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Debt and global health

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Key Facts: Poverty and Poor Health
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Health Poverty Action > Policy & Resources > The Cycle of Poverty and Poor Health > Key Facts: Poverty and Poor Health

Key Facts: Poverty and Poor Health

What links poverty and poor health?
Poverty and poor health worldwide are inextricably linked. The causes of poor health for millions globally are rooted in
political, social and economic injustices. Poverty is both a cause and a consequence of poor health. Poverty increases the
chances of poor health. Poor health in turn traps communities in poverty. Infectious and neglected tropical diseases kill and
weaken millions of the poorest and most vulnerable people each year.

What other links are there between poverty and poor health?

The economic and political structures which sustain poverty and discrimination need to be transformed in order for
poverty and poor health to be tackled.
Marginalised groups and vulnerable individuals are often worst affected, deprived of the information, money or
access to health services that would help them prevent and treat disease.
Very poor and vulnerable people may have to make harsh choices knowingly putting their health at risk because
they cannot see their children go hungry, for example.
The cultural and social barriers faced by marginalised groups including indigenous communities can mean they
use health services less, with serious consequences for their health. This perpetuates their disproportionate levels of
poverty.
The cost of doctors fees, a course of drugs and transport to reach a health centre can be devastating, both for an
individual and their relatives who need to care for them or help them reach and pay for treatment. In the worst cases,
the burden of illness may mean that families sell their property, take children out of school to earn a living or even
start begging.
The burden of caring is often taken on by a female relative, who may have to give up her education as a result, or take
on waged work to help meet the households costs. Missing out on education has long-term implications for a
womans opportunities later in life and for her own health.
Overcrowded and poor living conditions can contribute to the spread of airborne diseases such as tuberculosis and
respiratory infections such as pneumonia. Reliance on open fires or traditional stoves can lead to deadly indoor air
pollution. A lack of food, clean water and sanitation can also be fatal.

Which infectious diseases are the main killers worldwide?

HIV, diarrhoea, tuberculosis and malaria, as well as communicable respiratory diseases such as pneumonia kill the most
people. Diarrhoea, pneumonia and malaria account for nearly half of all child deaths globally.
Neglected tropical diseases affect over one billion people, almost all in the poorest and most marginalised communities. You
may not have heard of diseases such as leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted
helminths and trachoma, but they can cause severe pain and life-long disabilities and mean enormous productivity losses.
However, efforts to tackle them have usually taken a back seat to the bigger killers.

Which are the most deadly non-communicable illnesses worldwide?

The biggest non-communicable killers are maternal and newborn deaths and deaths related to poor nutrition, cardiovascular
disease and non-communicable respiratory diseases.

How do disease and infection affect economic growth?

Lives lost mean reduced economic productivity as well as personal tragedy. Productivity is further slowed while
people are ill or caring for others. There were 1.7 HIV-related deaths in 2007 and 990 thousand deaths from
tuberculosis. Most of these were among young people and adults in their most productive years.
In heavily affected countries billions of dollars of economic activity are lost each year as a result of illness and death
from HIV, TB and malaria. This can seriously reduce economic growth in countries that are already struggling.
Malaria reduces economic growth by 1.3% in heavily affected countries, and costs around $12 billion in lost GDP
across Africa. TB costs around 7% of GDP in the worst affected countries.

How has the global community responded?

World leaders and international organisations have slowly woken up to the impact of the most prevalent infectious diseases.
The World Health Organisation has declared TB, HIV and malaria global emergencies. Reducing the spread and treating
HIV, TB, malaria, and other diseases is also one of the Millennium Development Goals.
However, as well as tackling specific diseases, it is crucial that leaders also address the underlying causes. It is widely
accepted that the key reason for the increase in life expectancy in wealthy countries in the late 19th and early 20th century
was less to do with the leaps forward in medical science, and more to do with the arrival of better nutrition, clean water and
sanitation.
Reducing poverty, improving nutrition and making sure people have access to safe water and sanitation, as well as
strengthening national health systems, is of the utmost importance. Otherwise tackling one particular threat simply leaves
people open to another deadly disease soon afterwards.
Tackling the structural causes of poverty and poor health, for example calling for measures to tackle inequality and injustices
such as corporate tax evasion, are central to what is needed from the global community.

