Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Voluntary Self-Disclosure
of Information on the
Internet: A Multimethod
Study of the Motivations
and Consequences of
Disclosing Information
on Blogs
Doo-Hee Lee
Korea University
Seunghee Im
Jeonju University
Charles R. Taylor
Villanova University
ABSTRACT
As marketing paradigms have shifted toward the need to build a
relationship with consumers, marketers need to facilitate two-way
communications in order to better understand them. The ability of
marketers to glean the types of detailed information needed often
depends on the consumers willingness to volunteer such information. Given consumer concern about privacy as well as skepticism
about how marketers use data, it is important to understand how
consumers make decisions with regard to self-disclosure of information. In spite of the widespread concern about privacy, many consumers are willing to engage in significant disclosure of various
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INTRODUCTION
The importance of consumer information has been increasingly emphasized in
a marketing context as the marketing paradigm has changed. As transactional
marketing has been deemphasized in favor of relationship building and more customized approaches, scholars have proposed broader conceptualizations of effective marketing communications (Fournier, 1998; Peppers & Rogers, 1993).
Improving technology is making it not only possible but also economically advantageous for companies to collect consumer information using a combination of
tools including databases and information gleaned from tracking purchasing
behavior. These data have some limitations as they can show consumers behavior in individual transactions and purchase decisions, but typically cannot
provide detailed information on a consumers psychological and sociological
characteristics. As a result, in the context of relationship marketing, marketers
need to request that consumers engage in some type of self-disclosure.
In recent years, there have been numerous studies applying self-disclosure
theories developed in the psychology literature (Andrade, Kaltcheva, & Weitz,
2002; Jacobs, Hyman, & McQuitty, 2001; Moon, 2000, 2003; White, 1999). A
common feature of this research is the basic assumption that consumers are
reluctant to disclose personal information about themselves because of privacy
issues (Kelly & McKillop, 1996). Because of these tendencies, consumers tend
to disclose or not disclose personal information demanded by the company
based on their assessment of the costs and benefits associated with providing
such information.
It is ironic that in an environment where there is considerable concern about
consumer privacy, we can simultaneously observe a phenomenon in which growing numbers of consumers have created personal Web space in order to disclose
private information voluntarily. Today, voluntary self-disclosures can be seen
very easily on individuals Web logs (blogs). Conceptually, a blog is a private
space designed to communicate about aspects of ones life or thoughts freely on
the Internet. Some consumers freely disclose intimate information about themselves, without any demand, on their own blog. For example, many consumers
post information about their lives through their blogs even if traditionally it is
considered private subject matter. Topics of blog postings vary, ranging from
daily schedules to profiles pertaining to personal interests to the expression of
thoughts and emotions. In this sense, blogs resemble online diaries because
they offer the unfiltered musings of the individual. Yet, unlike a pen-and-paper
diary, a blog is essentially open to view by anyone with an Internet connection.
VOLUNTARY SELF-DISCLOSURE OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
693
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Voluntary blog postings are interesting from a research standpoint in that this
type of self-disclosure is different from the types of self-disclosure explored in
previous research. This voluntary self-disclosure runs counter to the basic premise that consumers are reluctant to give out personal information. This implies
that there is a domain that cannot be explained by theories developed in previous
research, and that it is necessary to apply new theory or build on existing
theory in the area of self-disclosure.
To date, relatively few studies have investigated the psychological and behavioral dynamics associated with voluntary self-disclosure on the Internet. There
have been a few studies of personal Web space that have yielded insights into
self-disclosure motivation and practices. However, self-disclosure per se has
generally not been the focus of these studies in that they have primarily dealt
with self-presentation issues (Dominick, 1999; Papacharissi, 2002; Schau &
Gilly, 2003).
The purpose of this research is to explore some of the factors that make
consumers more likely to engage in self-disclosure as well as to better understand
concerns bloggers have about voluntary self-disclosure. The specific research
questions investigated are: (1) Why do consumers disclose personal information voluntarily in the context of blogging? (2) How do consumers feel after voluntary self-disclosure? and (3) What is the relationship between psychological
factors and behavior related to voluntary self-disclosure?
