Principles of Ecology PDF

PRINCIPLES
OF ECOLOGY
The Distribution and
Abundance of Organisms
Course Information
2011/2012
Course Organiser
Dr Gail Jackson
Institute of Atmospheric & Environmental Sciences
Room 217a Crew Building
Email:
G.Jackson@ed.ac.uk
Course Secretary
Helen McKeating
PRINCIPLES OF
ECOLOGY
University of Edinburgh
School of GeoSciences
Room 211, Crew Building

Tel.:
0131 650 5430
Email:
helen.mckeating@ed.ac.uk
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
WELCOME
COURSE SYNOPSIS
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
COURSE STRUCTURE
PRACTICAL PROJECTS
STAFF
SYLVA
TIMING
LOCATIONS
ASSESSMENT
BOOK LIST
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
9
TIMETABLE
10/11
PRACTICAL PROJECTS
TITLES
PREPARING PRACTICAL PROJECT REPORTS
PROJECT MARK SHEET
12
12
12
14
SYNOPSES OF PRACTICAL PROJECTS

15
PROJECT 1.
THE EFFECT OF GORSE BURNING ON THE CARBON STOCK OF BLACKFORD HILL
15
GERMINATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF GORSE ULEX EUROPAEA ON BLACKFORD HILL 17
PROJECT 2.
PROJECT 3.
NATURAL REGENERATION IN HERMITAGE W OOD
20
PROJECT 4.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EPILITHIC ALGAE FOR STREAM INVERTEBRATES
22
VARIATION IN THE ABUNDANCE OF TAR SPOT INFECTION ON SYCAMORE LEAVES
24
PROJECT 5.
PROJECT 6.
DISTRIBUTION OF SNAILS IN THE HERMITAGE OF BRAID
26
PROJECT 7.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BRYOPHYTE GROWTH FORM AND HABITAT
28
DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF SPECIES IN RELATION TO RABBIT GRAZING
PROJECT 8.
ON BLACKFORD HILL
30
PROJECT 9.
LEAF BREAKDOWN AND INVERTEBRATE COLONISATION IN STREAMS
32
34
PROJECT 10. DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS UNDER DISTURBANCE IN THE HERMITAGE OF BRAID
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR FIELD STUDIES
GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
YOUR RESPONSIBILITIES FOR SAFETY
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS APPLYING TO ALL FIELD TRIPS
CLOTHING, FOOTWEAR & SAFETY GEAR
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: FIRST AID
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: W HEN LOST
EXPOSURE (HYPOTHERMIA)
GOING INTO THE FIELD ALONE
36
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
40
40
A FEW GUIDELINES ON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
41
GENERAL POINTS
SAMPLING
CONFOUNDING FACTORS AND EXPERIMENTAL BIAS
INTERPRETATION
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
41
41
41
41
42
STATISTICS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING
43
APPENDIX 1. EXAMPLES OF FORMER EXAM PAPERS

APPENDIX II.
MAPS
OWN WORK DECLARATION FORM
46-58
59
54
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
COURSE
Welcome
Welcome to Principles of Ecology. For some of you, this will be your first introduction to the subject; others will
have attended previous courses at school or University. We appreciate that students take this course for many
different reasons; while some will be intending to specialise in ecology or a related discipline in their Honours
year, others will be pursuing other interests. Our aim is to provide a varied and interesting course that will
provide a solid grounding for those wishing to continue studying the subject in future years, while also providing
a useful educational experience for those for whom this will be the only ecology course that they ever attend.
The course is revised each year and we welcome feedback and ideas on how it might be improved. If you have
any queries or suggestions, or face any difficulty with any aspect of the course, please feel free to contact the
course organiser (preferably by email: G.Jackson@ed.ac.uk) or one of the teaching staff.
Course Synopsis
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations of organisms to one another and to their surroundings. In this
introductory course, we will focus specifically on examining the interactions that determine the distribution and
abundance of organisms. We will explore current and historical patterns of plant and animal distribution and
relate these patterns to characteristics of both the organisms and their environment. The course is grouped
around five main themes:
The ecophysiology animals

The ecophysiology of plants
The ecological niche
Vegetation history and succession
Changing abundance and distribution
Entry requirements
Either Origin and Diversity of Life or Environmental & Community Biology is recommended.
Aims and objectives

To provide an introduction to the science of ecology, highlighting key concepts and theories.
To provide practical experience, through a collaborative field project, of formulating and testing simple
ecological hypotheses, developing skills in observation, experimental design, sampling, recording,
statistical analysis and the writing of scientific reports.
Course Structure
The course consists of 27 lectures (50 minutes each), nine 3 hour practical sessions, and 3 hours of project
presentation. The practical work involves a group field project undertaken in the Hermitage of Braid. Each
team presents the results of their research to the class in a presentation session once projects are completed.
Assessment is via an exam (2/3) and the practical write-up (1/3). For more details, see the Assessment
section.
Practical Projects
Practicals will be based in Ashworth teaching laboratory number 1 and the KB Centre Level 3 PC lab. Most of
the practical work will take place in the Hermitage of Braid, a local Nature Reserve near to the King's Buildings.
Practicals are held on Mondays from 2pm 5pm and are devoted to nine-week projects carried out in small
groups. Statistics sessions will be run on some Mondays to support the project work see the timetable for
details of dates. The practical work will be organised and run by demonstrators who will also mark your final
report.
In week 10 (Monday 21st November) parallel project presentations will be held from 2-5pm in: (i) the Crew
Annexe room 4 and (ii) room 302 of the Crew Building. Each project group will give a short (15 minute) verbal
presentation of the results and conclusions of the projects to colleagues and staff. Please check the WebCT
Announcements or the Principles of Ecology notice board in the Crew Building during week 9 to find out where
each project team will be making their presentation.
A hard copy of the project must be submitted to Helen McKeating, Undergraduate Office, room 211,
Crew Building by 12 noon on Friday 25th November. Projects should also be submitted via WebCT by
the same deadline.
NB. The "Practical Projects" section includes detailed instructions on how the final report should be
written. Be sure to read them carefully.
Staff
Dr Gail Jackson, GeoSciences (Course Organiser). Room 217, Crew Building, 505436; G.Jackson@ed.ac.uk
Dr Patrick Walsh, Biological Sciences. Room 407, Ashworth Building, 505474; Patrick.Walsh@ed.ac.uk
Dr Richard Ennos, Biological Sciences. Room 1.57, Ashworth Building, 505411; rennos@ed.ac.uk
Dr Caroline Nichol, GeoSciences, The Crew Building, 507729; Caroline.Nichol@ed.ac.uk
Prof Maurizio Mencuccini, GeoSciences, Room 216, The Crew Building: 505432; M.Mencuccini@ed.ac.uk
Dr Chris Ellis, The Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh 0131 248 2993; C.Ellis@rbge.org.uk
SYLVA
Sylva was established in 1919, as part of the Universitys
Forestry and Natural Resources Department. It was published
by the student society of the department and ran for 61 issues
until 1998. This year, the student science journal Sylva was
resurrected with the 2010 edition (No.63). As students of
ecology and other natural sciences, you will find yourselves
completing numerous pieces of work throughout the year on
various topics within this field of study. Why not submit your work for the next
edition of Sylva? This provides you with a great opportunity to get your work
published in a peer-reviewed journal great for your own experience as well as
your CV. For more information, please contact us via e-mail:
sylvacommittee@googlemail.com. We look forward to your submissions,
The Sylva Editorial Committee
4
Timing
Lectures
Monday 0900-0950 Lecture Theatre 100, Joseph Black Building
Thursday 1000-1050 Lecture Theatre 201, Grant Institute
Friday 1305-1355 Lecture Theatre 201, Grant Institute
Locations
Lecture theatres are in the Joseph Black Building (Building 6, below) and Grant Institute (Building 9, below),
labs are in the Ashworth laboratories (Building 13, below), and the Course Organiser and Secretary are located
in the Crew Building (Building 5 below). Practical projects are in the Hermitage of Braid.
Crew
JCMB
Important dates
Friday 25th Nov 2011 Deadline for practical report. Hand in by 12 noon to Helen McKeating,
Undergraduate Office, room 211, Crew Building.
The exam date is not yet set. Check WebCT and/or Principles of Ecology notice board.
Assessment
In order to pass it will be necessary to obtain:
1. Not less than 40% in the degree examination
2. Not less than 40% in the practical report
3. An overall aggregate mark of 40% (in which the degree exam contributes 67% and the practical project
contributes 33%)
Note that if you obtain less than 40% for the in-course component then you will automatically have failed the
degree exam. The University Extended Common Marking Scheme will be used in all assessments. Marks for
assessed coursework will be provided to students but are provisional and may be modified when considered at
the Board of Examiners meeting in that year.
To pass the course, you must obtain a mark of 40% (calculated according to the weightings given for in-course
work and examination performance defined elsewhere) and you must obtain at least 40% in both the in-course
component of assessment and the examination. In other words, a mark of less than 40% in the exam paper will
lead to a fail in the degree examination, no matter how good your in-course assessment was, and vice-versa.
Exam
You will sit the formal Examination in December. It comprises ten compulsory short answer questions, two
taken from the material of each of the five course lecturers. Two essay style questions from a choice of five,
one for each of the course lecturers, must then be answered. See examples of the past papers at the end of this
Handbook or on WebCT. The exam is two hours long and it is recommended that one hour is spent answering
the short answer questions and one hour answering the essay style questions.
Penalties for late hand-in of the practical report

The practical report hand-in deadline is given in the course timetable. Late coursework will not be accepted
without good reason, will be recorded as late and a penalty will be exacted. The penalty will be a reduction of
the mark by 5% of the maximum obtainable mark per working day (e.g. a mark of 65% would be reduced to
60% if the hand-in is up to one day late). This applies for up to five working days (or to the time when feedback
is given, if this is sooner), after which a mark of zero will be given.
Re-sit exams
Students who fail the course due to low marks in the examination in December, but pass the coursework
component, need only re-sit the examination component in August; the final mark will then be the aggregate of
the course work and re-sit examination marks using the usual weighting. Students who pass the exam, but fail
due to low marks in the coursework component, will be asked to submit new coursework for August, but need
not re-sit the examination. In this case, however, the maximum coursework mark allowed is 40%. The final
mark will then be the aggregate of the earlier exam mark and the new coursework mark. If you fail both the
examination and the coursework components then you will need to both re-sit the exam and resubmit
coursework.
Plagiarism
The University has formal procedures for investigating and taking action on plagiarism, collusion (submitting a
piece of work produced jointly with another student as though it were entirely your own work) and other forms of
cheating, at whatever stage of a candidates course, whether discovered before or after graduation
(www.aaps.ed.ac.uk/regulations/Plagiarism/Intro.htm). If after investigation it is established that work submitted
for assessment has been plagiarised to a significant extent, that will be permanently noted on the candidates
record and zero marks will be awarded. The full text of the Universitys policy, and a statement of the steps
which the University may take in cases where a candidate uses, or is thought to have used, the work of another
person or persons in his/her work, is given in the Examination Regulations and Guidelines 2007-2008.
Experience has shown that there are many more cases of poor scholarship (with consequent reduced marks)
than intentions to deceive. Hence, the project report should be accompanied by a completed plagiarism form as
at the back of this Handbook as a reminder and will ask you to confirm that you have:
Clearly referenced/listed all sources as appropriate
Referenced and put in inverted commas all quoted text (from books, web, etc.)
Given the sources of all pictures, figures, tables, data, etc. that are not your own
Not made any use of the report(s) or essay(s) of any other student(s) either past or present
Not sought or used the help of any external professional agencies for the work
Acknowledged in appropriate places any help that you have received from others (e.g. fellow
students, technicians, statisticians, external sources)
Complied with any other plagiarism criteria specified in the course booklet
Copies of the form will be available from Helen McKeating so you dont have to tear pages out of this booklet.
All project reports should be submitted electronically to Helen McKeating (Helen.McKeating@ed.ac.uk) and as a
hard copy by the deadline set. The electronic copy will be passed through the plagiarism detection software
used by the University: Turnitin.com
Appeals
1) Course work
If you wish to appeal against a mark that you have been given for course work, you should contact the Course
Organiser as soon as possible.
2) Exam
The procedure for appealing against a decision made by a Board of Examiners is set out in the University
DRPS and in the Programme of the College of Science and Engineering. You are strongly advised to consult
your Director of Studies before making an appeal, because he or she can approach the examiners on your
behalf to investigate the circumstances, but this is not essential. You may appeal against a decision of the
Board of Examiners (a) on the grounds of substantial information which for good reason was not available to the
examiners when their decision was taken, or (b) on the grounds of alleged improper conduct of the examination
Staff-Student Liaison
A number of students will be elected to a Staff-Student Liaison Committee in the first few weeks of the first term.
This committee will meet on two occasions to discuss all aspects of the course. The first meeting will be during
week 6 of semester 1. The second meeting will be after the course has been completed, in week 6 or semester
2. You should take your comments, criticisms, complaints and compliments to the student representatives. All
constructive feedback is welcome. The staff are keen to take whatever action is reasonable and appropriate to
ensure student satisfaction with the course. In addition, a formal Course Questionnaire will be placed on
WebCT at the end of the course. This is an integral part of the University's teaching quality assessment and it is
important that all students respond.
Students with Special Needs