What is Health Poverty Action doing to help?

We are working to reduce the high malaria levels along the Burma/China border by increasing local communities
access to prevention and treatment.
In Preah Vihear province in Cambodia we are getting rural poor people suffering from TB diagnosed and treated
which is cutting the number of deaths.
Health Poverty Action is helping stop the spread of HIV and caring for those living with the virus, among 45,000
marginalised pastoralist people in two remote districts of South Omo, Ethiopia.
Health Poverty Action is tackling widespread malnutrition amongst resettled hill tribes in a remote part of Laos.
In our policy and campaigns work we highlight the importance of tacking the structural causes of poverty and poor
health, for example calling for measures to tackle inequality in the new post-2015 development framework.

Learn more about:

The determinants of health

Health systems
Health funding

Dietary elements (commonly known as dietary minerals or mineral nutrients) are the
chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. The term "dietary
mineral" is archaic, as the substances it refers to are chemical elements rather than actual
minerals.
Chemical elements in order of abundance in the human body include the seven major dietary
elements calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium.
Important "trace" or minor dietary elements, necessary for mammalian life, include iron,
cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, bromine, and selenium (see below for
detailed discussion).
Over twenty dietary elements are necessary for mammals, and several more for various other
types of life. The total number of chemical elements that are absolutely needed is not known
for any organism. Ultratrace amounts of some elements (e.g., boron, chromium) are known to
clearly have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others (e.g. arsenic,
silicon) are suspected to have a role in health, but without proof.
Most chemical element that enter into the dietary physiology of organisms are in the form of
simple compounds. Larger chemical compound of elements need to be broken down for
absorption. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently picked up by
the herbivores that eat them and so on, the elements move up the food chain. Larger
organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) and visit salt licks to obtain limiting dietary
elements they are unable to acquire through other components of their diet.
Bacteria play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the
release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of others in the ecological
food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been
processed into complicated molecules (e.g., vitamin B12), by bacteria. Scientists are only
recently starting to appreciate the magnitude and role that microorganisms have in the global
cycling and formation of biominerals.

Contents

1 Essential chemical elements for mammals

2 Blood concentrations of dietary elements
3 Dietary nutrition
4 Other elements
5 Mineral ecology
6 Bioavailability
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Essential chemical elements for mammals

Main article: Composition of the human body

Some sources state that sixteen chemical elements are required to support human
biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes:[1]
However, as many as 26 elements in total (including the common hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen
and oxygen) are suggested to be used by mammals, as a result of studies of biochemical,
special uptake, and metabolic handling studies.[2] However, many of these additional
elements have no well-defined biochemical function known at present. Most of the known
and suggested dietary elements are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably
common on land, or at least, common in the ocean (iodine, sodium):
Periodic table highlighting dietary elements
H
Li Be
Na Mg
K Ca
Sc Ti V Cr Mn
Rb Sr
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc
Cs Ba * Lu Hf Ta W Re
Fr Ra ** Lr Rf Db Sg Bh

Fe
Ru
Os
Hs

Co
Rh
Ir
Mt

Ni
Pd
Pt
Ds

Cu
Ag
Au
Rg

B C N
Al Si P
Zn Ga Ge As
Cd In Sn Sb
Hg Tl Pb Bi
Cn Uut Fl Uup

O
S
Se
Te
Po
Lv

He
F Ne
Cl Ar
Br Kr
I Xe
At Rn
Uus Uuo

* La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
** Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
The four organic basic Quantity
Essential trace
Possible structural or functional
elements
elements
elements
role in mammals
The following play important roles in biological processes:
High
nutrient
Dietary RDA/A Descripti
Category
density Insufficiency
Excess
element I (mg)
on
dietary
sources
Legumes,
potato
skin,
tomatoes,
bananas,
A systemic
papayas,
electrolyte and lentils, dry
4700 m
is essential in beans,
Potassium
Quantity
hypokalemia
hyperkalemia
g
coregulating whole
ATP with
grains,
sodium.
avocados,
yams,
soybeans,
spinach,
chard,
sweet

Dietary RDA/A Descripti

element I (mg)
on

Category

High
nutrient
density Insufficiency
dietary
sources
potato,
turmeric.[3]

Excess

[4]

Chlorine

2300 m
Quantity
g

Sodium

1500 m
Quantity
g

Calcium

1300 m
Quantity
g

Needed for
production of
hydrochloric
acid in the
stomach and in
cellular pump
functions.