We used a multimethod approach in the study in order to achieve the research
objectives. The methodology began with qualitative study, the results of which
were used to develop hypotheses. The hypotheses are then tested in a quantitative study that is analyzed using a structural equations model.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Self-Disclosure and Relationship Development
Self-disclosure has received considerable attention from consumer psychologists and is defined as any personal information that a person communicates to
another (Derlega et al., 1993). In general, self-disclosure research has shown
that people are reluctant to divulge information about themselves (Cialdini,
1993; Kelly & McKillop, 1996; Lane & Wegner, 1995). The one notable exception
to this rule involves the norm of reciprocity. In self-disclosure research, the norm
of reciprocity refers to the tendency for recipients to match the level of intimacy
in the disclosure they return with the level of intimacy in the disclosure they
receive. There is substantial evidence that people will engage in self-disclosure
if they first become the recipients of such disclosures from their conversational
partners (Hill & Stull, 1982; Moon, 2000; Shaffer & Tomarelli, 1989).
The norm of reciprocity has been traditionally explained by equity theory.
This theory argues that people have a tendency to maintain equity of exchange
to equalize both inputs and outputs. In the context of self-disclosure, the information disclosed by a conversation partner is an input and ones own information disclosure is an output. Thus, disclosure seems to beget disclosure, so that
people who receive disclosures feel obligated to respond with a personal disclosure of equal intimacy because of the desire to maintain equity (Berg & Derlega,
1987). A few researchers have suggested that consumers interact with the source
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of electronic communications in the same way they interact with other people,
and showed that the norm of reciprocity is powerful enough to be applied to
nonpersonal as well as interpersonal interactions (Andrade, Kaltcheva, & Weitz,
2002; Moon, 2000).
However, disclosure does not always beget reciprocal disclosure. Rather, there
appear to be fairly strict social norms (Altman & Taylor, 1973; Caltabiano &
Smithson, 1983) governing the extent to which it is appropriate to reveal information in a given context. One of the most well-established of these norms is the
sequence norm. Disclosure is much more likely to occur if requests for such disclosures gradually escalate, so that relationship proceeds from casual exchanges
to increasingly intimate ones over time (Altman & Taylor, 1973; Berg & Clark,
1986; Collins & Miller, 1994).
Thus, self-disclosure plays a vital role in relationship development and maintenance, and self-disclosure and relationship development are mutually transformative (Derlega et al., 1993). Self-disclosure transforms the nature of the
relationship and the relationship transforms the meaning and consequences of
self-disclosure. That is, self-disclosure is viewed as a major factor in the development, maintenance, and deterioration of a relationship. According to uncertainty reduction theory (Berger & Bradac, 1982), through self-disclosure we
obtain predictive and explanatory knowledge about another. This acquisition
of information facilitates relationship development. There is a strong relationship between perceived risk of online activities and security of interaction, and
subsequent purchase intention. It is important for e-tailers to make online environments less risky, to translate to higher consumer confidence. If people feel
confident about judgments in shopping online, purchase intent may increase
(Park, Lennon, & Stoel, 2005).
Voluntary Self-Disclosure
While studies on self-disclosure have allowed us to learn a considerable amount
about consumer practices, there appear to be inconsistencies between theories
of self-disclosure and the practices of many people who share information on the
World Wide Web. First, self-disclosure research has found that people are sometimes reluctant to disclose personal information. Reciprocity, however, can make
consumers more involved in self-disclosure. Thus, theoretically, in order to trigger the reciprocity principle, a company would first have to reveal some information about itself to the consumer. However, many consumers are disclosing
a variety of information types voluntarily on their personal Web space without
explicit reciprocity (Joinson, 2001; Stern, 2002; Tidwell & Walther, 2002).
