Professional Documents
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Reasons and
Conclusions
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1."
2."
3."
4."
5."
X" INTRODUCTION
Many a time we face situations where someone tries to convince us of a
viewpoint in the hope that we would accept it. This is often known as "arguing a
case" or "presenting an argument". Sometimes, the reasoning is simple to
understand but at other times it can be rather difficult. Likewise, when we
present a case, at certain times it can be easy for the other person to understand it
and at other times it can be difficult. We will explain the method to identify what
reasoning is being presented when someone is arguing a case and how to present
reasoning in a clear manner ourselves.
There are basic critical thinking skills we must practise if we want to excel at
critical thinking in real circumstances. You cannot assess a case presented in
support of some belief or decision unless you are very clear on what the case is.
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3.1
First of all, it must be realised that we use language for many purposes besides
trying to influence others of a standpoint. We use language for descriptive and
informative purposes, such as to report an event, describe things, tell stories, tell
jokes, make promises and many other things.
While language has an important role in conveying such information for the
purpose of this discourse, however, we are interested in how language is used in
reasoning. Reasoning is the process of making inferences from the information
given.
The following passages are provided to see if you can tell which contain
reasoning and which do not.
Scenario 1
James burst out of Customs, diamonds and expensive watches falling from his
bag as he ran. As he reached the taxi stand, customers were sitting in all of the
waiting taxis. James ran towards the nearest taxi and leaped into it as it was
beginning to move. He pointed a gun at the driver and said, Downtown! The
taxi turned towards the motorway. (Morton, 1988)
The above passage is simply a descriptive passage, and it does not provide
reasons for a conclusion, although we naturally make several inferences as we
read it.
Scenario 2
Many substantial environmental problems cannot be solved by individual or
local action; for example, the pollution caused by automobile exhaust gases is a
world-wide problem, and so such problems can only be addressed by
international action.
Scenario 2 provides reasons for the conclusion that certain problems can only be
addressed by international action.
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Scenario 3
The 19th century English theologian and biologist Gosse (1810 1888) (Figure
3.1) had a problem. He was a devout Christian who accepted the Creation story
as set out in the Bible, but he was also a practising scientist. He was well aware
that the geological and fossil studies by other scientists seemed to show that the
Earth was very old, perhaps millions of years old. How could he resolve this
conflict?
Scenario 3 does not provide reasons for a conclusion. It only describes a possible
solution to a problem but there is no reasoning.
Thus, it is evident that at certain times, we use language to describe some state of
affairs, and at other times, we use it to reason and arrive at a conclusion. There
are also times when we use language to ridicule, insult or offend. Most articles in
newspapers report events but the leading articles and letters to the editor will
often contain reasoning in support of a conclusion. As for novels, they rarely
contain much reasoning. Textbooks, on the other hand, often seek both to pass on
information and to present the authors arguments. Finally, parliamentary
debates many a time contain reasoning as well as verbal abuse.
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3.2
TOPIC 3
EXAMPLES OF REASONING
"That test was unfair. I studied for days, reading the material four times,
underlining important details and then studying them. After doing all
these I should obtain a good grade. That test was unfair."
From this note, it is clear that Peter argues that "the test was unfair" and this is
basically his conclusion. Notice that the conclusion in this example has been
provided at the beginning of a piece of reasoning and it comes again at the end of
the note, perhaps to strongly stress the complaint. You may also think that
Peters conclusion is that the teacher should look again at the test or at Peter's
answers, or that Peter's answers should be regarded favourably by the teacher or
by any other teacher competent in this field. The main allegation is that
something should be done to rectify a mistake, and in this situation, it goes
beyond what is actually said. Thus, you might say that this is his conclusion. At
times, people do not express, or do not completely express, their conclusions.
Peter provided several reasons for his conclusion when he said, "I studied for
days, reading the material four times, underlining important details and then
studying them." These are his reasons for coming up with the conclusion that the
test was unfair.
Among the lessons learned from the above example are:
(a)"
It is rather easy to see which reasons are presented for which conclusions.