Table salt
(sodium
chloride)
hypochloremia hyperchloremia
is the main
dietary
source.

Table salt
(sodium
A systemic
chloride,
electrolyte and
the main
is essential in
source),
hyponatremia hypernatremia
coregulating
sea
ATP with
vegetables,
potassium.
milk, and
spinach.
Dairy
products,
eggs,
canned
fish with
Needed for
bones
muscle, heart
(salmon,
and digestive
sardines),
system health,
green leafy
builds bone,
hypocalcaemia hypercalcaemia
vegetables,
supports
nuts,
synthesis and
seeds,
function of
tofu,
blood cells.
thyme,
oregano,
dill,
cinnamon.[
3]

Phosphoru
700 mg Quantity
s

A component
of bones (see
apatite), cells,
in energy
processing, in
DNA and ATP
(as phosphate)

Red meat,
dairy
foods,
hypophosphate hyperphosphate
fish,
mia
mia
poultry,
bread, rice,
oats.[5][6]

High
nutrient
Dietary RDA/A Descripti
Category
density Insufficiency
element I (mg)
on
dietary
sources
and many other In
functions.
biological
contexts,
usually
seen as
phosphate.

Excess

[7]

Magnesiu
420 mg Quantity
m

Required for
processing
ATP and for
bones.

Zinc

11 mg Trace

Pervasive and
required for
several
enzymes such
as
carboxypeptida
se, liver
alcohol
dehydrogenase
, and carbonic
anhydrase.

18 mg Trace

Required for
many proteins
and enzymes,
notably
hemoglobin to
prevent
anemia.

Iron

Raw nuts,
soybeans,
cocoa
mass,
spinach,
hypomagnesem
chard, sea
ia,
vegetables,
magnesium
tomatoes,
deficiency
halibut,
beans,
ginger,
cumin,
cloves.[8]
Calf liver,
eggs, dry
beans,
mushroom
s, spinach,
asparagus,
scallops,
zinc deficiency
red meat,
green
peas,
yogurt,
oats,
seeds,
miso.[3][9]
Red meat,
fish (tuna,
salmon),
grains, dry
beans,
anemia
eggs,
spinach,
chard,
turmeric,
cumin,

hypermagnesem
ia

zinc toxicity

iron overload
disorder

Dietary RDA/A Descripti

element I (mg)
on

Manganese 2.3 mg Trace

Category

A cofactor in
enzyme
functions.

High
nutrient
density Insufficiency
Excess
dietary
sources
parsley,
lentils,
tofu,
asparagus,
leafy green
vegetables,
soybeans,
shrimp,
beans,
tomatoes,
olives, and
dried
fruit.[3][10]
Spelt
grain,
brown
rice,
beans,
spinach,
pineapple,
tempeh,
rye,
soybeans,
manganese
thyme,
manganism
deficiency
raspberries
,
strawberri
es, garlic,
squash,
eggplant,
cloves,
cinnamon,
turmeric.[1
1]

Copper
Main
0.900
article:
mg
Copper in
health

Trace

Required
component of
many redox
enzymes,
including
cytochrome c
oxidase.

Iodine

Trace

Required not

0.150

Mushroom
s, spinach,
greens,
seeds, raw
copper
cashews,
deficiency
raw
walnuts,
tempeh,
barley.[12]
Sea
iodine

copper toxicity

iodism

Dietary RDA/A Descripti

element I (mg)
on
mg

Category

only for the

synthesis of
thyroid
hormones,
thyroxine and
triiodothyronin
e and to
prevent goiter,
but also,
probably as an
antioxidant, for
extrathyroidal
organs as
mammary and
salivary glands
and for gastric
mucosa and
immune
system
(thymus):

Excess

3]

Iodine
in
biology

0.055
mg

Trace

Essential to
activity of
antioxidant
enzymes like
glutathione
peroxidase.

