. Boghost argues that the
primary aspect of rhetorical appeal in video games is their interactiveness. He believes this
makes the medium more vivid, and adds that a more vivid medium tends to invoke a greater
emotional response from an audience (22). The relationship formed between players and their
characters onscreen creates a more interactive medium thus increasing its rhetorical
effectiveness.
Despite the artistic qualities found in video games, popular culture fails to recognize
video games as an expressive medium. One could argue that video games are still a relatively
new technology that requires more time until universally accepted as an art form. Galloway

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comments on a period of time that often passes before a new type of media can reach its pinnacle
of cultural and social function (84). Film, for example, dates back to the end of the nineteenth
century, but did not reach its full potential until the 1930s. Dating the first video games to the
1960s, the medium is well past this timeframe, yet video games still reside in a subculture of
society, lacking the prominence enjoyed by other rhetorical mediums. Video games suffer a fate
similar to early comics and television, starting off as a highly criticized medium and eventually
rising to universal acceptance.
So what are some potential reasons for this lack of acceptance as a cultural form?
Boghost claims that society as a whole still perceives video games as a childrens medium (I).
Yet video games appeal to all ages; mature gaming content is often heralded as some of the most
beautiful and influential games of all. Many also believe that video games, serve no cultural or
social function save distraction as best, moral baseness at worst (Boghost VIII). The majority
holding this opinion lack the interest to delve into video game culture and learn the truth behind
the artistic beauty of video games.
Although video games are not universally accepted as works of art, they still act as a
rhetorical medium more effectively than other forms of media. When compared to other
rhetorical mediums, such as literature or film, video games reflect certain artistic values found in
these mediums. Video games mirror literature in rhetoric through narrative, both are able to
create vivid stories and capture an audiences attention. They also mirror film through images,
both create something for the audience to watch and analyze. However, has a greater rhetorical
effect than film because it creates rhetoric through action, rather than looking, as it is with
cinema in what Jameson describes as a rapt, mindless fascination (Galloway 83). Through the
process of button pushing in reaction to images onscreen, video games present an interactive

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method for establishing rhetorical claims and arguments. The future for video games as a
rhetorical medium is bright; companies that understand the rhetorical appeal of video games
continue to create quality content that engages players on a deeper level than simply
entertainment. Video games deserve respect as a valid rhetorical medium with the potential to
create social change through as an interactive expressive media.

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Works Cited
Bogost, Ian. Persuasive Games the Expressive Power of Videogames. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT
Press, 2007.

Cogburn, Jon, and Mark Silcox. Philosophy through Video Games. New York : Routledge, 2009.

Galloway, Alexander R. Gaming Essays on Algorithmic Culture. Minneapolis, Minn. ; London :

University of Minnesota Press, 2006.

Herrick, James. The History and Theory of Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn Bacon, 2001.

Jonathan Frome. "Why Do we Care Whether Link Saves the Princess? ." The Legend of
Zelda and Philosophy. Ed. Luke Cuddy. Chicago: Open Court, 2008.

McCaffrey, Ryan. "Bioshock Infinite PC Review." March 21 2013.

<http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/03/22/bioshock-infinite-pc-review>.

Sicart, Miguel. The Ethics of Computer Games. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2009.