All that is needed is an understanding of our normal use of the language.
(b)" You now understand what the words "conclusion" and "reason" mean, in a
simple context as shown above. We use these words in their ordinary,
everyday sense.
(c)"
(d)" The task of judging whether an argument is good or not is rather difficult.
What is really required is an understanding of what is said, what is
assumed and what the context is.
TOPIC 3
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1."
2."
(d)" Is anything assumed (that is, implicit but not actually stated)?
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3.3
LANGUAGE OF REASONING
There are several words and phrases that are normally used characteristically to
indicate that an individual is arguing a case or is presenting reasons for a
conclusion. Among the words or phrases used to show that the claim indicated is
a conclusion for which reasons have been presented are:
x" therefore
x" so
x" hence
x" thus
x" consequently
x" must
x" since
x" firstly
x" for
x" secondly
TOPIC 3
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1."
In the passage below, state which of the words marked in bold are
reason indicators and which are conclusion indicators, and then
state which sentences are reasons and which are conclusions.
Finally, state the reasons you think are presented by the author in
support of the corresponding conclusions.
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3.4
So far, we have seen many different pieces of reasoning and explained how to
best understand and evaluate them. We have been looking at small pieces of
reasoning, pondering how to handle them and paying attention to some of the
common mistakes we commit in responding to reasoning. In the absence of such
assistance, most individuals tend to react by immediately challenging any claim
they disagree with or by presenting their own opinion without reflecting on the
arguments presented and so on.
The key to effective critical thinking is asking the right questions. We now
present a basic model or "thinking map" a tool that can help us evaluate
reasoning as seen in Table 3.1. Basically, the thinking map is a list of key
questions you should ask when analysing an argument be it your own or
someone else's.
Table 3.1: Thinking Map Skillful Analysis and Evaluation of Arguments
Analysis
1.
What are the reasons (data, evidence, etc) and their structure?
3.
What is assumed (that is, implicit or taken for granted, perhaps in the context)?
4.
Clarify the meaning (by the terms, claims or arguments) which needs it.
Evaluation
5.
(b)
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[Aim: Also called critico-creative thinking, which requires us to consider any other
relevant ideas we know or can think up which will help us to arrive at a good
judgment for the case in hand].
6.
What is your overall evaluation based on what you have obtained above?
The first set of questions is based on analysis. You cannot respond reasonably to
an argument without understanding it. Thus, the above given analytical
questions help you to understand what is being stated and argued. This is
followed by the evaluative questions, which will assist you in deciding whether
or not you should be convinced of the argument.
The Thinking Map should be used not only when you are considering other
peoples reasoning but also when you are constructing your own. If you have a
good case, you should be able to organise it so that your readers or listeners will
be able to clearly understand what you are trying to state in terms of how you
carry it out. It helps to use the "language of reasoning" in order to make your
conclusion and reasoning clear and unambiguous.
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SELF-CHECK 3.3
1."
For the following passages, use the thinking map to help you
analyse the argument (noting any important assumptions) and
write a brief evaluative response:
Big art exhibitions, which collect paintings from all over the
world, are bad for the paintings. Whenever they are transported,
there is a danger of accidents and resultant damage or
destruction, and it cannot be good to subject paintings to the
changes of pressure and humidity that even carefully controlled
travel is likely to bring.
The number of crimes committed by people under the age of 17
has almost doubled in the last seven years. The Criminal Justice
Act which becomes law this year should have the effect of
reversing this trend. Children who commit crimes know that the
penalties are minimal. But the new Act will make it possible for
parents to be made liable for fines and compensations, and for
them to be compelled to appear in court alongside offspring
who are under 17. The level of fines will be related to parental
income and wealthy parents may have to pay up to $5,000 for
their childrens crime.
TOPIC 3
3.5
65
ACCEPTABILITY OF REASONS
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TOPIC 3
may be untrue in others. To find out, we need to carry out our research or look
for survey information on this matter to ascertain this statement.