Molybdenu 0.045
m
mg

Trace

The oxidases
xanthine

Selenium

High
nutrient
density Insufficiency
dietary
sources
vegetables, deficiency
iodized
salt, eggs.
Alternate
but
inconsiste
nt sources
of iodine:
strawberri
es,
mozzarella
cheese,
yogurt,
milk, fish,
shellfish.[1

Brazil
nuts, cold
water wild
fish (cod,
halibut,
salmon),
tuna,
lamb,
turkey,
calf liver,
mustard,
mushroom
s, barley,
cheese,
garlic,
tofu,
seeds.[14]
Tomatoes,
onions,

selenium
deficiency

selenosis

molybdenum
deficiency

molybdenum
toxicity[17]

Dietary RDA/A Descripti

element I (mg)
on

Bromine

none

Trace

Category

oxidase,
aldehyde
oxidase, and
sulfite
oxidase.[15]
Basement
membrane
architecture
and tissue
development.[1

High
nutrient
density
dietary
sources
carrots.[16]

Insufficiency

Excess

bromism

8]

Blood concentrations of dietary elements

Dietary elements are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar
concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the dietary elements
discussed in this article, from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some
are in upper part of the picture, while others are in the lower part. The figure includes the
relative values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, dietary
elements are color highlighted in purple.

Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by mass above the scale and by
molarity below.

Dietary nutrition
Dietitians may recommend that dietary elements are best supplied by ingesting specific foods
rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the
food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with
calcium; iodized salt, salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to
contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins
and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of
compounds), such as calcium (as carbonate, citrate, etc.) or magnesium (as oxide, etc.),
chromium (usually as picolinate) or iron (as bis-glycinate).
The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the
biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components.[19] Appropriate
intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain
optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although
supplements can be used when some requirements (e.g., calcium, which is found mainly in
dairy products) are not adequately met by the diet, or when chronic or acute deficiencies arise
from pathology, injury, etc. Research has supported that altering inorganic mineral
compounds (carbonates, oxides, etc.) by reacting them with organic ligands (amino acids,
organic acids, etc.) improves the bioavailability of the supplemented mineral.[20]

Other elements
Many elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been
confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule
containing the element with an identifiable and testable function. One problem with
identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are
pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking
because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[19]
Element

Description
Relatively large quantities of sulfur are required, but there is no
RDA,[21] as the sulfur is obtained from and used for amino
Sulfur
acids, and therefore should be adequate in any diet containing
enough protein.
Cobalt is required in the synthesis of vitamin B12, but because
bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually
Cobalt
considered part of vitamin B12 deficiency rather than its own
dietary element deficiency.
There have been occasional studies asserting the essentiality of
Nickel
nickel,[22] but it currently has no RDA.
Chromium has been described as nonessential to
mammals.[23][24] Some role in sugar metabolism in humans has
Chromium
been invoked, but evidence is lacking,[25][26] despite a market for
the supplement chromium picolinate.
Fluorine (as Fluoride) is not generally considered an essential
Fluorine element because humans do not require it for growth or to
sustain life. However, if one considers the prevention of dental

Excess
(primarily
associated with
compounds)

Cobalt poisoning

Nickel toxicity
Chromium
toxicity
Fluoride
poisoning

cavities an important criterion in determining essentiality, then

fluoride might well be considered an essential trace element.
However, recent research indicates that the primary action of
fluoride occurs topically (at the surface).[27][28]
Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for
maintaining the integrity of cell walls.[29][30][31] In animals,
supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion
Boron
and activate vitamin D.[32] However, whether these effects were
conventionally nutritional, or medicinal, could not be
determined.[33]
It is not known whether lithium has a physiological role in any
species,[34] but nutritional studies in mammals have indicated its
importance to health, leading to a suggestion that it be classed
Lithium as an essential trace element with an RDA of 1 mg/day.[35]
Observational studies in Japan, reported in 2011, suggested that
naturally occurring lithium in drinking water may increase
human lifespan.[36]
Strontium has been found to be involved in the utilization of
calcium in the body. It has promoting action on calcium uptake
Strontium into bone at moderate dietary strontium levels, but a
Rachitogenic
rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action at higher dietary
levels.[37]
Arsenic, silicon, and vanadium have established, albeit
specialized, biochemical roles as structural or functional
cofactors in other organisms, and are possibly, even probably,
Other
used by mammals (including humans). By contrast, tungsten
Multiple
and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower
organisms, but these elements appear not to be utilized by
humans.[2]