Any student with special needs, e.g. dyslexia, may identify him/herself privately to the Course Organiser, so that
appropriate arrangements can be made. You may choose not to identify yourself, and this we respect.
Disabled Students
We welcome disabled students (including those with specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia) and are
working to make all our courses accessible. If you wish to talk to a member of academic staff about the course
requirements and your particular needs please contact Sarah McAllister (Manager of the GeoSciences
Teaching Organisation), GeoSciences, The Crew Building, Tel. 0131 650 4917, or email:
Sarah.McAllister@ed.ac.uk.
You can also contact the Student Disability Service, 6 - 8 South College Street, Telephone 0131 650 6828 or
email disability.service@ed.ac.uk and an Advisor will be happy to meet with you. The Advisor can discuss
possible adjustments and specific examination arrangements with you, assist you with an application for
Disabled Students' Allowance, give you information about available technology and personal assistance such as
note takers, proof readers or dyslexia tutors, and prepare a Learning Profile for your School which outlines
recommended adjustments. You will be expected to provide the Student Disability Service with evidence of
disability - either a letter from your GP or specialist, or evidence of specific learning difficulty. For dyslexia or
dyspraxia this evidence must be a recent Chartered Educational Psychologist's assessment. If you do not have
this, the Disability Office can put you in touch with an independent Educational Psychologist.
Further information
Further class information, including provisional marks for the practical project reports, will be posted on WebCT
and on the Principles of Ecology notice board (opposite the Undergraduate Office in the Crew Building, room
211). Announcements may also be made from time to time by email. Please check your email and WebCT
frequently.
Feedback
Feedback on the various component of the course will be provided in the following ways:
Project presentations:
Immediately after the presentation has finished the member of staff supervising the presentations will give an
initial response to the work and the quality of the presentation. In addition the presentations will be assessed by
your peers. Each student audience member will be asked to fill in a tick box sheet assessing the various
strengths and weaknesses of the presentation. Written constructive comments will also be requested. These
sheets will be collated by the project demonstrator, who will pass them to the Course Organiser to mount on
WebCT. This will be done as quickly as possible, so they can be used to inform the project write-up.
Project reports:
Your project demonstrators will mark your practical report. The demonstrator will each provide detailed written
feedback on each report. If you feel this is unclear or insufficient, in the first instance please approach your
demonstrator for clarification and if you are still unclear, please contact the course organiser.
Exam feedback:
The examination will occur sometime in December. In January a feedback session will be organised when
students are able to look at their exam paper and ask the lecturers any questions they may have. The exam
scripts cannot be taken from the room.
Course Changes
Last year the project hand-in date was set for two days after the project presentation session. In response to
comments made on Course Evaluation forms the hand-in date this year has been set for four days after the
project presentation date.
Book List
Textbooks provide essential background reading and backup for your lecture notes and course handouts.
There is no single book list for this course, nor is there any single book which is adequate as a 'course text'.
However, we recommend Begon, M., Townsend, C. R. & Harper, J. L. (2006) Ecology (4th edn.) as the best
and most up-to-date Ecology text book available.
Each member of staff contributing to the course will provide an additional reading list including books and
journal material. Problems can quickly arise with a large class and limited library resources - please do not
hoard books. Essential texts will be put onto the Temporary Reserve shelf in the Darwin Library.
The following are generally useful as sources of first reference on many topics. They cost 20-35 each.
Begon, M., Townsend, C. R. & Harper, J. L. (2006). Ecology (4th edn). Blackwell Science, Oxford. (The
recommended text for this course)
Townsend, C.R., Begon, M. and Harper, J.L. (2006). Essentials of Ecology (2
(Highly recommended).
nd
Edition). Blackwell Publishing.
Colinvaux, P. (1993). Ecology 2. Wiley, New York. (Readable and very good on some aspects)
Krebs, C. J. (1994 & 2001).
populations)
Ecology.
(4th & 5th edns).
Harper Collins, New York.
(Good on animal
Ricklefs, R. E. & Miller, G. L. (1999). Ecology. (4th edn). Freeman, New York.
The following will be useful for particular parts of the course:

Patrick Walshs lectures: Animal ecophysiology
Willmer, P, Stone, G. & Johnston, I. (2004). Environmental Physiology of Animals. WileyBlackwell
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1984). Scaling: why is animal size so important? Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Eckert. Animal Physiology.
Caroline Nichols lectures: Plant ecophysiology

Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (2002). Plant Physiology (3rd edn). Sunderland, Mass.
Larcher, W. (2003). Physiological Plant Physiology (4th edn). Springer, Berlin
Schulze, E. D., Beck, E., & Mller-Hohenstein, K. (2005). Plant Ecology. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
Chris Ellis lectures: The ecological niche
Tokeshi, M. (1999) Species Coexistence. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Chase & Liebold (2003) Ecological Niches. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Krebs (2001) Ecology. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.
Gail Jacksons lectures: Vegetation history and succession
Ingrouille, M. (1995). Historical Ecology of the British Flora. Chapman & Hall, London.
Maurizio Mencuccinis lectures: Changing abundance and distribution

E. I. Newman (2000). Applied Ecology and Environmental Management. Blackwell Science.
The European Nitrogen Assessment. Sources, Effects and Policy Perspectives. Edited by M Sutton et al., 2011.
Cambridge University Press.
Richard Ennos statistics sessions and the practical project:
Fowler, J. Cohen, L. & Jarvis, P. (1998) Practical Statistics for Field Biology. 2nd Edition. John Wiley,
Chichester.
Ennos, R. (2007) Statistical and Data Handling Skills in Biology. Pearson, Harlow.
Grafen, A & Hails, R (2002) Modern statistics for the life sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 22.99
Sokal, R. R. & Rohlf, F. J. (1969) Biometry. Freeman, San Fransisco.
Ruxton, G. D. & Colegrave, N. (2006) Experimental Design for the Life Sciences. 2nd Edition. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
Some more general books worth reading:

The Ages of Gaia by James Lovelock
Guns, Germs and Steel by Jared Diamond
The voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin
10
TIMETABLE
Week
Date
1
19-Sep11
19-Sep11
Day
Mon
Time
9:00
Location
Task
Staff
LT 100,
Lecture
GJ
Joseph Black
Building
Mon 14:00- Room 302, Crew Practical
GJ
17.00 Building, KB
and D
Title
An introduction to the science of ecology
Introduction to the course and to the

practical projects.
Lecture from the
Ranger. Visit to Hermitage.
Animal Ecophysiology 1. Body size
22-Sep11
Thu
10:00
23-Sep11
Fri
13:05
26-Sep11
Mon
9:00
26-Sep11
Mon 14:0017.00
29-Sep11
Thu
10:00
30-Sept11
Fri
13:05
3-Oct-11 Mon
9:00
3-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

6-Oct-11 Thu 10:00
7-Oct-11
Fri
10-Oct-11 Mon
13:05
9:00
10-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

13-Oct-11 Thu 10:00
14-Oct-11
Fri
17-Oct-11 Mon
13:05
9:00
17-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

20-Oct-11 Thu 10:00
21-Oct-11
Fri
13:05
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Joseph Black
Building
KB centre
Level 3 PC Lab
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Joseph Black
Building
Ashworth lab
no. 1
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Joseph Black
Building
KB centre
Level 3 PC Lab
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Joseph Black
Building
KB centre
Level 3 PC Lab
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
PW
Lecture
PW
Animal Ecophysiology 2. Thermal

Ecology I
Lecture
PW
Animal Ecophysiology 3. Thermal

Ecology II
Practical
RE Statistics practical
and D
Lecture
PW
Animal Ecophysiology 4. Nutrition and

water balance
Lecture
PW
Animal Ecophysiology 5. Life histories
Lecture
CN
Plant Ecophysiology 1. An Introduction
Practical
Lecture
GJ and Practical projects

D
CN Plant Ecophysiology 2. Leaf and Plant
Structure
Lecture
CN
Plant Ecophysiology 3. Photosynthesis
Lecture
CN
Plant Ecophysiology 4. Plant Acclimation
Practical
Lecture
and D
CN Plant Ecophysiology 5. Understanding
the impacts of climate change on plants.
Lecture
CE
The Niche Defined
Lecture
CE
Co-existence
Practical
Lecture
Lecture
and D
CE Biodiversity
CE
The Niche in Practice
11
24-Oct-11 Mon
9:00
24-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

27-Oct-11 Thu 10:00
28-Oct-11
Fri
31-Oct-11 Mon
13:05
9:00
31-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

3-Nov-11 Thu 10:00
4-Nov-11
7-Nov-11 Mon
12
13:05
9:00
7-Nov-11 Mon 14:0017.00

10-Nov- Thu 10:00
11
11-NovFri 13:05
11
14-Nov- Mon 9:00
11
14-Nov11
17-Nov11
10
Fri
18-Nov11
21-Nov11
Mon 14:0017.00
Thu 10:00
Fri
13:05
Mon
9:00
21-Nov11
Mon 14:0017.00
24-Nov11
25-Nov11
Thu
10:00
Fri
12:00
LT 100,
Lecture
GJ Vegetation history: The post glacial
Joseph Black
period. Plant response to a changing
Building
climate.
Ashworth lab
Practical
D Practical projects
no. 1
Lecture
Lecture
GJ Vegetation change throughout the
Theatre 201,
Flandrian
Grant Institute
Lecture
Lecture
GJ The present status of British
Theatre 201,
vegetation
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Lecture
GJ Primary Succession
Joseph Black
Building
Ashworth lab
Practical
no. 1
Lecture
Lecture
GJ Secondary Succession
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
Lecture
Lecture
GJ Small scale vegetation dynamics
Theatre 201,
Grant Institute
LT 100,
Lecture
GJ How to write up your project
Joseph Black
Building
Ashworth lab
Practical
no. 1
LT 201,
Lecture
SB Careers session
Grant Institute
LT 201,
Lecture
PW Revision session
Grant Institute
and CN
LT 100,
Lecture
MM The (multiple) influences of human
Joseph Black
societies on plant and animal
Building
distribution.
KB centre
Practical
RE Project data analysis
Level 3 PC Lab
and D
Lecture
Lecture
MM Modern human influences: tropical
Theatre 201,
deforestation and sustainable forest
Grant Institute
management.
LT 201,
Lecture
MM Modern human influences: the
Grant Institute
alteration of landscape processes.
LT 100,
Lecture
None None
Joseph Black
Building
Room 4 Crew Presentations GJ Project presentations. Class will be
Annexe and
and CN split into two groups, one in each
302 Crew Blg
lecture theatre.
LT 201,
Lecture
GJ, CE Revision session
Grant Institute
MM
Crew 211
Deadline
HMcK Project hand-ins
tba
EXAM
Date not set. Check Ecology notice

board and WebCT
PW= Patrick Walsh; GJ=Gail Jackson; CN=Caroline Nichol; RE = Richard Ennos; CE= Chris Ellis; MM
Maurizio Mencuccini; HMcK=Helen McKeating; D=demonstrators
12
PRACTICAL PROJECTS
The practical projects will be selected from the following list. No more than 12 people will be allowed to do any
one project and projects with fewer than 3 people will be cancelled. Groups containing 7 or more people will be
split into 2 groups. Please select your choice of project in WebCT.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The effect of gorse burning on the carbon stock of Blackford Hill

Germination and establishment of gorse on Blackford Hill
Natural regeneration of trees in Hermitage Wood
Importance of epilithic algae as food for stream invertebrates
Variation in the abundance of tar spot infection on sycamore leaves
Distribution of snails in woodland leaf litter
Relationship between growth form and habitat in bryophytes
Distribution and diversity of species in relation to rabbit grazing on Blackford Hill
Leaf breakdown and invertebrate colonisation in streams
Distribution of seeds under disturbance in the Hermitage of Braid
Preparing Practical Project Reports