Second, self-disclosure depends on the perception that the information is safe
when divulged to others, based on the results of the previous research. From this
point of view, it is useful to think of a dyadic boundary involved in self-disclosure
(Derlega & Chaikin, 1977). The dyadic boundary is perceived by the individual
as the boundary within which it is safe to disclose to the invited recipient and
across which the self-disclosure will not pass; that is, the discloser believes that
the disclosure is safe with the recipient. For instance, the expectation of confidentiality is an example of a closed dyadic boundary where we expect that personal information we reveal to a friend will not be passed along to mutual
acquaintances. If the dyadic boundary is perceived as open, we will expect that
a friend will share with others the information that was supposedly divulged in
VOLUNTARY SELF-DISCLOSURE OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
695
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QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY
Sample and Procedure
A qualitative methodology was selected for the initial portion of this research
because this methodology is effective for exploratory study in areas where that
is not yet a well-established theoretical framework (Glaser & Strauss, 1970).
In-depth interviews were conducted to help better understand the psychological factors associated with self-disclosure in personal Web space.
Two blog companies in Korea were used to generate a sample of voluntary selfdisclosures on blogs. Blogging has been very popular in Korea. The results of a
recent survey indicate that 39.6% of Korean Internet users own personal blogs
(DIDA, 2006). A random sample of blogs from the two companies and researcher
judgment filters resulted in a set of 100 blogs that were owned by potential
informants. Commercial blogs were not chosen. In order to provide verification
of what was being said in the interviews, the researchers also examined the
content of both verbal and nonverbal elements of the blog, including audio,
images, icons, hyperlinks, pictures, animations, avatars, and colors.
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others are consistent with the self-concepts that individuals privately hold of
themselves, or perhaps slightly exaggerated in favorable directions (Leary &
Kowalski, 1990). Similarly, the selves that voluntary self-disclosure presents
can be consistent with the self in reality, and it can be exaggerated.
An interesting point that emerged from the interviews is that the self presented in a blog context can often be totally different from the actual self. As
stated by one informant, I feel there are some differences in self between reality and my personal Web space. On my personal Web space, I can do almost
everything that I didnt realize offline (Informant #5, male, age 19, college student). This exemplifies responses to the effect that to the discloser, the kind of
person they are on the Web space can be more important to them than the kind
of person they are in reality.
The interviews also revealed that self-presentation often revolves around
repressing personal information and supplanting it with modified or fabricated
details for a more congruent desired self. An examination of the Web sites also
revealed that consumers actively use alternative symbols such as avatars and
characters to represent their ideal images. Therefore, we can conclude that consumers disclose themselves for self-expression and to transform their experiences
to make a new identity on their personal Web space.
Based on the results of the qualitative interviews, we find that selfpresentation is an important motivation for self-disclosure. Thus, our first
hypothesis is suggested:
H1a:
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Our findings suggest that the formation of this motivation is often closely
related to a significant change in personal and professional status such as a
move, graduation, promotion, marriage, and parenthood. An examination of the
blogs revealed that informing others of a significant life change is a common
occurrence on blogs. Results of the in-depth interviews support these findings.
The following quotes from informants illustrate this:
Actually, I disclose my life to send regards to my family and friends. Last
year, particularly, I had been abroad. Showing my life over the blog was a good
way to give my regards (Informant #6, male, age 45, vice-president of an advertising agency).
Going out with my girlfriend was the impetus to create my personal Web
space. Well, it is easier to tell what I have in mind over the blog (Informant #1,
male, age 32, engineer).
I became interested in blogging after giving birth. I am working for a living,
so I usually dont have enough time to visit my husbands parents house,
although his grandfather and grandmother really want to see our baby. So I
disclose my babys pictures and my feelings from child care to show my family
(Informant #10, female, age 37, banker).
The results of Schau and Gilly (2003) also support this interpretation
by pointing out that triggering events such as a significant change in personal
or professional status can be the initial motivation for a personal Web site. Thus:
H1b:
Keeping Up with Trends. Another emergent theme from our analysis is that
keeping up with trends is sometimes a motive for blogging, which can in turn
lead to disclosing personal information. Comments from the informants on this
issue include:
People who dont have a blog seem to be dodos (Informant #5, male, age 19,
college student).