Mineral ecology
Recent studies have shown a tight linkage between living organisms and chemical elements
on this planet. This led to the redefinition of minerals as "an element or compound,
amorphous or crystalline, formed through 'biogeochemical' processes. The addition of `bio'
reflects a greater appreciation, although an incomplete understanding, of the processes of
mineral formation by living forms."[38]:621 Biologists and geologists have only recently started
to appreciate the magnitude of mineral biogeoengineering. Bacteria have contributed to the
formation of minerals for billions of years and critically define the biogeochemical mineral
cycles on this planet. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution contributing to the
formation of ore deposits in addition to their ability to catalyze mineral dissolution, to respire,
precipitate, and form minerals.[39][40][41]
Most minerals are inorganic in nature. Mineral nutrients refers to the smaller class of
minerals that are metabolized for growth, development, and vitality of living
organisms.[38][42][43] Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria that are freely suspended in the
vast water columns of the worlds oceans. They absorb dissolved organic matter containing
mineral nutrients as they scavenge through the dying individuals that fall out of large

phytoplankton blooms. Flagellates are effective bacteriovores and are also commonly found
in the marine water column. The flagellates are preyed upon by zooplankton while the
phytoplankton concentrates on the larger particulate matter that is suspended in the water
column as they are consumed by larger zooplankton, with fish as the top predator. Mineral
nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates
and zooplankton who are then eaten by fish. The bacteria are important in this chain because
only they have the physiological ability to absorb the dissolved mineral nutrients from the
sea. These recycling principals from marine environments apply to many soil and freshwater
ecosystems as well.[44][45]

Bioavailability
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (September 2013)

See also
Food portal

Essential nutrient
Food composition
Health food
Macronutrient
Micronutrient deficiency

References
1. Nelson, David L.; Michael M. Cox (2000-02-15)

Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as
humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells[1] by means of the methods of mechanics.[2]

Contents

1 Word history
2 Method
3 Subfields
o 3.1 Sports biomechanics
o 3.2 Continuum biomechanics
o 3.3 Biofluid mechanics
o 3.4 Biotribology
o 3.5 Comparative biomechanics
o 3.6 Plant biomechanics
o 3.7 Computational biomechanics
o 3.8 Injury Biomechanics
4 History
o 4.1 Antiquity
o 4.2 Renaissance
o 4.3 Industrial era
5 Applications
6 Scientific journals
7 Societies
8 Software
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links

Word history
The word "biomechanics" (1899) and the related "biomechanical" (1856) were coined by
Nikolai Bernstein[citation needed] from the Ancient Greek words bios "life" and ,
mchanik "mechanics", to refer to the study of the mechanical principles of living
organisms, particularly their movement and structure.[3]

Method
Biomechanics is closely related to engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering
sciences to analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics
and/or materials sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of many
biological systems. Applied mechanics, most notably mechanical engineering disciplines
such as continuum mechanics, mechanism analysis, structural analysis, kinematics and
dynamics play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics.
Usually biological systems are much more complex than man-built systems. Numerical
methods are hence applied in almost every biomechanical study. Research is done in an

iterative process of hypothesis and verification, including several steps of modeling,

computer simulation and experimental measurements.

Subfields
Applied subfields of biomechanics include:

Soft body dynamics

Kinesiology (kinetics + physiology)
Animal locomotion & Gait analysis
Musculoskeletal & orthopedic biomechanics
Cardiovascular biomechanics
Ergonomy
Human factors engineering & occupational biomechanics
Implant (medicine), Orthotics & Prosthesis
Rehabilitation
Sports biomechanics
Allometry
Injury biomechanics

Sports biomechanics
Main article: Sports biomechanics
In sports biomechanics, the laws of mechanics are applied to human movement in order to
gain a greater understanding of athletic performance and to reduce sport injuries as well.
Elements of mechanical engineering (e.g., strain gauges), electrical engineering (e.g., digital
filtering), computer science (e.g., numerical methods), gait analysis (e.g., force platforms),
and clinical neurophysiology (e.g., surface EMG) are common methods used in sports
biomechanics.[4]
Biomechanics in sports, can be stated as the muscular, joint and skeletal actions of the body
during the execution of a given task, skill and/or technique. Proper understanding of
biomechanics relating to sports skill has the greatest implications on: sport's performance,
rehabilitation and injury prevention, along with sport mastery. As noted by Doctor Michael
Yessis, one could say that best athlete is the one that executes his or her skill the best.[5]