The question that follows is: "Does this reasoning support its conclusion?" If it is
true that "most prospective parents would prefer to have sons," then does it not
follow that if people can choose the sex of their child, it is likely that there will
eventually be more males than females in the population? If people prefer boys
and can get boys, does it not seem very likely that more boys than girls will be
born? It is definitely hard to see anything wrong with that inference of
correlation.
The next reason is, "This could produce serious social problems," and the
question is whether this claim is acceptable or not. It is not very easy to judge this
reason because it actually depends on whether there is a small or big surplus of
boys in society. Following this, the next question is, "Do the preceding claims
support the conclusion that we should prohibit the use of techniques which
enable people to choose the sex of their children?" Well, if allowing these
techniques to be used does produce a surplus of boys, which will in turn produce
serious social problems, maybe we should ban them.
However, there is another question that we should ask: "Are there other relevant
considerations or arguments in regards to this statement?" This is the point when
thinking about an issue requires us to be critical, creative and to think out-of-thebox to arrive at the acceptance of an argument or claim.
Just why is this so important? It generally means, we have analysed the
statement constructively and are now more clear and ready to determine the
validity and credibility in support of a conclusion we can accept, and not only
comprehend.
To summarise the above, once you are reasonably clear about what an author is
saying and what his reasons and conclusions are, you are in a position to
evaluate the reasoning.
ACTIVITY 3.1
State additional and further considerations and/or arguments that are
relevant to the question of banning the use of techniques for selecting the
sex of children."
TOPIC 3
3.6
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TOPIC 3
SELF-CHECK 3.4
From the following passage, discuss the acceptability of the claims.
The huge Norwegian company called Norsk Hydro wants to grow more
fish in the sea by spreading fertilisers over the ocean. The company,
which is the worlds biggest producer of fertilisers, believes that this will
grow more marine algae, which in turn will encourage the expansion of
fish stocks. Marine scientists from Sweden and Canada who reviewed
the plan at the request of the Norwegian Research Council say it is
unlikely to work. They say it ignores basic principles of marine ecology
and could do irreversible damage.
[Adapted from "Norway's fish plan a recipe for disaster," New
Scientist, 13 January 1996]"
3.7
Our beliefs and opinions are shaped by what we read in newspapers, what we
see on television or what we hear from the radio. When deciding whether or not
to believe a person's statement or a piece of information, these sources provide us
with some points of reference.
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In this section, we will go through the criteria required to judge the credibility of
sources of claims. Among the criteria that we should pay close attention to are:
(i)"
x"
Do they have the capacity to observe accurately (includes all other abilities like
hearing, proximity to event, absence of distractions, appropriate machines, and
skill in handling machineries)?
x"
x"
2.
3.
Questions on the jurisdiction the source offers or can offer in support of the claim.
4.
5.
x"
x"
x"
x"
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TOPIC 3
In summary, we can categorise the above mentioned criteria into five sections
which contain questions pertaining to the:
(i)"
SELF-CHECK 3.5
You are listening to a court case in which Jason, who collided with
another car, is accused of driving at twice the speed limit in the city and
with three times the legal limit of alcohol in his blood. Jason denies the
charges but the doctor who attended to him tells the court that Jason
smelled very strongly of alcohol and blood tests showed alcohol in his
blood at three times the legal limit. Who is credible and why?"
ACTIVITY 3.2
Think about several examples of people or "sources" (like the BBC or
TV3) you know and identify the areas in which they have a well-justified
reputation for reliability and areas in which they do not. Discuss with
your coursemates."
3.8
EVALUATING INFERENCES
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Women's brains are on average smaller than men's, therefore women are
less intelligent than men.
Most people, when asked, say that they are unsure of why the brains of women
are smaller than those of men but they are very sure that the conclusion
presented is not true. Although the reason is true, there is no connection between
brain size and intelligence, so the reason does not support the conclusion.
The first response points to the fact that we expect to be able to see some
reasonably established connection between reason and conclusion if one is to
justify the other a link we can perceive and accept in the light of everything else
we believe.
The second says that if the reason is true but there are reasons for thinking the
conclusion could be false, it cannot be a good inference. However, since the
second response has received more support in the history of thinking about
inferences, that is the one we will choose here. Thus, the fundamental idea is that
the reason(s) do not make you accept the conclusion, and if you can think of
other ways in which the reasons can be proven to be true and the conclusion false
concurrently, then the inference is false. The test to apply when judging an
inference is:
Could the reason(s) be true (or otherwise acceptable) and the conclusion
false (or otherwise unacceptable) at the same time?
If the answer to the above question is "No," then the inference, which is the
progress from reasons to conclusion, is a brilliant idea and forces you accept the
conclusion if the reasons are true. On the other hand, if the answer is "Yes," then
the inference fails, or is not justified.
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TOPIC 3
In the example above, we face a situation where the reason is true but the
inference from reason to conclusion is unjustified. In other words, the inference is
unjustified because the reason could be true and the conclusion untrue at the
same time. Thus, it is clear that the attempt to decide whether an inference is
justified is very different from the tests you should apply when trying to decide
whether reasons are accepted.
If you have memorised the key points of this book, you will do well in the
critical thinking examination, and you have memorised them so you will
do well in the exam.
In the above example, the reasons are true, thus, the conclusion must also be true,
and this makes it a good inference. However, the reason which says that you
only have to memorise the facts in order to do well in the examination is
definitely false. Thus, this argument fails to justify its conclusion not because it
makes a poor inference, but due to the fact that at least one of the reasons on
which it is based is not true.
In summary, for an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion it must meet
two important conditions:
(i)"
(ii)" The inferences which are then drawn from those reasons must be good
ones.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
Apply the test we have just explained to decide whether the inferences
you identified in the passages given below are justified.
(a)"
*d+" If the world's climate is getting warmer, we would find that some
of the ice at both the North and South Pole would melt at an
unusually high rate. If the ice is melting, we would see its effect in
raising the level of the sea. There is evidence that this level is
increasing, so the world's climate must be getting warmer."
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SELF-CHECK 3.7
1."
(b)" The butler was in the pantry. In that case, he could not have
shot the master, who was in the study. So, the butler could
not have done it.
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" What is the overall evaluation when the analysis of an argument is being
carried out.
x" In the evaluation of acceptability of reasons, the important questions that
need to be asked include:
" Whether the reasons are acceptable or not;
" Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s);
" Are there other relevant considerations/arguments; and
" What is the overall evaluation.
x" The six steps involved in judging acceptability of a claim skillfully are:
" How certain is the claim;
" Does the context of the claim influence its acceptability;
" Does the claim require the decision of an expert;
" Is the claim widely known or believed;
" How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs; and
" Is the claim made by a credible source.
x" In judging the credibility of a source skillfully, the main criteria that require
close attention include the sources reputation for reliability:
" Whether the source has a vested interest;
" Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from
independent sources;
" Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
" The nature of the claim itself; and
" Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make.
x" When we argue on a certain case, conclusions are inferred from the reasons.
x" For an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion its reasons must be
true or otherwise acceptable and the inferences which are then drawn from
those reasons must be good ones.
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TOPIC 3
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Acceptability of claim
Inferences
Acceptability of reasons
Reasoning
Credibility of sources
Thinking map
Deductive validity
1."
If the world's climate was getting warmer, we would find that some of the
ice at both the North and South Pole would be melting at an unusually high
rate. If the ice was melting, we would see its effect in the raising of the level
of the sea. There is evidence that this level is increasing, so the world's
climate must be getting warmer. Do you think that this argument contains
an implicit assumption?
2."
If the building burned to the ground, there will be only a pile of ashes
and rubble. There is now only a pile of ashes and rubble here.
Therefore, the building has been burned to the ground.
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (2005). Critical thinking. (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Vaughn, L. (2004). The power of critical thinking: Effective reasoning about
ordinary and extraordinary claims. USA: Oxford University Press.
Wright L. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction to analytical reading and
reasoning. New York: Oxford University Press.