These days, asking about a blog address is common, like asking for a telephone number. A few years ago, I didnt have my own blog. During that time,
when someone used to ask my blog address, Id say I didnt have one and theyd
seem to think of me as unusual. But, as time went on, my close friends persuaded me to have a blog. Thats the reason why I started my blog (Informant
#2, female, age 24, graduate school student).
These quotes illustrate that a fear that one is out-of-date or behind the times
if they do not have a blog can prompt a person to start a blog. The voluntary selfdisclosure stemming from this motivation makes the discloser feel that they have
something in common with other people. Based on this finding, we predict:
H1c:
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The reason why I disclose my life on my blog is just for storing the time I pass
(Informant #4, female, age 31, lecturer).
I use my blog as if I were keeping a diary, and post pictures and writings about
my daily life. Its similar to a picture diary that I kept when I was in elementary school (Informant #9, female, age 23, office worker).
The formation of this motivation is closely associated with information technology development, which enables the storage of quite a lot of data and uses
diverse multimedia methods for recording daily life events over the Internet.
Another result from the qualitative findings is that the information revealed as
a result of the information-storage motivation is in fact personal and in-depth
because personal Web space serves the role of a diary. Thus:
H1d:
Entertainment. The informants also revealed that self-disclosure can sometimes bring personal pleasure. Consumers with this motivation enjoy voluntary self-disclosure, and think of voluntary self-disclosure as an enjoyable play
instrument:
I just enjoy posting my pictures and writing (Informant #2, female, age 24,
graduate school student).
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I make my avatar in my blog reflect my emotion for the specific day. That is,
the avatar is my other self. For example, when Im happy, I clothe my avatar with
bright colors, but when I feel sad, my avatar wears dark colors and has a crying face. Changing my avatars facial expressions and clothing is like playing with
my dolls when I was a child (Informant #9, female, age 23, office worker).
The personal space on the Internet has many tools to use for disclosure such
as pictures, images, music, animation, and so on. Disclosing selves using these
tools apparently provides enjoyment to some consumers. Thus:
H1f:
Showing Off. A final theme that emerged from the interviews is that some
bloggers self-disclose out of a need to display ones own popularity, ability, and
so on, as exemplified by the following statements:
These days, there is a trend that the number of visitors on a specific blog site
is an index of how popular the blogger is. To be frank with you, I used to post
many times to get more visitors. I felt that I became a famous man as the number of visitors increased, and I posted more eagerly to show this to other people (Informant #5, male, age 19, college student).
A few months ago, I had a blind date. My date asked me for my blog address
before meeting me. He wanted to know about me through contents disclosed on
my blog. When I heard about this, I was somewhat surprised. But the people said
that asking for my blog address before meeting was very common. So, I concluded that I should my blog more actively to show that I am pretty popular to
my partner or future boyfriend (Informant #9, female, age 23, office worker).
I was interested in taking a picture. So, I learned to take a picture and how
to use Photoshop last vacation. After that, when I posted pictures by myself,
I was really proud of my ability. Moreover, the compliments of the people who
saw my pictures made me happy (Informant #4, female, age 31, lecturer).
Our results further suggest that there are some consumers who are motivated by showing off and becoming famous in Web space by using their blog for
commercial purposes.
There are famous blog stars. Some of them get added value with their popularity. Ive heard about a woman who posted her clothes, shoes, and accessories
in her personal Web space and became famous for her fashionable style. She got
to open an Internet fashion shopping mall when people increasingly inquired
about her fashion. Now, average monthly sales of her Internet shopping mall are
more than $100,000. Of course, I know it can be a really hard thing, but I have
a plan to make money by publishing my blogs contents. Im selling myself; I think
that [the] blog is the best space to sell myself (Informant #3, female, age 28,
secretary).
H1g:
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One positive consequence perceived by those interviewed is that voluntary selfdisclosure helped them to be more effective in relationship management.
As a result of disclosing stories that are hard to talk about face to face with
my girlfriend, I feel our love and understanding of each other has deepened
(Informant #1, male, age 32, engineer).