Continuum biomechanics
The mechanical analysis of biomaterials and biofluids is usually carried forth with the
concepts of continuum mechanics. This assumption breaks down when the length scales of
interest approach the order of the micro structural details of the material. One of the most
remarkable characteristic of biomaterials is their hierarchical structure. In other words, the
mechanical characteristics of these materials rely on physical phenomena occurring in
multiple levels, from the molecular all the way up to the tissue and organ levels.
Biomaterials are classified in two groups, hard and soft tissues. Mechanical deformation of
hard tissues (like wood, shell and bone) may be analysed with the theory of linear elasticity.
On the other hand, soft tissues (like skin, tendon, muscle and cartilage) usually undergo large

deformations and thus their analysis rely on the finite strain theory and computer simulations.
The interest in continuum biomechanics is spurred by the need for realism in the development
of medical simulation.[6]:568

Biofluid mechanics

Red blood cells

Biological fluid mechanics, or biofluid mechanics, is the study of both gas and liquid fluid
flows in or around biological organisms. An often studied liquid biofluids problem is that of
blood flow in the human cardiovascular system. Under certain mathematical circumstances,
blood flow can be modelled by the NavierStokes equations. In vivo whole blood is assumed
to be an incompressible Newtonian fluid. However, this assumption fails when considering
forward flow within arterioles. At the microscopic scale, the effects of individual red blood
cells become significant, and whole blood can no longer be modelled as a continuum. When
the diameter of the blood vessel is just slightly larger than the diameter of the red blood cell
the FahraeusLindquist effect occurs and there is a decrease in wall shear stress. However, as
the diameter of the blood vessel decreases further, the red blood cells have to squeeze through
the vessel and often can only pass in single file. In this case, the inverse FahraeusLindquist
effect occurs and the wall shear stress increases.
An example of a gaseous biofluids problem is that of human respiration. Recently, respiratory
systems in insects have been studied for bioinspiration for designing improved microfluidic
devices.[7]

Biotribology
The main aspects of Contact mechanics & tribology are related to friction, wear and
lubrication. When the two surfaces come in contact during motion i.e. rub against each other,
friction, wear and lubrication effects are very important to analyze in order to determine the
performance of the material. Biotribology is a study of friction, wear and lubrication of
biological systems especially human joints such as hips and knees. For example, femoral and
tibial components of knee implant routinely rub against each other during daily activity such
as walking or stair climbing. If the performance of tibial component needs to be analyzed, the
principles of biotribology are used to determine the wear performance of the implant and
lubrication effects of synovial fluid. In addition, the theory of contact mechanics also
becomes very important for wear analysis.

Comparative biomechanics

Chinstrap Penguin leaping over water

Comparative biomechanics is the application of biomechanics to non-human organisms,
whether used to gain greater insights into humans (as in physical anthropology) or into the
functions, ecology and adaptations of the organisms themselves. Common areas of
investigation are Animal locomotion and feeding, as these have strong connections to the
organism's fitness and impose high mechanical demands. Animal locomotion, has many
manifestations, including running, jumping and flying. Locomotion requires energy to
overcome friction, drag, inertia, and gravity, though which factor predominates varies with
environment.[citation needed]
Comparative biomechanics overlaps strongly with many other fields, including ecology,
neurobiology, developmental biology, ethology, and paleontology, to the extent of commonly
publishing papers in the journals of these other fields. Comparative biomechanics is often
applied in medicine (with regards to common model organisms such as mice and rats) as well
as in biomimetics, which looks to nature for solutions to engineering problems.

Plant biomechanics
The application of biomechanical principles to plants and plant organs has developed into the
subfield of plant biomechanics.[8]

Computational biomechanics
Over the past decade the Finite element method has become an established alternative to in
vivo surgical assessment. The main advantage of Computational Biomechanics lies in its
ability to determine the endo-anatomical response of an anatomy, without being subject to
ethical restrictions.[9] This has led FE modelling to the point of becoming ubiquitous in
several fields of Biomechanics while several projects have even adopted an open source
philosophy (e.g. BioSpine).