Reports on practical work serve several functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Practice in scientific writing of the style found in research journals, i.e. concise and exact
Practice in describing and illustrating methods, results and analyses clearly and unambiguously
Providing notes for later revision to remind you about the exercise
Enabling the Course Organiser to ensure that you have understood the exercise, and to contribute a
mark for your continuous assessment
Any report on practical scientific work should be divided into the following main sections which must be strictly
adhered to, though further division into sub-sections may be appropriate. This system (with only minor
variations) is used by nearly all scientific journals. Marks will be given separately for each section of the report.
1. Introduction
This should clearly state the aims of the exercise, and provide the background information necessary to
introduce the topic and explain the purpose of the exercise. You will need to refer to published work of a similar
nature in order to set the context for your research. Cite references. By the end of the Introduction your reader
should know what the project is about, what questions you are going to answer, what approach you are going to
take and why those questions are important and interesting.
2. Methods
Concise descriptions (with diagrams if necessary) of the Study Area, the Materials and the Methods used.
These should be adequate to enable a reader to know precisely what you did and to enable him/her to repeat
the exercise exactly if he/she so wishes. Describe the conditions under which experiments were carried out,
noting any circumstances which could conceivably alter your results or their interpretation. Do not
include trivial information that has no direct importance to the exercise.
3. Results
A brief written description of the results which draws particular attention to the most important and interesting
features of the data. The Results must be descriptive but must NOT include any "discussion", "opinions" or
"interpretation" of the observations; give only a factual account of what you actually observed. The
description must refer to data in numbered tables, graphs, and figures presented separately.
You will not yet have done much statistics, but you are expected to be able to demonstrate that your results are
meaningful and do not just represent chance events or random sampling error. Discuss the analysis of results
with the demonstrators and staff. You should, at least by the end of this year, understand the statistical testing
of hypotheses, and know how to use chi-squared, correlation, regression and t-tests where appropriate. If you
know how to use Minitab for analysing your data, then do so. If you do not feel confident of data analysis you
should discuss methods with the demonstrators.
13
All of the quantitative results of the exercise should be summarised in the form of Tables and Figures (graphs or
diagrams). Each must have a completely self-explanatory legend. These should be numbered (Table 1,
Figure 1, etc.) and be referred to by the written section of the Results. It is not necessary to include masses of
raw data as part of the report where these are also presented in graphs or as summary statistics, but they can
be included as an Appendix. The Appendix can also include intermediate steps in the calculations of any
statistical analyses.
4. Discussion
This is the most important part of the report and includes the interpretation of the results. You should explain
the ecological meaning, significance and implications of the observations and put them into a wider context.
Cite references. Do your conclusions agree with your expectations, or with other people's results/theories in the
published literature? If not, then why not? Are the theories wrong, or are your observations inadequate? What
errors may have influenced the results, either through systematic bias or by random sampling error? How could
the experimental design be improved? What new experiments could be done to take the subject further? What
are the possible implications of your conclusions? How might the information be used in the real world?
5. References
All sources of information should be acknowledged by including the author's name and date of publication in the
text at the point where you use the information. The full reference - author(s), date, title, and either journal,
volume and page numbers, or publisher and place of publication for books - should be given in a list at the end
of the report. For chapters in multi-author books give the chapter author(s), date, chapter title, book title, editor,
chapter page numbers, publisher and place of publication. The Journal of Ecology or Journal of Animal Ecology
give a good standard to follow, for example:
'Legg (2008) claimed that the Earth is flat and others have suggested that it is actually a cube (Ennos & Jones
2009). Since then, however, recent evidence has shown that life is actually supported on the inner surface of a
hollow sphere with the Sun at the centre (Jones et al. 2009).'
References
Ennos, R. A. & Jones, P. J. (2009). A third dimension to the Legg theory of Flat Earth. A Square World
(ed. by R. A. Ennos), chapter 5, pp. 234 - 301. Earthscan, London.
Jones, P. J., Ennos, R. A. & Legg, C. J. (2009). Curvature of light supports the Inverse Ping-Pong Ball
theory. Annals of Astrophysics 23, 12 - 68.
Legg, C. J. (2008). Four Corners of the World. Flat Earth Society, Land's End. 152 pp.
If you must cite information on the Web (e.g. as a source of unpublished data) then give as much information
as possible using the following format:
Author/editor, Year. Title [online]. (Edition). Place of publication: Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from:
URL [Accessed Date].
For example:
Bournemouth University Library (undated) Appendix E - Summary of Citation Formats for Internet Sources.
University of Bournemouth. Available from:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/using_the_library/html/harvardsystinte.html [Accessed 29/10/09].
14
Style of writing
Use the style of writing that you see in the scientific journals. Avoid unnecessary jargon. Make sentences clear
and concise. Avoid a journalistic style or flowery language which tends to overstate the case and exaggerate
with metaphors. Your reader wants to get the maximum precise information for minimal effort; she/he is not
reading just for idle entertainment.
There is no word limit but, above all, be brief and concise. Exclude all irrelevant or trivial material. Include all
essential material that may influence the interpretation of your results. Use the minimum words compatible with
including all the essential information. You should clearly separate indisputable fact (Results) from your
subjective interpretation of those facts (Discussion). Give sufficient discussion to demonstrate that you
understand the purpose of the exercise and the full significance of the results
Marking
See the timetable for hand-in deadlines. Late submission of the report will result in penalties. Extenuating
circumstances will only be considered if supported by a letter from your Director of Studies.
With group projects it is inevitable that the methods and data tables will have a lot in common. Please note that,
for assessment purposes, the Introduction, descriptions of Results and Discussion sections must be entirely
your own work. Plagiarism is a serious offence. Please do not lend your report to other team members, as
this encourages plagiarism and can risk your implication in any plagiarism case that arises.
See the section on Plagiarism
The markers will be guided by a form when marking your work. You should use this form as a guide to writing
the report if you want to score high marks.
Project mark sheet

0 1 2 3 4 5
Title
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
References
Overall
presentation
Final mark
Informative but concise

Statement of objectives
Background information necessary to set the scene
Site description
Materials used (where this is critical to the method)
Methods described adequately
Statement summarising the main features of the data
Use of tables, graphs and figures
Self-explanatory legend to tables, graphs and figures
Assessment of errors
Statistical validation of results
Interpretation of the results
Clear statement of conclusions
Comparison of results with expectations/published theories
Discussion of practical consequences of conclusions
Criticism of experimental design
Suggestions for further study
Adequate use of literature
Correct citation in text
Correct listing at end of report
Concise style of writing
Neatness
Avoidance of trivial detail
(NB. This is not a simple mean of the above marks)
15
Verbal Presentation of Practicals

At the end of the project each group will be asked to make a short verbal presentation of its findings to
lecturers and to the rest of the class. You will need to prepare a 15 minute talk and consider how you
display the results. Every member of the group should give a short section of the talk but all members of
group should be prepared to answer questions concerning any aspect of the project. These presentations
be assessed by your peers.
the
will
the
will
SYNOPSES OF PRACTICAL PROJECTS

Project 1. The effect of gorse burning on the carbon stock of Blackford Hill
Introduction
Gorse (Ulex europaeus) is a spiny bush, and is a member of the pea family (subfamily Fabaceae). It is very
well adapted to stand-replacing fires, and is highly flammable. The plant grows rapidly with 1 year old stands
capable of producing around 1.2 tonnes of dry biomass per hectare per year. Stem diameters may increase by
as much as 5 mm per year, with a height increase of 20 cm per year.
With such rapid growth, gorse is often managed by burning, usually on a 10-15 year cycle. This maintains
habitat for nesting birds, by diversifying the age structure. When stands are burnt, some proportion of the total
aboveground biomass is lost to the atmosphere as CO2. Stand rapidly recover from fires, as they have a
number of adaptations to exploit such disturbances: Seed pods are opened by fires, and there is strong
evidence that germination is triggered by the heat.
This project aims to quantify the potential carbon losses from burnt gorse stands on Blackford Hill, and to
examine if managed stands represent a source or sink of carbon in the long term.
Questions
Consider some of the following questions
1.
2.
3.
How much carbon is stored in the existing gorse stands on Blackford Hill?
What proportion of this carbon is lost on burning?
Given the rapid regeneration of gorse stands after fires, does management by burning constitute a long
term source or sink of carbon?
Research Objectives
Decide on a specific question or questions that you would like to answer. Although part of your answer will be
descriptive, try and express each question and answer in terms of a Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that the long term emissions due to a gorse burning are zero, as the release is
balanced by new growth.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question and test the null hypothesis? Will it be
possible to collect the required data?
Think about your question and the potential outcomes in terms of underlying ecological explanations.
Methods
Familiarise yourself with the available habitat and decide on the null hypothesis you wish to examine. Then
identify suitable sites for the study and devise an appropriate sampling scheme.
An estimate of the carbon content ot the gorse bushes can be made by calculating the biomass of the bushes.
This is achieved by calculating the volume of the bush and multiplying by the dry density of the gorse. An
accurate measurement of the carbon lost on burning can be made by combustion in a furnace.
16
You should consider how to obtain a representative sample of gorse bushes on Blackford Hill, the size of the
sample, and how samples should be selected and distributed. How many bushes will be measured? How will
bushes be selected? Ideally they should form an unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the bushes
on Blackford Hill, about which we wish to draw conclusions from the data). You must also devise a way to
standardise your sampling procedure.
Points to Consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
If you estimate a parameter, such as dry density, how will you indicate the precision of your estimate?
How do I proceed with sampling, and what do I need to measure?
How do I choose which bushes to sample?
How can I scale up from the bushes sampled to the whole of Blackford Hill?
What is the appropriate plot size and what sort of sampling scheme should I follow?
What you will learn about

Methods of estimating biomass and carbon storage of a habitat
The role of fire in the carbon cycle
Regeneration of gorse patches
The design of sampling surveys and experiments
The statistical analysis of results
Suggested Equipment
Notebooks and pencils
30 m measuring tapes
Callipers
Secateurs
Foil trays
Precision balance
Drying oven
Heat proof mats
Methylated spirits
Matches
Bibliography
Egunjobi, J. K. (1971). Ecosystem Processes in a Stand of Ulex Europaeus L.: I. Dry Matter Production, Litter
Fall and Efficiency of Solar Energy Utilization. Journal of Ecology, 59: 31 - 38
Jacobson, M. Z. (2004). The short-term cooling but long-term global warming due to biomass burning. Journal
of Climate, 17: 2909 - 2926
MAFF (1992). The heather and grass burning code. Available online.
Zouhar, K. (2005). Ulex europaeus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ (2006, April 21).
17
Project 2. Germination and establishment of gorse Ulex europaea on Blackford Hill

Introduction
Gorse Ulex europaea is a vigorous plant of waste land, but may also become a pernicious weed of agricultural
land. It occurs in patches over most of the Edinburgh hills. These patches are frequently burned, either
accidentally, deliberately, or maliciously. Following moderate fires gorse normally re-grows rapidly both from
seeds and from buds at the bases of the charred stems where litter has protected the stem bases from the heat
of the fire. Does fire control gorse, or cause the gorse to spread and become even more of a pest?
Gorse, like several other plant species in fire-prone habitats may produce a very large bank of seeds lying
dormant in the soil. The establishment of large seed banks allows a plant not only to distribute itself spatially
but also temporally. Large quantities of seeds are held in the soil and may germinate in the future following
disturbance. A dense carpet of seedlings can often be seen soon after a fire, but what is it that breaks the
dormancy and causes them to germinate so quickly? Fire severity describes the impact of a fire and the
consumption and heating of litter and soil can interact with seed bank size and viability to determine how well
gorse regenerates following burning.
Questions
There are several questions one might ask about the way gorse responds to fire.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why do gorse seedlings appear to be so abundant just after a fire? Is the germination of seeds
stimulated by fire? If so, then what feature of the fire is important to break the seed dormancy? How do
seeds respond to raised temperatures and how does this vary with exposure time? Do seeds respond
to the increase in light levels at the soil surface? Do the seeds actually germinate in large numbers
everywhere, but are only conspicuous on the bare ground exposed by fire?
Can the history of gorse areas be determined by examining the depth and size of seed banks at
different levels within the soil? Is there evidence that areas currently covered in grass were once
dominated by gorse? How well are gorse seeds distributed in the soil, how does the viability of the soil
seed bank change over time and what is likely to be the significance of this in relation to a fire event?
Do the young sprouts from burnt stem bases originate from a particular type of stem? What is the
diameter (age) of stems which sprout most vigorously? Do the sprouts only come from stems protected
from the fire by a particular depth of litter? Could the regeneration of gorse be manipulated by
controlled burning or gorse at a particular age, or in young stands with relatively little protective litter?
Are the patches of gorse expanding on the hills of Edinburgh? Can aerial photographs be used to
determine changes in the number and size of gorse patches over the last 40 years?
Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question and answer in terms of a Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that germination success of gorse seeds from the litter layer is the same as the
success of older seeds buried deeper in the soil.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question and test the null hypothesis? Will it be
Is it possible to devise a survey of the distribution of gorse seedlings on Blackford Hill to test any of the above
ideas? Can you devise simple laboratory or glasshouse experiments to test whether fire stimulates
germination? Can you recommend particular ways to control gorse by determining the age, or stage of
development of stands at which it should be burnt?
Methods
Having decided on the hypotheses you wish to examine, devise an appropriate sampling scheme or
experimental setup. If sampling, you must identify suitable study locations. Will 'controls' will be necessary
against which to compare the effects of experimental treatments?
18
Some simple designs could be: a) aim to get two columns of numbers representing some measured variable in
two situations. These might, for example, represent seedling density within several quadrats in both burned and
unburned habitat. b) aim to get a table showing number of observations in different categories for one or more
situation. For example, the numbers of germinated and ungerminated seeds after exposure to different
treatments. Many other designs are possible.
You must consider the size and nature of individual sample units, the size of the sample and how samples or
experimental treatments should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: will a sampling unit be an
individual seed or a pot of seeds; will number of replicates be number of seeds or number of pots?; how will
the seeds be chosen - ideally they should be an unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the seeds we
wish to draw conclusions about from our results). You must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling
procedure.
Gorse seeds are fairly large and can be extracted from soil by sieving. Seedlings are easy to identify from the
large size of the cotyledon leaves, though note that the early true leaves are quite different in appearance from
those on mature plants.
You are unlikely to be able to do experiments on germination out of doors at this time of year. You could,
however, bring seeds or soil into the laboratory where some germination should occur in an incubator within
about three or four weeks. To simulate the temperature effect of a passing fire, you could bake moist soil in a
muffle furnace for a couple of minutes, or heat loose seeds in an oven at, say, 60 - 90 degrees.
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
As germination may take several weeks, any experiments on germination will have to be set up very
early in the project - field observations can be done later. Germination trials should use more than 100
seeds in each treatment.
How will you show that your results represent 'significant' effects and not just chance effects due to
sampling error? If you have a Null hypothesis, can you test it statistically?
If you estimate a parameter such as average stem thickness, how will you indicate the precision of your
estimate?
Does the number of seedlings present at any site reflect the dispersal of seed, the survival of seed in
the soil once dispersed, the conditions stimulating germination, the survival of seedlings, or your ability
to find seedlings amongst other vegetation?
Young shoots of gorse are very palatable to rabbits and other herbivores.

Seed ecology and biology of germination
The importance of microsite and seedling establishment in vegetation dynamics
Ecology of fire
Experimental design
Testing of null hypotheses
Suggested Equipment
Note book, pencil
Quadrat (10 x 10 cm, 25 x 25 cm, 50 x 50 cm or 1 x 1 m)
Marker pen for labelling samples
Small seed trays with potting compost, or Petri dishes and filter paper for germination tests
Metal trays for use in muffle furnace
Aluminium foil for enclosing Petri dishes in dark germination experiment
Soil thermometer for measuring soil temperatures
pH meter, buffers, sample tubes, deionised water
Range of soil sieves
19
Bibliography
Fenner, M. (1985). Seed Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London.
Rolston, M. P. & Talbot J. (1980). Soil temperature and regrowth of gorse burnt after treatment with
herbicides. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 8, 55-61.
Ivens, G. W. (1983). The influence of temperature on germination of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.). Weed
Research, 23, 207-216.
De Luis M., Baeza M. J., Raventos J. & Gonzalez-Hidalgo J. C. (2004): Fuel characteristics and fire behaviour
in mature Mediterranean gorse shrublands. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 13, 79-87.
De Luis M., Garcia-Cano M. P., Cortina J. et al. (2001): Climatic trends, disturbances and short-term vegetation
dynamics in a Mediterranean shrubland. Forest Ecology and Management, 147, 25-37.
Neary D. G., Klopatek C. C., DeBano L. F. & Ffolliott P. F. (1999): Fire effects on belowground sustainability: a
review and synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management, 122, 51-71.
Legg, C. J. (1995). Heathland dynamics: a matter of scale. (Eds Thompson, D. B. A., Hester A. J. and Usher M.
B.) Heaths and Moorlands: Cultural Landscapes, 117-134. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Lee W. G., Allen R. B. & Johnson P. N. (1986): Succession and dynamics of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.)
communities in the Dunedin Ecological District South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany,
24, 279-292.
20
Project 3. Natural Regeneration in Hermitage Wood

Introduction
Trees may produce abundant seeds yet fail to reproduce themselves. Often, seedlings fail to develop in the
shade of the parent trees such that when one tree falls over it will be replaced by a seedling of a different
species. Possible reasons for failure include (i) infertile seeds, (ii) seed predation, (iii) germination in an
unfavourable microsite, (iv) predation of seedlings and browsing of saplings.
You will investigate regeneration of tree species in the wood and try to identify causes for failure of
regeneration. Species investigated should include oak, ash, beech, elm and sycamore. Attempt to identify
patterns of change in the species composition that would occur if the woodland were left unmanaged.
Questions
Consider some of the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the age structure of the tree population? Is there any evidence of successful regeneration in
the past?
What is the density of seeds / nuts / fruits on the ground under different canopy species? What is the
density of different seedling species under different canopy species?
Is seedling or sapling density related to the openness of the site? Seedling/sapling success may be
influenced by available light intensity and competition with ground vegetation.
Can you determine which species is likely to replace any particular canopy tree should it fall down? If
so, then knowing the numbers of each species of canopy tree at present, can you predict the
composition of the woodland in the next generation?
Research Objectives
Decide on specific question(s) that you would like to answer. Although part of your answer may be descriptive,
try and express each question in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that seedling density under oak canopy does not differ from that under beech
canopy.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question? Is it possible to devise a survey of
seeds, seedlings, saplings or trees to test any of the above ideas?
Methods
Having decided on the hypotheses you wish to examine, find a suitable location for the study and devise an
appropriate sampling scheme.
Some simple designs could be: a) aim to get two (or more) columns of numbers representing some measured
variable in two (or more) situations. These might, for example, represent seedling density under different
canopy types. b) aim to get two columns of numbers representing two variables measured for each sampling
unit. For example, the seedling density and % canopy cover at several sampling locations. Many other designs
are possible.
experimental treatments should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: if a sampling unit was to be
a quadrat, what size should it be; how many quadrats would you sample under each canopy type; how will the
quadrats be distributed under the canopy types - ideally they should be an unbiased representation of the
population (i.e. all the canopy area we wish to draw conclusions about from our results). You must also decide
on a way to standardise your sampling procedure.
Tree girth, measured with girth tapes, can be used as a surrogate for age. Light intensity can be measured with
a light meter.
21
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
If you estimate a parameter such as average seedling density, how will you indicate the precision of
your estimate?
How will you define a canopy tree, a sapling, a seedling? How will you identify the seedlings of trees
(note that some may have lost all their leaves before you finish)? How will you identify the seeds of
different tree species?
How will you obtain meaningful measures of the light environment in a wood when the light intensity
outside the wood is changing by the minute with changing cloud cover?

The identification of tree species
Natural regeneration in forests
Seed ecology
Simple models of succession
The design of sampling surveys and experiments
The statistical analysis of results
Suggested Equipment
Notebooks, pencils, hand lens
30 m measuring tapes
Tree girth tapes
1 m x 1 m quadrats
Light meter
Soil sieves of a selection of sizes
Books for tree identification
Bibliography
Cousens, J. (1974). An Introduction to Woodland Ecology. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.
Horn, H. S. (1975). Forest Succession. Scientific American, 232, 90 - 98
Horn, H. S. (1975). Markovian properties of forest succession. Ecology and Evolution of Communities (ed.
Cody, M. L. & Diamond, J. M.) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
22
Project 4. The importance of epilithic algae for stream invertebrates

Introduction
The surface of stones in many streams are covered with a layer of epilithic algae (epi = upon; lithos = stone).
This algal layer is an important food source for many aquatic invertebrates that graze on stone surfaces. Any
environmental factors that influence the growth of algae, such as light, will also influence the distribution of
grazing invertebrates. The Braid Burn, as it flows through the Hermitage, passes first through a narrow valley
that is well shaded by numerous tall trees and then through a much more open area.
This project aims to determine which invertebrate groups are commonly associated with epilithic algae and to
investigate the effect of different light levels on algal growth and, consequently, the density and diversity of
invertebrates using this resource.
Questions
There are many questions one might ask regarding epilithic algae and invertebrates, such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Is algal abundance and growth rate influenced by light levels?

Which invertebrate groups are commonly associated with epilithic algae?
Is abundance and composition of stream fauna related to algal abundance?
Are there differences in stream fauna between shaded and open areas of the valley?
How long does it take for algae and animals to recolonise bare surfaces?
Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that algal growth rate is not related to light intensity.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question? Will it be possible to collect the
required data? Is it possible to conduct a survey of epilithic algae and/or aquatic invertebrates to test any of the
above ideas? Can you devise simple experimental manipulations to examine the relationships between
sunlight, algae and invertebrates?
Methods
Many stream invertebrates that are commonly found on stone surfaces have well developed escape behaviours
to avoid predators. Once disturbed, these animals usually move around to the underside of stones making it
virtually impossible to observe them feeding. It is possible, however, to sample these animals by placing a net
downstream of a target stone and gently rubbing all the animals off the entire stone and into the net. You may
want samples of the entire stream fauna, not just that on stone surfaces, and these can be collected by kick
sampling. Many of the animals can be identified to a fairly detailed level whilst still alive; only a representative
few need to be preserved for identification. Respect the animals and return as many as possible to the stream.
The entire algal covering of a stone can be removed by scrubbing with a wire brush. By scrubbing a large
number of stones and sampling them for animals over a long time period, you can observe the rate at which
algae recolonise the stone and animals return to feed. Stones can also be 'transplanted' from shaded areas of
the stream to more open areas, and vice versa. Measuring algal abundance directly is difficult. One way to
estimate algal growth in various parts of the stream and over various time intervals is to put clean microscope
slides in the water and examine the intensity of 'colour' after some time.
appropriate sampling scheme or experimental setup. Will 'controls' will be necessary against which to compare
the effects of experimental treatments?
Some simple designs could be: a) aim to get two (or more) columns of numbers representing some measured
variable in two (or more) situations. These might, for example, represent epilithic algal abundance in 'open' and
'shaded' locations. b) aim to get two columns of numbers representing two variables measured for each
sampling unit. For example, the algal abundance and light intensity at several sampling locations. Many other
designs are also possible.
23
experimental treatments should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: if a sampling unit was to
be a stone, should stone size be kept constant and what size should this be?; how many stones would you
sample; how would the stones be distributed in the stream - ideally sampling units should be an unbiased
representation of the population (i.e. all the stones we wish to draw conclusions about from our results). You
must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling procedure?
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
If you estimate a parameter such as average algal abundance, how will you indicate the precision of
your estimate?
How big is a stone? Very small stones are unstable and can get turned over even during small rain
showers. Very big stones can cause back problems. Experimental stones should all be of a similar
size, but you should also estimate the surface area of each one - particularly the upper surface. How
do you measure surface area of an irregular shaped object?
How do you measure light intensity in two (or more) different places when it changes almost continually
with cloud cover, time of day, etc.?
How long does it take for algae and animals to recolonise surfaces? During warm weather and long
hours of sunshine this can be very fast (1 day), in which case it may be necessary to sample at less
than one-week intervals. In colder, dull weather recolonisation may be slow and you may need to
monitor over a few weeks.
Are all the animals in the stream likely to occur on stone surfaces or only some? How can you tell
which ones?
How do you mark or label stones in a stream so that they can be located later?
HEALTH WARNING: The Braid Burn is not a very clean stream, so be careful to wash your hands thoroughly
with soap after working in the stream to avoid picking up any diseases. Health risks are minimal if simple
hygiene procedures such as this are observed, so do not be put off working there.
Suggested Equipment
Wellingtons or waders
Wire brush to scrub stones
Light meter
Pond net
Plastic bags to transport samples from the stream to the lab.
White trays for sorting
Forceps
Wide-mouthed pipettes, sample tubes, Petri dishes
Alcohol for preservation
Microscope
Keys for identification

Experimental design and hypothesis testing.
The importance of epilithic algae to stream communities.
Identification and classification of aquatic invertebrates.
The importance of light to stream communities.
Bibliography
Allan, J. D. (1995). Stream Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London.
Croft, P. S. (1986). A key to the major groups of British freshwater invertebrates. Field Studies 6, 531-579.
24
Project 5. Variation in the abundance of tar spot infection on sycamore leaves

Introduction
Sycamore leaves at the end of the summer are commonly covered on their lower side with black 'tarspots'.
These are caused by infection by the ascomycete fungus Rhytimsa acerinum. After leaf fall, the black spots
develop into sexual fruiting bodies or sclerotia. In April and May sexual ascospores are released from the
sclerotia present in the leaf litter and infect expanding leaves of sycamore. The success of infection determines
the number of tar spots seen the following autumn. Infection by R. acerinum is thought to hasten the
senescence of sycamore leaves so that infected leaves fall earlier than uninfected leaves. Wide variation is
found in the extent of infection between different areas, and between different trees within these areas.
Questions
1.
How is the extent of leaf spot infection affected by various factors? Some of these factors might be:
2.
3.
4.
Extent of leaf litter retained beneath tree

Height of leaves from the ground (source of spores).
Amount of air pollution.
Density of sycamore trees.
Is there a relationship between tar spot infection and time of leaf fall?
Are there significant differences in infection between urban and rural sites?
Are there significant differences in infection between different trees within the same site?
Research Objectives
Decide on a specific question or questions that you would like to answer. Although part of your answer may be
descriptive, try and express each question in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0). For example, your H0
might be that number of tar spots per leaf in rural sites does not differ from that in urban sites.
required data?
Methods
Some simple sampling designs could be: a) aim to get two (or more) columns of numbers representing some
measured variable in two (or more) situations. These might, for example, represent infection prevalence in
several trees from both urban and rural sites. b) aim to get two columns of numbers representing two variables
measured for each sampling unit. For example, the infection prevalence and litter depth for several sampling
locations. Many other designs are possible.
experimental treatments should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: is a sampling unit a leaf, an
area of leaf, a tree?; how many leaves, areas, trees or locations will you sample?; how will samples be
distributed, which leaves on a tree or trees in a site will you sample? - ideally sampling units should be an
unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the leaves, trees etc. that we wish to draw conclusions about
from our results). You must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling procedure.
You must decide on the most appropriate measure of tar spot infection - spot number, spot area,
presence/absence of spots? Perhaps sample a few leaves first to get an idea of what is appropriate.
25
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
If you estimate a parameter such as tar spot abundance or average leaf height, how will you indicate
the precision of your estimate?
Will your tar spot index take into account the size of the leaves?
Are other factors likely to be associated with tar spot infection? Could the effect of other factors
confound the results of your study?
How would premature falling of infected leaves affect your estimate of abundance?

Fungal biology
Factors affecting the abundance and distribution of parasitic fungi
Assessing biological variability and its causes
Effects of fungal infection on plants.
Experimental design
Statistical analysis
Suggested Equipment
Plastic bags
Indelible pens
Metre rule
Quadrats
Long handled pruners for sampling leaves to 3m.
Bibliography
Leith, I. D. & Fowler, D. (1987). Urban distribution of Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fries (tar spot) on sycamore.
New Phytologis, 108, 175-181.
Sutherland, W.J. (1996). Ecological census techniques: a handbook. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
26
Project 6. Distribution of snails in woodland leaf litter

Introduction
Land snails (Mollusca) are distributed across a diverse array of habitats in woodland sites. They are readily
sampled in such habitats by sieving leaf litter that forms the major part of their diet. The abundance and
species composition of land mollusc communities is dependent upon a number of environmental factors. The
most important of these appear to be the level of calcium available to the snails for building their shells, the
moisture level, and the degree of 'shelter' offered by the habitat. Certain species are more tolerant of low
calcium levels while others may be more tolerant of low moisture levels, and these differences in preference
may alter the species composition in different microhabitats. This project will be concerned with investigating
the abundance and species composition of land snail communities within different microhabitats in the
Hermitage of Braid.
Questions
To what extent is the abundance and species composition of snail communities related to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
origin of leaf litter (oak, beech, ash leaves for instance?)

pH of soil (related to calcium levels)
degree of 'shelter'
moisture levels
Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that the abundance of a particular species of snail in holly litter does not differ
from that in oak litter.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question and test the Null hypothesis? Will it
be possible to collect the required data?
Methods
Some simple sampling designs could be: a) aim to get two (or more) columns of numbers representing some
measured variable in two (or more) situations. These might, for example, represent snail densities in several
litter samples from oak litter and holly litter. b) aim to get two columns of numbers representing two variables
measured for each sampling unit. For example, the snail density and soil moisture level at several sampling
locations. Many other designs are possible.
experimental treatments should be distributed. Perhaps take a few preliminary samples to get an idea of what
is appropriate. Considering the example H0 above: would a sampling unit be a quadrat, or a given volume of
litter, or something else, and what size would the sampling unit be?; how many sampling units would you
sample; how would the samples be distributed within the woodland - ideally sampling units should be an
unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the litter we wish to draw conclusions about from our results).
You must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling procedure?
Snails can be extracted from litter samples in the lab using a combination of sieving and separating techniques
together with manual searching and removal. Your demonstrator can advise further. Moisture content of soil or
litter can be determined by collecting material, weighing, drying and weighing again. Instruments are available
for measuring relevant environmental variables such as Ph.
27
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
If you estimate a parameter such as average abundance, how will you indicate the precision of your
estimate?
Ensure that you know how to identify species of snails. The common species are much smaller than
you may imagine. The key given in the references is very good.
Is there going to be a problem with confounding factors? Will this interfere with the interpretation of the
results? e.g. are all holly trees situated on drier sites than oak trees?
How is abundance best measured?

Mollusc diversity and classification
Mollusc biology and ecology
Factors affecting species distribution
Sampling methods
Experimental design
Suggested Equipment
Note book, pencil
Hand lens
Nylon mesh bags (for collecting leaf litter)
Oven (for drying leaf litter)
Sieves of various sizes for sorting snails
Binocular microscope
Instruments for measuring relevant environmental factors e.g. pH meter
Bibliography
Boycott, A. E. (1934). The habitats of land mollusca in Britain. Journal of Ecology 22, 1-38.
Cameron, R. A. D. (1973). Some woodland mollusc faunas from Southern England. Malacologia 14, 355-370.
Kerney, M.P. & Cameron, R.A.D. (1996). Land snails of Britain and north-west Europe. HarperCollins, London.
Tattersfield, P. (1990). Terrestrial mollusc faunas from some South Pennine woodlands. Journal of Conchology
33, 355-374.
rd
Southwood, T.R.E & Henderson, P.A. (2000). Ecological methods (3 ed.). Blackwell Science.
28
Project 7. Relationships between bryophyte growth form and habitat

Introduction
Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) exhibit a very diverse array of growth forms. These may be classified into
the following broad categories:
Cushions: erect shoots radiating up to form a compact dome

Turfs: parallel erect shoots forming dense smooth surface
Canopies: systems with a raised leafy canopy
Mats: interwoven stems spreading horizontally over a surface
Wefts: loosely intertwined shoots, often ascending
The growth form adopted by a bryophyte is likely to be closely tied to the ecology of that species. Some growth
forms will be better adapted for competition, others for protection against desiccation, etc. For this reason we
may anticipate that there will be relationships within a community between the abundance of particular growth
forms of bryophytes and particular habitats within an area. This project will be concerned with detecting such
associations between growth habit and habitat for the community of bryophytes in the Hermitage of Braid.
Questions
How is the distribution of different growth habits in bryophytes related to particular characteristics of the habitat?
Important characteristics of the habitat might include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
humidity
light intensity
inclination of substrate (vertical/ horizontal)
nature of the substrate (rock ,soil, bark, etc.)
Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0). For example, your H0
might be that cushion-forming bryophytes are equally abundant on open rocks and heavily shaded rocks. What
sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question and test the Null hypothesis? Will it be
Methods
Familiarise yourself with the available habitat and decide on the hypotheses you wish to examine. Then identify
suitable sites for the study and devise an appropriate sampling scheme. Some simple sampling designs could
be: a) aim to get two (or more) columns of numbers representing some measured variable in two (or more)
situations. These might, for example, be measures of abundance of cushion forming bryophytes on open rocks
and in heavy shade. b) aim to get two columns of numbers representing two variables measured for each
sampling unit. For example, the abundance of cushion forming bryophytes and light intensity at several
sampling locations. Many other designs are also possible.
You must consider the size and nature of individual sample units, the size of the sample and how samples
should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: would a sampling unit be a whole rock or a quadrat
placed on the rocks, what size should the rocks or quadrats, respectively, be?; how many rocks or quadrats
would you sample?; how would you choose which rocks to sample, how would they be distributed and, if using
quadrats, would you sample more than one quadrat from the same rock? - ideally sampling units should be an
unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the rocks we wish to draw conclusions about from our results).
You must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling procedure?
Instruments are available for measuring relevant environmental variables such as light intensity.
29
Points to consider
1. How will you show that your results represent 'significant' effects and not just chance effects due to
2. If you estimate a parameter such as average abundance, how will you indicate the precision of your
estimate?
3. What classification scheme is going to be used for growth form? To what extent will it be necessary to
identify the species involved? (Consider the extra information that could be gained). Microscopes and keys
will be needed for identification.
4. Is there going to be a problem with confounding factors? Will this prevent you drawing reliable conclusions
from the results? E.g. are all open habitats liable to heavy trampling while those in heavy shade are
undisturbed?
5. How is abundance best measured? What scale of sampling unit is most appropriate?

Bryophyte diversity and classification
Bryophyte biology and ecology
Factors affecting distribution of species
Experimental design
Suggested Equipment
Note book, pencil
Hand lens
Plastic bags (for collecting specimens)
Microscope
Slides
Instruments for measuring relevant environmental factors-light meter?
Bibliography
Birse, E. M. (1958). IV. Growth form distribution in a deciduous wood. Journal of Ecology 46, 29-42.
Gimingham, C. H. & Birse, E. M. (1957). Ecological studies on the growth form of Bryophytes. I. Correlations
between growth form and habitat. Journal of Ecology 45, 533-545.
Jahns, H.M. (1983). Collins guide to the ferns mosses and lichens of Britain and North and Central Europe.
Collins, London.
Watson, E. V. (1968). British Mosses and Liverworts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
30
Project 8: Distribution and diversity of species in relation to rabbit grazing on

Blackford Hill
Introduction
The European rabbit (Oryctolagos cuniculus) has become so successful that is considered a pest in many
areas. They were introduced to the UK by the Normans in the 12th century to provide meat and fur. They live
on heathland, open meadow, grassland, woodland, the fringes of agricultural land and dry sandy soil, including
sand dunes, but they avoid coniferous forests. Rabbits eat the leaves of a wide range of vegetation including
agricultural crops, cereals, young tree and cabbages. In winter, they eat grasses, bulbs and bark. They reingest their faeces for nutritional benefit. Rabbits have a burrow system known as a warren, and tunnels can be
1-2m long. They use regular trails, which they scent mark with faecal pellets.
Rabbit grazing affects the stature and composition of vegetation throughout the year and the size of population
can influence the numbers of plant species in an area. Continuous grazing by large numbers of rabbits leads to
an increase in ground cover in some species (e.g. Anthoxanthum odoratum and Rumex acetosella and a
decrease in others (e.g. Festuca rubra and Trifolium repens). They can pose serious threats to sensitive
habitats, yet conversely, rabbit grazing is essentially for the maintenance of other threatened habitats such as
calcareous grasslands and many invertebrate species are dependent on rabbit grazing for the maintenance of
their habitats, such as the large blue butterfly (Maculinea arion).
Pollution
There are several questions one might ask about the effects of rabbit grazing on the distribution and abundance
of species.
1.
2.
3.
Do rabbits increase or decrease plant species richness on Blackford Hill?

What are the characteristics of plant species that occur only near to or only far from rabbit burrows?
Are some species particularly associated with soil distrurbance caused by rabbits?
Additional questions can be posed of invertebrate distribution and abundance.

Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question or prediction in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0). For
example, your H0 might be that grazing by rabbits does not affect the distribution of vascular plant species on
Blackford Hill.
required data? How will you devise a method of surveying the the numbers of rabbits and/or distribution of
rabbit burrows on Blackford Hill? Can you find comparable areas of grassland, where the vegetation is heavily
grazed and lightly grazed, for example?
Methods
Having decided on the hypothesis you wish to examine, devise an appropriate sampling scheme or
experimental setup. If sampling, you must identify suitable study locations. Will 'controls' be necessary against
which to compare the effects of experimental treatments? Some simple designs could be:
a) aim to get two columns of numbers representing some measured variable in two situations. These might,
for example, represent species diversity within several quadrats in both grazed and ungrazed habitat.
b) aim to get a table showing a number of observations in different categories for one or more situations. For
example, the percentage cover of selected species in areas of heavy grazing, light grazing, and rabbit
scrapes. Many other designs are possible.
31
Identifying lichens
experimental treatments should be distributed. Considering the example H0 above: will the sampling unit be a
species or a quadrat? How will the size of quadrat be chosen? How will they be distributed? Ideally they
should collect an unbiased representation of the population (i.e. all the vegetation types you wish to draw
conclusions about from our results). You must also decide on a way to standardise your sampling procedure.
Points to consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
You will initially spend a great deal of time determining how the rabbits are distributed on the hill and it
may be two or three weeks before you begin to collect vegetation data. Practice your identification skills
in these weeks.
How will you show that your results represent 'significant' effects and not just chance effects due to a
If you estimate a parameter such as numbers of rabbits, how will you indicate the precision of your
estimate?
Does the number of species recorded reflect the dispersal of species on the hill, the resistance of
species to grazing, the variation in conditions on different parts of the hill (altitude, aspect, angle of
slope), or your ability to identify species?

Grassland species diversity and identification
The effect of grazing on individual species
The grazing behaviour of rabbits
Ecology of grazing
Experimental design
Testing of null hypothesis
Suggested equipment
Note book, pencil
Quadrats (10 x 10 cm, 25 x 25 cm, 50 x 50 cm, or 1 x 1 m)
Sample bags
Marker pen for labelling samples
identification keys
Bibliography
Bullock, J.M., Franklin, J., Stevenson, M.J., Silvertown, J., Coulson, S.J., Gregory, S.J. & Tofts, R. (2001).
A plant trait analysis of responses to grazing in a long term experiment. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38,
253-267.
Kolb, H. H. (1991). Use of burrows and movements of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in an area of hill
grazing and forestry. Journal of Applied Ecology, 28, 892-905.
Crawley, M. J. (1990). Rabbit grazing, plant competition and seedling recruitment in acid grassland. Journal of
Applied Ecology, 27, 803-820.
Myers, K. & Poole, W.E. (1963). A study of the biology of the wild rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.), in
confined populations. Journal of Ecology, 51, 435-451.
Identification keys
Rose, F. (2006) The Wild Flower Key. How to identify wild flowers and shrubs in Britain and Ireland (revised
edition). Penguin Books, London
rd
Chinery, M. (1993). Collins Field Guide: Insects of Britain and Northern Europe (3 Edition). Harper Collins
Publishers, London
Fitter, R., Fitter, A. & Farrer, A. (1984). Collins Pocket Guide: Grasses, Sedges, Rushes and Ferns of Britain
and Northern Europe. Collins, London
Hubbard, C.E. (1984). Grasses. A guide to their structure, identification, uses and distribution in the British Isles
rd
(3 Edition). Penguin Books, London
32
Project 9: Leaf Breakdown and invertebrate colonisation in streams

Introduction
Riparian vegetation (i.e. plant communities on the fringes and adjacent to water bodies), through its input into
streams, provides an important habitat and food source for aquatic invertebrates. Leaves provide little
nutritional value when freshly fallen, but as they are being broken down by bacteria and fungi, they are quickly
colonized by invertebrates. However, not all kinds of leaves break down at the same rate, some being broken
down more rapidly (e.g. Fraxinus excelsior) than others (e.g. Salix spp.) and not all leaves have the same
nutritional value and palatability.
This project aims to investigate the relationship between the abundance, richness, diversity and distribution of
aquatic invertebrates within the Braid Burn, and the presence/absence and type of leaves in this stream.
You will be sampling aquatic invertebrates in different areas of the Braid Burn (e.g. under forest cover or open
areas; in areas where leaves accumulate or areas without leaves), as well as in leaf packs (bags containing
leaves from different tree species) submerged in the stream and recovered every week for analysis.
Questions
Many questions may be asked regarding leaf breakdown, leaf palatability and invertebrate diversity and
distribution in the stream, such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Are the abundance, richness and diversity of aquatic invertebrates affected by the presence of leaf
packs in the stream? Why?
Are different species of aquatic invertebrates associated with different kinds of leaves (from different
tree species)? Why?
How long does it take for invertebrates to colonize leaf packs and does the diversity and composition of
invertebrates evolve over time?
Which leaf species are broken down more rapidly? How can differences in breakdown rate be
explained?
Does light, temperature or flow velocity influence invertebrate distribution within the stream? How?
Research Objectives
descriptive, try and express each question or prediction in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0). For
example, your H0 might be: "there is no difference in invertebrate diversity between leaf packs containing leaves
from different tree species". Your alternative hypothesis H1 would then be: "there is a difference in invertebrate
diversity between leaf packs containing leaves from different tree species".
required data during the period dedicated to the project?
Methods
Most leaves in streams gather in small groups called leaf packs. In order to stimulate this process, you will build
mesh bags (e.g. 1 cm x 1 cm mesh), fill them with leaves and place them in the stream. You should choose the
tree species you want to investigate and pick up fresh leaves collected from several trees to avoid damaging
one particular tree. Place the leaves in comparable mesh bags (e.g. 20 cm x 20 cm) and secure them to the
stream bed so that they don't wash away easily. You should choose carefully the number of bags you want to
put in the stream (e.g. you should be able to recover each week 2 or 3 replicates for each kind of leaf), the size
of the bags and the quantity of leaves, and the area of the stream where you want to place them (looking
carefully at flow velocity, natural obstacles, light intensity, etc.).
Each week, collect a given number of mesh bags with a net held downstream to catch any invertebrates that
may have been disturbed into the water column. Place these bags (and the content of the nets) into large
plastic bags for transportation back to the laboratory. To count and identify invertebrates present in each leaf
pack, place small amounts of leaves in white trays with 1 or 2 cm of tap water. Use spoons, brushes, and
forceps to separate invertebrates from the leaves. Invertebrates should be separated from the rest of the
material as soon as possible after retrieval from the stream, as sorting and identifying living animals is easier.
Invertebrates collected can be stored in small vials with 70% ethanol, and should be counted and identified to
family level. Most of the animals can be easily identified using a microscope and relevant keys (e.g. Croft,
1986).
33
Points to consider
appropriate sampling scheme. How many leak packs will you need? How many times and how often will you
collect them? Where in the stream are you going to place them? Where are you going to do your kick
sampling? Which method will you choose? Which parameters can you measure to describe your site. (e.g.
temperature, water pH, flow velocity). How will you show that your results represent 'significant' effects and not
just chance effects due to sampling error? If you have a Null hypothesis, can you test it statistically? What kind
of test can you use and why?
HEALTH WARNING: The Braid Burn is not a very clean stream, so be careful to wash your hands thoroughly
with soap after working in the stream to avoid picking up any diseases. Health risks are minimal if simple
hygiene procedures such as this are observed, so do not be put off working there.
Suggested equipment
Wellingtons or waders
Pond net
Plastic bags to transport samples from the stream to the lab.
Wire or plastic mesh
Wire or string
Sieves
White trays for sorting
Forceps
Sample tubes, Petri dishes
Labels
Alcohol for preservation
Microscope and x10 lenses
Keys for identification of invertebrates and trees
Thermometer
pH-meter
Light-meter

The importance of terrestrial inputs to stream communities and the implications for stream management.
The factors influencing the distribution of invertebrates in the stream.
Identification and classification of aquatic invertebrates.
Identification of trees.
Experimental design, hypothesis testing and report writing.
Bibliography
Books:
Allan, J. D. (1995). Stream Ecology: Structure and function of running waters. Chapman & Hall, London. 388 p.
Croft, P. S. (1986). A key to the major groups of British freshwater invertebrates. Field Studies Council,
Taunton. 48 p.
Articles:
Parkyn, S. M., Winterbourn, M. J. (1997). Leaf breakdown and colonisation by invertebrates in a headwater
stream: comparison of native and introduced tree species. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research 31: 301 - 312.
Richardson, J. S., Shaughnessy, C. R., Harrison, P. G. (2004). Litter breakdown and invertebrate association
with three types of leaves in a temperate rainforest stream. Archiv fr Hydrobiologie 159 (3): 309-325.
34
Project 10: Distribution of seeds under disturbance in the Hermitage of Braid

Introduction
Natural regeneration is one of the most common ways for trees to seed in natural woodlands and forests under
continuous cover management schemes. In order for natural regeneration to occur, an appropriate seedbed is
needed on the forest floor, in combination with appropriate environmental conditions. However, natural
disturbance (e.g. birds and animals) or human disturbances (e.g. thinning and pruning) can affect of how trees
disperse their seeds and the available seedbed for natural regeneration.
This project aims to quantify the effect of disturbance and explain possible reasons for the observed distribution
of seeds in the Hermitage of Braid.
Questions
There are many questions one might ask. For example:
1.
2.
3.
How does the distribution of seeds determined by "mother" tree and how does seed abundance change
with distance?
How does anthropogenic disturbance (e.g. thinning) affect the distribution the seeds?
Is wind or the topography the most important factor controlling distribution patterns?
Research Objectives
Decide on specific question(s) that you would like to answer. Although part of your answer may be descriptive,
try and express each question or prediction in the form of a testable Null Hypothesis (H0).
For example, your H0 might be that intensive management regimes increase the distribution of seeds from the
seed productive trees.
What sort of data do you need to collect in order to answer your question? What should be the best way to
collect the data?
Methods
Having decided the questions you are interested to answer and forming the major hypothesis you would like to
test, choosing the appropriate site location is the next step. Sites must be chosen according to their disturbance
history. Such information is available either in a management plan or by interviewing the local rangers. You
might need to identify stands where animal activities are known to be present or stands where other
anthropogenic disturbance is taking place (e.g. dog walking).
Next, the appropriate sampling scheme should be selected considering always the main aim of the project,
which is to investigate the distribution of seeds around a "mother" tree, taking under consideration the
topography of the site. Then a standardised sampling scheme should be chosen and applied throughout the
duration of fieldwork. You need to consider: i) if you need to measure the numbers of seeds in total or
separately by species, ii) to measure the distance from a reference tree or iii) how far to sample and in which
direction.
The final product should be a dataset of seeds numbers in groups by species and disturbance type. Then
statistical testing might be needed to test the significance between the means of your samples in order to
accept or reject the hypothesis that heavily managed stands have an effect on the distribution of the seeds, and
thus affect the possibilities for natural regeneration. Appropriate graph and chart presentation would be
essential.
35
Points to consider.
1.
What is the main hypothesis?
2.
How do I proceed with the design of the sampling and what are the variables I need to measure?
3.
Which are the criteria for choosing the appropriate stands to sample?
4.
How do I choose the "mother" tree?
5.
Which is the appropriate plot size and what sort of sampling scheme should I follow?
6.
What statistical analysis should I perform and how to present the results?
Identifying trees and seeds
Designing of sampling scheme to fulfil certain needs
Sampling design
Performing basic statistical analysis
Presenting results
Suggested equipment
Note book and pencil
Measuring tape
Books for tree and seed identification
Sticks and tape for sampling plots
Small quadrats
Bibliography
Fenner, M. (1985). Seed Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London.
nd
Mayer, A. M. & Poljakov-Mayber, A. (1975). The Germination of Seeds (2 Ed.). Pergamon Press, London.
36
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR FIELD STUDIES

General Behaviour
Observe sensible standards of behaviour at all times.

Show good manners and consideration to others, with special regard to those whose facilities we use.
On guided excursions, do not get ahead of the guide.
Show consideration for the property of others:
Do not damage property;
Do not leave gates open;
Do not trample crops;
Do not disturb animals.
Show consideration for our natural environment:
Do not collect specimens unless specifically required for the purpose of the field course;
Do not disturb natural communities;
Do not casually overturn rocks or logs;
Do not leave litter.
Observe conservation regulations.
Your responsibilities for safety

Ecological field work involves some inherent risks and hazards because of the places we go to and the activities
we undertake. Severe weather may increase the dangers.
The potential dangers make it imperative that each individual should co-operate by behaving in order to reduce
the risks of accidents.
It is the responsibility of the course leader to provide, in so far as is reasonable, a framework for safety on the
field course. She/he will:
1.
2.
3.
4.
ensure that you have been informed of the special hazards associated with the work;
ensure that you know of the precautions, prohibitions and instructions relevant to the exercise;
check that you are suitably clothed and equipped for the conditions likely to be prevailing and for the
activities to be carried out;
provide safety gear and a first aid kit as appropriate.
Within this framework, you are responsible for your own safety and for not endangering the safety of others. In
particular, you must:
1.
2.
3.
obey safety instructions, whether written or verbal;

treat safety equipment with care and respect;
act sensibly and responsibly at all times.
If you disregard safety requirements, if you behave irresponsibly or if you endanger yourself or others, you will
be dismissed from the course and reported to the Head of School for possible disciplinary action.
You should question any apparent disregard of safety by another and refuse to undertake any activity which you
consider to involve unreasonable risk.
Think "SAFETY" at all times.
37
Safety precautions applying to all field trips

Wear clothing and footwear suitable for the weather, the activity and terrain. You will not be allowed to
participate in a field course if you are ill-equipped for the conditions. Section A4 gives general guidelines, and
specific activities may require additional items.
Stay with your group, except by clear arrangement with the course leader.
Meet as arranged at the completion of work. In particular, do not make your own way back home (or to
lodgings, etc.) without express permission of the course leader.
Report illness, accident, incident affecting safety, or misbehaviour to the course leader.
Do not endanger yourself or others by fooling around; for example, by running down steep slopes, rolling
stones down slopes, throwing objects around, flicking tree branches.
Never smoke or light fires in forests or on moorland. Conditions for the spread of undergrowth fires may be
present in any season.
Show extra care on cliffs and steep slopes. Gusty winds can blow you over. Cliff edges may be crumbling.
Do not dislodge loose rocks. Grass verges may be very slippery.
Do not incur additional risks by e.g. climbing cliffs, walking on slippery rocks, or wading along rivers, unless
these activities have been approved as an essential part of the course.
Do not touch machinery in forests, farms, factories, etc. unless it is a specific requirement of the course. In
particular, you will never be allowed to use a chain saw without thorough training and specific permission.
Use potentially dangerous apparatus with care, and with due regard to the operating instructions.
Take care along roads, when you need to work beside the road (e.g. for surveying, sampling vegetation).
Walk on the right hand side (i.e. facing oncoming traffic) and remember that a group walking along a road
represents a specific hazard. You are not allowed along motorways or railways.
Take care when leaving buses. Remember that this is dangerous when the bus stops at the roadside.
Familiarise yourself with the Forestry Safety Council leaflet 34: First Aid
Make sure you carry the Personal First Aid and Emergency Kit described below
Clothing, footwear & safety gear

Minimum clothing: loose-fitting trousers, shirt, warm sweater, cagoul, warm socks.
Desirable additional clothing: Warm headgear (in addition to the hood of a cagoul), cagoul, waterproof
overtrousers, extra sweater. (Remember that several thin layers are better than one heavy layer of clothing).
Your cagoul should be brightly coloured.
Footwear: nailed boots or strong boots with rubber mountaineering soles, wear wellingtons only when shallow
wading is anticipated.
Do not wear: shoes (as opposed to boots) especially sports shoes or light casual or dress shoes; a dress;
jeans (highly undesirable as they absorb moisture and can cause exposure when wet and subjected to a cold
wind).
Wear a safety helmet when this is provided for your safety when there is a danger from falling rocks or trees,
or a danger of falling.
38
Personal First Aid and emergency kit. You are advised to carry with you, as a matter of course on all field
trips, the following items in a plastic bag:
a loud whistle;
the Forestry Safety Council Leaflet No.34:
First Aid;
1 adhesive dressing;
1 plain lint wound dressing;
2 antiseptic wipes;
Safety matches.
The best policy is to keep this kit in a cagoul or rucksack that you routinely take with you on field trips.
Occupational diseases
Although the likelihood of contracting serious diseases through fieldwork are very small in Britain, it is wise to be
aware of three diseases which may present potential hazards, and the steps which can be taken to avoid
problems.
Tetanus
There is a risk of tetanus from anything puncturing the skin in the field, for example from an animal bite, scalpel
cut, or a deep scratch. If you are not currently protected against tetanus a course of immunisation can be
arranged with the Health Service. If you do receive a cut or a bite in the field and are not covered for tetanus,
you must see a doctor within 24 hours and obtain emergency protection through passive immunisation.
Weil's Disease
Weil's disease is spread by rats and can be contracted from water contaminated with the causative agent,
spirochete. The organism can enter through cuts or abrasions in the skin, through skin that has been immersed
for long periods in water, or through mucus membrane surfaces such as the lining of the eyes. Infection may
result in a range of conditions varying from 'flu like symptoms' through to meningitis and liver and kidney
damage. Protection is best provided by wearing the appropriate clothing to cover vulnerable areas. Potentially
contaminated skin and cuts should be thoroughly washed with soap and water at the earliest opportunity.
Lyme Disease
Lyme disease is contracted through tick bites. The risk of infection is high in areas with high populations of
deer. Immediate symptoms include a rash around the bite and a brief 'flu like illness'. More serious conditions
such as meningitis, heart disease and arthritis may develop if the disease goes untreated. The best
preventative measure is to protect the skin from tick bites by wearing long sleeved shirts and trousers in areas
where ticks are known to be common. If ticks are discovered on the skin their head and mouthparts should be
removed using fine forceps, and the affected area disinfected. Contact your doctor immediately if an illness
resembling Lyme disease develops after you have been working in an area with high tick densities.
Emergency procedures: First Aid

Follow the advice given in the Forest Safety Council leaflet 34: First Aid.
Do not attempt treatment beyond this advice unless you are suitably trained. First Aid is not a substitute for
expert attention.
Get medical help without delay if there is any uncertainty about the seriousness of the accident.
39
Emergency procedures: When lost

Much depends on individual circumstances, so the following are general guidelines: use your own common
sense and initiative in particular circumstances.
Make yourself obvious
1.
2.
Expose brightly coloured clothing.

Give the international distress signal periodically (six blows on a whistle, shouts, etc. repeated at one
minute intervals).
Calmly assess your position

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Are you close to civilisation?

Is it difficult for people to spot you?
Are the climatic conditions harsh?
Is the terrain reasonably safe?
Are your food supplies low?
Is your clothing inadequate for a prolonged stay outdoors?
If you tend to answer "yes" to most of the above questions, then you should probably try to walk out of
trouble.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Walk downhill but:

do not follow streams;
do not go down steep slopes;
do not go fast downhill;
watch out for cliffs, etc.
Use the sun, moon or land marks for direction. Do not walk in circles.
Rest at intervals.
When you get to a telephone, dial 999, ask for Police and explain the position: the Police should
already have been contacted by the course leader.
If you tend to answer "no" to most of the above questions, then you should probably try to sit it out and wait
for help to arrive.
1.
2.
3.
4.
40
Make large visible signs on the ground.

Light a fire if possible.
Seek shelter.
Re-assess your position at intervals.
Exposure (Hypothermia)
Causes
1.
2.
3.
Accidental hypothermia: sitting still in the cold too long (e.g. in a boat, watching birds, awaiting medical
help when injured).
Immersion hypothermia: falling into water.
Exhaustion-exposure: while hill walking, due to the high heat loss from cold, damp, wind and/or low heat
production resulting from exhaustion, hunger.
Symptoms
Any two of the following symptoms suggest hypothermia:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Complaints of feeling cold, tired or listless.

Unreasonable behaviour or irritability.
Sudden uncontrollable shivering.
Increase slowness of physical or mental response.
Stumbling or falling.
Slurring of speech.
Difficulty of vision.
Physical resistance to help.
Collapse, stupor or unconsciousness.
Treatment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Remove the patient from exposed environment.

Provide shelter and rest.
Insulate against further heat loss by use of blankets or layers of warm clothing, huddling together in a
sleeping bag, etc.
Get medical help.
Provide glucose (instant energy) if available and water, preferably warm (to combat dehydration).
Handle the casualty with minimum of rough movement.
Going into the field alone

You must have your supervisor's permission for any trip to the field.
Ensure that your supervisor knows precisely where you are going, what you are intending to do, how long
you will be in the field and how you are travelling.
Discuss the safety aspects of your work with your supervisor, specifically with regard to clothing, safety gear,
hazards and precautions.
Leave a note of your schedule, route and destination with the Departmental secretary or your supervisor.
Wherever possible a detailed map of your fieldwork site should be provided so that you can be located rapidly in
event of an emergency. If you are away for more than one day leave these details with the hotel manager or
warden, etc. as appropriate.
Take your Personal First Aid and Emergency Kit and rations (e.g. chocolate) and extra dry clothing.
Take a map, compass, torch, and survival bag for work in remote areas.
41
A FEW GUIDELINES ON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
General Points
Have a simple hypothesis and state your objectives clearly

Express hypotheses to be tested in terms of a Null hypothesis (HO) and an Alternative hypothesis (HA)
Never report an estimate of an ecological parameter without some measure of its possible error
Tests of significance and descriptive statistics are both valuable. Tests of significance are often
necessary for testing hypotheses. However, we also want to know how groups differ or what a pattern
of association is.
Sampling
Define your sampling unit (experimental unit)

o
Natural: e.g. 1 leaf, 1 frog, 1 seed
o
Artificial: e.g. 1 quadrat, 1 litre, 1 hour
When obtaining a sample think about the population that this sample is intended to represent
o
A sample is taken to be representative of some population or sampling universe. This
population embraces all the possible sampling units or objects about which we wish to make
inferences any conclusions regarding hypotheses or estimated parameters, such as means,
will be applied to the population
o
Is the sample an unbiased representation of this population? Ideally it should be a random
selection from all possible units in the population
Confounding factors and experimental bias

Beware of other factors (natural or artificial) that may vary in parallel with the factor under investigation
you may not be able to conclude which factor is responsible for any observed effect
Examples:
All orchid counts in site A are made by Jim (who is wide awake and good at spotting orchids) whilst all
counts in site B are made by George (who is tired and not very good at spotting orchids). Are resultant
differences in orchid counts between the sites actually due to differences in orchid abundance or simply
differences in observer ability?
o
In a study to examine caterpillar density in different tree species. 10 Oak trees in a park (sample
A) and 10 Sycamore trees along a roadside (sample B) tree sampled for caterpillars. Can we
conclude that differences in caterpillar density between samples are definitely due to tree
species, or could they be due to differences in pollution, predator numbers, ..?
Aim to eliminate bias and confounding factors in your study design
Interpretation
42
Aim for unambiguous results. Are there any simple and reasonable hypotheses that could explain the
observed results, other than the working hypothesis?
Dont confuse statistical significance with biological significance
Statistical evidence of an association or correlation does not necessarily imply cause and effect
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
EXPRESSIONS OF AVERAGE OR CENTRAL TENDANCY
Arithmetic Mean
Sum of observations divided by
number of observations
Takes account of the value of all data
in sample
Can be greatly distored by exteme
values and may not apear
representative of central region
for skewed data sets
Median
The middle value of ordered/ranked observations
A resistent measure of average
Works well for skewed data and outliers

Can be used with interval or ranked data
Mode
The most frequently occurring value (or values if

multi-modal) in data set
Can be applied to data on ordinal scales
There may be >1 mode
SPREAD OR VARIABILITY OF DATA
Range
Interquartile range
Simplest measure of variability
Differences between highest and

lowest values of obserations in
distribution
Strongly influenced by extreme or
unusual values
Lower quartile = value below which 25% of

ranked observations lie
Upper quartile = value below which 75% of
ranked observations lie
IQR
= differences between upper and lower
quartiles
Standard deviation
Measures average deviation of

observations from mean
Takes account of the value of all data
in sample
CONFIDENCE IN ESTIMATE OF POPULATION AVERAGE

N.B. Presenting some measure of data variability (above) together with sample size gives a reasonable
indication of reliability.
More formal measures of confidence include:
Standard error
95% or 99% confidence intervals
43
STATISTICS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

This is only a very brief guide. Discuss any proposed statistical analysis with a demonstrator or staff.
TESTING FOR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVERAGES OF TWO GROUPS
t-test
Mann-Whitney-U test
compares means of two groups

uses interval data
Makes a number of assumptions:
* data approximately normally
distributed
* similar variance in both samples
compares medians of two groups

can use interval or ranked data
Makes a few assumptions about data
You must have >10 observations in
total
TESTING FOR AN ASSOCIATION OR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO INTERVAL OR RANKED

VARIABLES
1. Correlation
Measures the strength of the relationship between the variables
Spearman Rank correlation
co-efficient
Can use interval or ranked data
Makes few assumptions about data
Require >7 pairs of observations
Product moment correlation coefficient

Uses interval data
Makes a number of assumptions:
*both
variables
should
be
normally distributed
*relationship should be linear
2. Regression
Use when you wish to estimate the value of one variable from a measurement of the other.
Fits a line through a scatter of data.
Simple Linear Regression

Makes
a
number
of
assumptions about data:
- Linear relationship
- Relationship implied to be
causal
- x-variable is under your control
44
- normal distribution of
possible y-values for any x
ANALYSIS FREQUENCIES
1. Goodness-Of-Fit Tests
Testing whether frequencies observed of 2 or more categories differ from those expected
according to Null Hypothesis
2
Chi-square Goodness-Of-Fit Test (X )
Each object can only be assigned to

one category
All observations are independent
Ideally all expected frequencies >5
Use actual data not percentages
2. Tests for Association

Testing whether the relative frequencies observed in two or more categories differ between
two or more situations.
2
Chi-square Contingency Table Test (X )
Assumptions and conditions as above
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Points to note:
Scaling of numerical axes should be appropriate to the data

Use the same scaling on figures that are to be compared
Ensure axes are properly labelled including units of measurement
Y-axis need not proceed continuously from zero can be broken to focus on area of interest. Break
indicted by double slash
Include full explanatory legend. Figure should be fully understandable without reference to main text.
Figure Legend should be placed below figure
Note: Table titles should be placed above the table
FIGURES PRESENTING FREQUENCIES

DOT PLOTS
Give a rough but quick visual

appreciation of data distribution
Each
dot
represents
one
observation
BAR GRAPHS
PIE CHARTS
Used for categorical data where

categories
have
no
logical
sequence (if there is a logical
sequence, use a bar chart)
Internal angle of segment
reflects
relative
frequency
(percentage or proportion) of
cases in that category
Used for discrete data (categorical, ordinal or

interval)
Bar heights reflect frequencies
Bars do not touch each other (reflects discrete
nature of data)
HISTOGRAMS
Used for continuous data

Observations groups into artificial classes
Bar heights (bar areas) reflect frequencies
within classes
Bars touch each other (reflects continuous
nature of data)
45
FIGURES PRESENTING SUMMARY STATISTICS

BOX PLOTS
BAR CHARTS WITH ERROR BARS
(Box and Whisker plots)
Usually used to show medians,

interquartile ranges and ranges
Can be used to show mean and any
of standard deviation, standard
error, confidence intervals or
range
Top of bar shows mean

Error bar can show standard deviation, standard
error or confidence intervals
FIGURES SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS
SCATTERGRAM (scatter plot)
46
Use with bivariate data: pairs of observations on 2

variables are obtained from each unit in a sample
Aids interpretation of correlation coefficients
Useful summary or starting point before further data
analysis data
Appendix I.
Examples of Former Exam Papers

U N I V E R SI T Y OF E D I N B U R G H
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
DEGREE EXAMINATION
December 2006 Version
Examiners:
Prof J Grace, Chairman
Prof R Bardgett, External Examiner
Dr G Jackson, Course Organiser
This examination will be marked anonymously
Answer FOUR questions.

Use a different answer book for each question.
1. To what extent does nutrient cycling control ecosystem primary production globally?
2. Discuss how and why food webs differ between terrestrial and aquatic environments.
3. A new grass species has been discovered in South America. Describe a variety of investigations that would
be required to determine whether it is a C3 or C4 species.
4. Explain how C3, C4 and CAM pathways of photosynthesis can be considered adaptations to different
climatic regions of the world.
5. Discuss the life history strategies and trade-offs that allow ectothermic animals to persist in extreme
environments.
6. Describe how the dominant vegetation types in lowland England changed following the end of the
Devensian glaciation.
7. Critically discuss Clements 1916 model of primary succession with reference to more recent models of
succession.
8. Bird species come in many different body and population sizes. Discuss the relationship between body size
and abundance across British bird species.
******************************************
47
DEGREE EXAMINATION
August 2007 Version
Examiners:

1. Describe the technique of radio-carbon dating and explain why it needs to be interpreted cautiously in order
to obtain vegetation histories.
2. Describe, with examples, four different approaches to the study of vegetation succession.
3. Critically review the evidence that elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide will increase biological productivity
on a global scale.
4. Explain why some desert plants have evolved many stomata per unit area of green surface whilst others
have only a few.
5. Why is the Earth so rich in life, while its neighbours, Mars and Venus appear to be dead planets?
6. Define the ecological efficiency of an organism and discuss the key determinants of ecological efficiency.
7. Define and give examples of essential resources, substitutable resources and complementary
resources. How is population growth influenced by variations in the abundance of these resource
types?
8. Although there are exceptions, most dinosaur species were very large-bodied. Why?
******************************************
48
DEGREE EXAMINATION

Examiners:

1. Describe how the vegetation of a terrestrial landscape changes through a complete interglacial period, such
as the Hoxnian.
2. Describe the patterns and processes of vegetation change in a hydrosere. Discuss how such systems can
be studied.
3. What is an ecosystem, and how did the concept arise?
4. What controls the availability of nutrients in any place and time?
5. What are the three sorts of photosynthesis, and why has this variation arisen?
6. The 'life history' of a species is a description of when important events occur, such as the age of sexual
maturity. Briefly describe the life history of the dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex.
7. Describe the life history traits associated with r and K strategists. Using examples, contrast the kinds of
environments in which you would expect to find animals displaying r and K strategies.
8. How can we compare physiological processes across species of animal that differ in body size and what
does this tell us about the nutritional ecology of African ungulates?
******************************************
49
DEGREE EXAMINATION
August 2008 Version

Examiners:

1. Contrast the dominant ecological processes in primary succession as described by Clements (1916) with
typical processes of secondary succession.
2. Describe the patterns of tree colonisation of Britain during the early part of the Holocene (post-glacial)
period following the retreat of the ice.
3. How and why does primary production in oceans differ from terrestrial environments?
4. How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support?

5. What are the major/global environmental factors that are expected to change over the next 50 years and
how do these factors influence the rate of carbon dioxide uptake of C3 and C4 plants?
6. What evidence is there that dinosaurs were warm-blooded?

7. Define these three terms: phenotypic plasticity, polyphenism and reaction norm.
Give one example of a life-history trade-off which involves a polyphenism, and a second example of a
life-history trade-off involving a reaction norm.
8. Describe the allometric method of comparing physiological attributes of animals.
******************************************
50
DEGREE EXAMINATION
Examiners:
There are THREE sections in this paper.

Answer ONE question in Section A
Answer ONE question in Section B
Answer ALL SIX questions in Section C
Use a separate answer book for the SECTION A and SECTION B questions
Answers to all six questions in SECTION C must be written on the exam paper
in the space allowed
SECTION A
Answer ONE question
Question 1
How is it possible to reconstruct vegetation histories?
changed throughout the current interglacial period?
How have the climatic vegetation zones of Britain

(25 marks)
or
Question 2
What do modern ecologists believe to be wrong with Clements (1916) model of succession? What aspects of
his model are believed to be correct?
(25 marks)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question
Question 1
How and why does photosynthesis vary globally?
variation?
What measurements would you make to quantify this

(25 marks)
or
Question 2
How and by what mechanisms has life affected the environment of our planet over the past four billion years?
(25 marks)
51
SECTION C
Answer ALL SIX questions in the space allowed
1. (a) What is diapause?
(3 marks)
(b) Describe two situations in which organisms might use diapause as a life history strategy?
(4 marks)
(c) Give one example for each.
(2 marks)
2. Define the following and give one example for each.

(a) essential resources
(2 marks)
(b) substitutable resources
(2 marks)
(c) complementary resources
(2 marks)
___________________________________________________________________________
52
3. How and why do the following scale with an organisms body size?
(a) Standard metabolic rate
(4 marks)
(b) Specific metabolic rate
(4 marks)
4. How are woodland plants adapted to shade?
(9 marks)
5. How are tropical grasses different from temperate grasses?
(9 marks)
53
6. Reptiles are cold blooded.

(a) Were dinosaurs?
(b) Briefly describe the evidence supporting your answer.
54
(9 marks)
DEGREE EXAMINATION
August 2009 Version
Examiners:
Prof J Moncrieff, Chairman
There are THREE sections in this paper.

Answer ONE question in Section A
Answer ONE question in Section B
Answer ALL SIX questions in Section C
Use a separate answer book for the SECTION A and SECTION B questions
Answers to all six questions in SECTION C must be written on the exam paper
in the space allowed

SECTION A
Answer ONE question
Question 1
Choose three native British trees and describe how they spread throughout Britain after the end of the last iceage. How can we reconstruct these vegetation histories?
(25 marks)
or
Question 2
Compare and contrast primary and secondary succession giving examples of both.
(25 marks)
SECTION B
Answer ONE question
Question 1
How and why does climate vary across the globe? How does climate variation control the distribution of global
terrestrial biomes?
(25 marks)
or
Question 2
What is an ecosystem and how did the concept arise?
(25 marks)
55
SECTION C
Answer ALL SIX questions in the space allowed
1. (a) What is parity?

(3 marks)
(b) describe how semelparous and iteroparous organisms allocate resources to reproduction?
(5 marks)
2. (a) What is a reaction norm?

(3 marks)
(b) Give an example of a life history trade-off which involves a reaction norm.
(5 marks)
3. (a) Explain the differences between allometric and isometric scaling in terms of body size.
(4 marks)
(b) Why do most physiological and structural processes scale allometrically with body size
(4 marks)
___________________________________________________________________________
56
4. What are the three main types of photosynthesis? How do they provide fitness for the plants in which they
are found?
(9 marks)
5. Explain how water is transported in plants?

(8 marks)
6. Many scientists have studied the density of species, such as lynx, at numerous study sites which vary in
size. When we put all these different studies together, what generalisation emerges about the
relationship between the size of the study site and the measured density of the species?
(9 marks)
57
DEGREE EXAMINATION
Examiners:
Dr R Baxter, External Examiner
Answer FOUR questions
Please use a separate answer book for each QUESTION.
1. Why is Earth so rich in life, while its neighbours, Mars and Venus, are dead planets?
2. How do the physical differences between aquatic and terrestrial environments affect the distribution and
abundance of organisms?
3. Define the term acclimation and explain the mechanisms whereby plants acclimate to their surroundings.
4. What are the three biochemical pathways of photosynthesis and discuss the advantages of these pathways
in different climatic regions.
5. Over the course of hundreds of thousands of years the climate has changed cyclically. Why is this? Name
the climatic phases through an interglacial period and describe the typical changes in climate, soil and
dominant vegetation types in currently temperate zones between the end of one glaciation and the start
of the next.
6. Compare and contrast primary and secondary vegetation succession.
7. What are the thermal challenges for a terrestrial endotherm of inhabiting a tropical desert?
terrestrial endotherms respond to such challenges?
How can
8. Describe how allometric analysis can be used to compare physiological functions across mammal species
varying in body mass.
*****************************************************************
58
DEGREE EXAMINATION
August 2010 Version
Examiners:
Please use a separate answer book for each QUESTION.
1. How and why does nutrient cycling differ between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems?
2. How and why do food webs differ between terrestrial and aquatic environments?
3. Explain how the internal leaf structure can best equip leaves to use the resources of (a) a sunny and (b) a
shaded habitat?
4. Will plants grow faster in a CO2-rich atmosphere? How can plant responses to elevated CO2 concentrations
be explored?
5. What are the effects of a glacial-interglacial cycle on an ecosystem of a currently temperate zone?
6. Which aspects of the Clements (1916) model of primary succession are now largely rejected and which
elements are largely accepted?
7. Describe how terrestrial endotherms respond to environmental temperature as it varies from extreme cold to
extreme heat.
8. How should animals allocate resources between competing life history traits?
59
DEGREE EXAMINATION
December, 2010 Version
Examiners:
ONE question to be answered from each section
Please use a separate answer book for each QUESTION
SECTION A
1. Describe how the vegetation, climate and soil changes through a complete British interglacial period such
as the Hoxnian.
2. Explain how primary succession is different from secondary succession.
SECTION B
3. Islands are more impoverished in species than comparably small areas of mainland. Discuss.
4. How and why does primary production in oceans differ from that of terrestrial environments?
SECTION C
5. Discuss the structural differences that exist between plants that have adapted to high intensity and low
intensity light environments.
6. Describe the environmental factors that affect terrestrial plant photosynthesis, and how these influence
growth.
SECTION D
7. Describe the response of metabolic rate to ambient temperature in a homeotherm, and the ways in which
such homeothermic animals respond to temperature extremes.
8. How, in theory, should the diets of herbivores be influenced by their body mass?
60
Appendix II. Maps

A. LOCATION OF HERMITAGE OF BRAID AND BLACKFORD HILL
B. HERMITAGE OF BRAID & BLACKFORD HILL
61
UNIVERSITY
OF
EDINBURGH OWN WORK DECLARATION
This sheet must be filled in (each box ticked to show that the condition has been met), signed and
dated, and included with all assessments - work will not be marked unless this is done
This sheet will be removed from the assessment before marking
Name:..
Number:...
Course/Programme:....
Title of work:..
I confirm that all this work is my own except where indicated, and that I have:
Clearly referenced/listed all sources as appropriate
Referenced and put in inverted commas all quoted text (from books, web, etc)
Given the sources of all pictures, data etc. that are not my own
Not made any use of the report(s) or essay(s) of any other student(s) either past
or present
Not sought or used the help of any external professional agencies for the work
Acknowledged in appropriate places any help that I have received from others
(e.g. fellow students, technicians, statisticians, external sources)
Complied with any other plagiarism criteria specified in the Course handbook
I understand that any false claim for this work will be penalised in accordance with
the University regulations
Signature .
Date ..
Please note: If you need further guidance on plagiarism, you can

1. Consult your course book
2. Speak to your course organiser or supervisor
3. Check out http://www.aaps.ed.ac.uk/regulations/Plagiarism/Intro.htm
Please read the notes about the use of plagiarism detection software overleaf.
62
Use of plagiarism detection software

Note that computers may be used to detect plagiarism, whether by using something as simple as a search
engine such as Google (it is as easy for a marker to find online sources as it is for you) or something more
complex for specialized comparisons of work. Some courses will use the JISC plagiarism detection service.
The plagiarism detection service is an online service hosted at www.submit.ac.uk that enables institutions and
staff to carry out electronic comparison of students' work against electronic sources including other students'
work. The service is managed by The University of Northumbria on behalf of the Joint Information Systems
Committee (JISC) and is available to all UK tertiary education institutions by subscription.
The plagiarism detection service works by executing searches of the world wide web and extensive databases
of reference material, as well as content previously submitted by other users.
Each new submission is
compared with all the existing information. The software makes no decisions as to whether a student has
plagiarised, it simply highlights sections of text that are duplicated in other sources. All work will continue to be
reviewed by the course tutor. As such, the software is simply used as a tool to highlight any instance where
there is a possibly case of plagiarism. Passages copied directly or very closely from existing sources will be
identified by the software, and both the original and the potential copy will be displayed for the tutor to view.
Where any direct quotations are relevant and appropriately referenced, the course tutor will be able to see this
and will continue to consider the next highlighted case.
Once work has been submitted to the system it becomes part of the ever growing database of material against
which subsequent submissions are checked. The copyright in each work submitted remains with the original
author, but a non-exclusive, non-transferable, licence is granted to permit use of the material for plagiarism
detection purposes.
There is an on-line demonstration of the system available at
http://www.submit.ac.uk/
63

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PRINCIPLES

Room 211, Crew Building

SYNOPSES OF PRACTICAL PROJECTS

A FEW GUIDELINES ON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

STATISTICS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

APPENDIX 1. EXAMPLES OF FORMER EXAM PAPERS

The ecophysiology animals

Aims and objectives

Penalties for late hand-in of the practical report

Students with Special Needs

Edition). Blackwell Publishing.

(4th & 5th edns).

Harper Collins, New York.

The following will be useful for particular parts of the course:

Caroline Nichols lectures: Plant ecophysiology

Maurizio Mencuccinis lectures: Changing abundance and distribution

Some more general books worth reading:

Introduction to the course and to the

3-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

10-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

17-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

Animal Ecophysiology 2. Thermal

Animal Ecophysiology 3. Thermal

Animal Ecophysiology 4. Nutrition and

Animal Ecophysiology 5. Life histories

Plant Ecophysiology 1. An Introduction

GJ and Practical projects

Plant Ecophysiology 3. Photosynthesis

Plant Ecophysiology 4. Plant Acclimation

The Niche Defined

The Niche in Practice

24-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

31-Oct-11 Mon 14:0017.00

7-Nov-11 Mon 14:0017.00

Date not set. Check Ecology notice

The effect of gorse burning on the carbon stock of Blackford Hill

Preparing Practical Project Reports

Project mark sheet

Informative but concise

Verbal Presentation of Practicals

SYNOPSES OF PRACTICAL PROJECTS

What you will learn about

Project 2. Germination and establishment of gorse Ulex europaea on Blackford Hill

What you will learn about

Project 3. Natural Regeneration in Hermitage Wood

What you will learn about

Project 4. The importance of epilithic algae for stream invertebrates

Is algal abundance and growth rate influenced by light levels?

What you will learn about

Project 5. Variation in the abundance of tar spot infection on sycamore leaves

Extent of leaf litter retained beneath tree

What you will learn about

Project 6. Distribution of snails in woodland leaf litter

origin of leaf litter (oak, beech, ash leaves for instance?)

What you will learn about

Project 7. Relationships between bryophyte growth form and habitat

Cushions: erect shoots radiating up to form a compact dome

What you will learn about

Project 8: Distribution and diversity of species in relation to rabbit grazing on

Do rabbits increase or decrease plant species richness on Blackford Hill?

Additional questions can be posed of invertebrate distribution and abundance.

What you will learn about