It seems that people who have common interests can meet and share on the
Internet very easily. Actually, after disclosing my child care, many people who
have interests in child care visit my blog and see my postings. Some of them
became my friends, and I keep in touch with them both online and offline (Informant #7, female, age 35, housewife).
This is consistent with prior studies that suggest that self-disclosure is essential for relationship development (Derlega et al., 1993). However, we did find
some unique issues that pertain to the context of the Internet. While most
previous studies have focused on the dyadic relationship between discloser
and recipient, our focus was on a relationship in which there is one discloser and
multiple recipients. Moreover, the meaning of the creation of relationship was
included in this research context, while previous research focused on maintaining and strengthening relationships. Our general finding that the respondents believe that their blogs help them to create and effectively maintain
relationships suggests that our findings expand the previous theory in this area.
Another consequence of voluntary self-disclosure identified from the qualitative interviews is related to psychological well-being. Most respondents reported
that self-disclosure resulted in positive feelings or helped them to relieve stress,
as exemplified by the following comment:
After disclosing a stressful event on my blog, I feel like I got rid of a lot of
stress (Informant #10, female, age 37, banker).
When Im in [a] depressed mood, as I decorate my avatar and write down my
feeling, it seems that my feeling is getting better unknowingly (Informant #9,
female, age 23, office worker).
This finding is consistent with results related to the consequences of selfdisclosure. Previous research suggests that talking with someone helps people
who are faced with upsetting life events. Our finding appears to reinforce the
theory of inhibition, which argues that the inhibition of ones thoughts and
feelings represented by nondisclosure is stressful and is expected to harm ones
physical and psychological health (Pennebaker, 1989; Pennebaker & Hoover,
1985).
A final theme that emerged with regard to consequences is that consumers may
develop a habit of self-disclosing on their blogs that is both time-consuming and
difficult for them to stop engaging in. This was generally viewed as a negative
consequence of disclosure as indicated by the following quotes:
I feel a sense of duty in posting. In addition, a lot of money is needed to buy
various items such as skins, music, and avatars to represent me on my personal
space. I always swear this is the last time Ill buy these items, but I cant keep
my word (Informant #5, male, age 19, college student).
As soon as I wake up, I turn on the computer and access my blog. Even when
I am doing other things, my blog is always opened in the computer. Before sleeping, I check my blog. So, I think my everyday life is hampered by blogging, but
I feel nervous when I dont see my blog. I cant control my blogging. This may
be a reason why blogging can be considered as disabling a persons development (Informant #3, female, age 28, secretary).
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I took a picture of my daily life, thinking of posting it on my blog. My everyday seems to exist for my blog (Informant #4, female, age 31, lecturer).
This means that voluntary behavior is transformed into the involuntary
behavior that consumers feel they cant control by themselves. Based on these
findings, we predict that voluntary self-disclosure results in these consequences:
H2a:
H2b:
H2c:
QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGY
Figure 1 depicts the voluntary self-disclosure model that arose from our qualitative analysis, consisting of the relationship among motivations, voluntary selfdisclosure, and consequences. In order to test this model and triangulate the
data, we conducted a quantitative study to test the model.
x1
x2
x3
Selfpresentation
x4
x5
x6
Relationship
management
x7
y1
x8
x9
x10
Relationship
management
Keeping up
with trends
s1
x11
s1
x14
y5
Information
sharing
Voluntary
self-disclosure
Psychological
well-being
x15
x16
x17
y3
y4
x12
x13
y2
y6
y7
y8
Information
storage
Habitual
behavior
y9
y10
x18
x19
Entertainment
x20
x21
x22
Showing off
x23
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Measurement
The scales that were used were derived from our qualitative data in conjunction
with previous literature. All items were measured with a 7-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree.
The degree of self-disclosure has typically been measured in terms of both
depth and breadth in previous studies. Depth refers to the quality of the information disclosed, whereas breadth refers to the quantity of the information
disclosed (Altman & Taylor, 1973; Collins & Miller, 1994). We measured the
degree of voluntary self-disclosure based on two items used in previous studies
(Laurenceau & Barret 1998).
The motivations of voluntary self-disclosure were measured along the 7 dimensions with 23 items. The consequences of voluntary self-disclosure were measured along 3 dimensions with 10 items. All of the items related to motivation and
consequences are described in Appendix A.
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In terms of the validity, our measurement shows face validity based on having been identified in the qualitative study. The survey items were further tested
via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) that examined whether each of the
hypothesized dimensions had good measurement properties and was distinct
from the other dimensions. We used AMOS 5.0 to perform a CFA.
In the case of the motivation measures, an acceptable fit was achieved ( 2
233.18, p .04; GFI .93; AGFI .90; CFI .99). The CFA provided evidence
of convergent validity in that factor loadings of all items were significant. And
we tested the discriminant validity by examining whether the correlation of all
pairs of constructs is 1 at the 95% significance level (95% 2 standard error)
using the approach suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Using this procedure, we found the evidence of discriminant validity.
The results of CFA on the consequences of voluntary self-disclosure also
showed that the model fit was acceptable ( 2 75.01, p .00; GFI .95; AGFI
.91; CFI .96). Moreover, we found evidence of convergent and discriminate
validity by the same procedure used in the motivation validity check.
We tested the hypotheses using our structural equation model (SEM). This
model fits the data reasonably well ( 2 470.44, p .56. GFI .91; AGFI
.88; CFI .99). In Table 1, we list the beta coefficients and t-values. With respect
to hypotheses on the motivations, the findings reported in Table 1 show that
the hypotheses H1a to H1g were all supported. From these results, this research
suggests that self-presentation, relationship management, keeping up with
trends, information sharing, information storage, entertainment, and showing
off are the significant motivations for voluntary self-disclosure.
In terms of consequences, we also find that voluntary self-disclosure has a significant influence on relationship management, psychological well-being, and
habitual self-disclosure behavior from the results of Table 1. These results confirm that hypotheses H2a to H2b are all supported.
Not only do the results of this quantitative analysis give evidence for
supporting hypotheses regarding the motivations and consequences of voluntary
self-disclosure, but they also validate the interpretation of qualitative analysis.
Table 1. Results of the Hypothesis Testing.
Motivation S SD
Coefficient
(t-value)
Self-presentation S SD
Relationship management S SD
Keeping up with trends S SD
Information sharing S SD
Information storage S SD
Entertainment S SD
Showing off S SD
.254 (4.092)**
.182 (2.411)**
.205 (4.023)***
.091 (2.042)*
.199 (2.011)*
.122 (1.823)*
.199 (3.693)***
SD S Consequence
SD S Relationship management
SD S Psychological well-being
SD S Habitual behavior
*
Coefficient
(t-value)
.586 (7.846)***
.589 (7.206)***
.567 (6.528)***
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VOLUNTARY SELF-DISCLOSURE OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET
Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
707
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Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Doo-Hee Lee, College of Business Administration, Korea University, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul, 136-701 Korea
(dooheelee@korea.ac.kr).
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APPENDIX A
Relationship Management
I disclose to keep a close relationship with others.
Disclosures on my blog serve as a meeting place for me and others.
I disclose to let people know my current affairs.
I disclose to communicate with friends
Information Sharing
I disclose to share my information and knowledge.
I disclose to share my experience.
I disclose to share information about a certain issue.
Information Storage
I disclose to keep a personal record.
I disclose to save memorable information.
I disclose to save personal thoughts and pictures.
Entertainment
I disclose because I enjoy it.
I disclose because it is fun.
I disclose as a source of an entertainment.
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Showing Off
I disclose to show that I am popular.
I disclose to show off my ability.
I disclose to show off by commercializing and publicizing my activities.
Psychological Well-Being
Disclosing helps me get rid of my stress.
I feel psychological stability after disclosing.
I feel psychological freedom after disclosing.
Habitual Behavior
I feel that I must self-disclose on my blog.
I feel uneasiness when I am not disclosing information on my blog.
I feel that I cannot control my disclosing behavior.
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