Injury Biomechanics

History
This section requires expansion with: 20th century biomechanics and pictures. (December
2010)

Antiquity

Aristotle wrote the first book on the motion of animals, De Motu Animalium, or On the
Movement of Animals.[10] He not only saw animals' bodies as mechanical systems, but
pursued questions such as the physiological difference between imagining performing an
action and actually doing it.[11] In another work, On the Parts of Animals, he provided an
accurate description of how the ureter uses peristalsis to carry blood from the kidneys to the
bladder.[6]:2

Renaissance
Probably Leonardo da Vinci could be recognized as the first true biomechanist,[according to
whom?]
because he was the first to study anatomy in the context of mechanics. He analyzed
muscle forces as acting along lines connecting origins and insertions and studied joint
function. He also intended to mimic some animal features in his machines. For example, he
studied the flight of birds to find means by which humans could fly. Because horses were the
principal source of mechanical power in that time, he studied their muscular systems to
design machines that would better benefit from the forces applied by this animal.[12]
Galileo Galilei was interested in the strength of bones and suggested that bones are hollow
for this affords maximum strength with minimum weight. He noted that animals' masses
increase disproportionately to their size, and their bones must consequently also
disproportionately increase in girth, adapting to loadbearing rather than mere size the bending
strength of a tubular structure such as a bone is increased relative to its weight. This surely
was one of the first grasps of principles of biological optimization.[12]
In the 16th century, Descartes suggested a philosophic system whereby all living systems,
including the human body (but not the soul), are simply machines ruled by the same
mechanical laws, an idea that did much to promote and sustain biomechanical study.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli embraced this idea and studied walking, running, jumping, the
flight of birds, the swimming of fish, and even the piston action of the heart within a
mechanical framework. He could determine the position of the human center of gravity,
calculate and measured inspired and expired air volumes, and showed that inspiration is
muscle-driven and expiration is due to tissue elasticity. Borelli was the first to understand that
the levers of the musculoskeletal system magnify motion rather than force, so that muscles
must produce much larger forces than those resisting the motion. Influenced by the work of
Galileo, whom he personally knew, he had an intuitive understanding of static equilibrium in
various joints of the human body well before Newton published the laws of motion.[13]

Industrial era
In the 19th century tienne-Jules Marey used cinematography to scientifically investigate
locomotion. He opened the field of modern 'motion analysis' by being the first to correlate
ground reaction forces with movement. In Germany, the brothers Ernst Heinrich Weber and
Wilhelm Eduard Weber hypothesized a great deal about human gait, but it was Christian
Wilhelm Braune who significantly advanced the science using recent advances in engineering
mechanics. During the same period, the engineering mechanics of materials began to flourish
in France and Germany under the demands of the industrial revolution. This led to the rebirth
of bone biomechanics when the railroad engineer Karl Culmann and the anatomist Hermann
von Meyer compared the stress patterns in a human femur with those in a similarly shaped
crane. Inspired by this finding Julius Wolff proposed the famous Wolff's law of bone
remodeling.[14]

Applications
The study of biomechanics ranges from the inner workings of a cell to the movement and
development of limbs, to the mechanical properties of soft tissue, and bones. Some simple
examples of biomechanics research include the investigation of the forces that act on limbs,
the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish, and
locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. The
biomechanics of human beings is a core part of kinesiology. As we develop a greater
understanding of the physiological behavior of living tissues, researchers are able to advance
the field of tissue engineering, as well as develop improved treatments for a wide array of
pathologies.
Biomechanics is also applied to studying human musculoskeletal systems. Such research
utilizes force platforms to study human ground reaction forces and infrared videography to
capture the trajectories of markers attached to the human body to study human 3D motion.
Research also applies electromyography[15] (EMG) system to study the muscle activation. By
this, it is feasible to investigate the muscle responses to the external forces as well as
perturbations.
Biomechanics is widely used in orthopedic industry to design orthopedic implants for human
joints, dental parts, external fixations and other medical purposes. Biotribology is a very
important part of it. It is a study of the performance and function of biomaterials used for
orthopedic implants. It plays a vital role to improve the design and produce successful
biomaterials for medical and clinical purposes. One such example is in tissue engineered
cartilage.[16]

Scientific journals
Among the journals devoted to biomechanics are the following:[17][18]

Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering

Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology