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Chief Editor
Mr. Sagar Aryal
(Founder)
Ambassador, iversity
M.Sc. Medical Microbiology
St. Xaviers College, Nepal
Editors
Mr. Saumyadip Sarkar
ELSEVIER Student Ambassador South Asia 2013
Ph.D Scholar (Human Genetics)
India
Mr. Avishekh Gautam
Ph.D Scholar
Hallym University, South Korea
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Table of Content
Page No.
4-7
8-15
16-19
20-22
23-24
Aromatherapy
25-32
33-38
39-45
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Introduction
Ebola fever is a hemorrhagic fever affecting humans and non human primate species like
monkeys, gorillas and chimpanzees. Ebola hemorrhagic fever is a virus disease caused by virus
of family Filoviridae and genus Ebolavirus. The virus was first identified in 1976 in Democratic
Republic of the Congo near the Ebola River. Occurrence is sporadic in nature. Human disease
was confined in Africa. Disease is zoonotic in nature, bats are considered as the natural
reservoir host.
Causative agent
Ebola virions are linear, negative sense, single stranded RNA with inverse complementary 3'
and 5'termini (Pringle, 2005). Ebola virions are filamentous which appear in the shape of a
shepherd's crook or U or "6", and they may be coiled, toroid, or branched (Kiley et al., 1982).
There are 5 subtypes of Ebola virus: Zaire ebolavirus, Bundibugyo virus, Sudan virus, Ta
Forest virus and Reston virus. Among these, first four are known to cause disease in humans
and restricted in Africa and the fifth one was identified from cynomolgous monkeys from
Philippines.
Transmission
The primates get infection from bats, and humans will acquire infection from infected primates
through handling of diseased animals, through contact with infected body secretions, organs
and blood. Also aerosol route of transmission are reported in non human primates (Jaax et al.,
1995). Ebola-Reston virus mainly spread through aerosol route, which was first identified in a
research facility for primates in Virginia. Human to human transmission are possible through
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contact with infected body fluids, organs and use of contaminated needles and syringes in
hospitals/clinics. Semen was also a source of transmission for around 2-3 months.
Outbreaks
Ebola Hemorrhagic fever (HF) has been reported from Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Gabon, Sudan, Ivory Coast, and Uganda, West African countries such as Nigeria, Guinea,
Sierra Leone and Liberia. Ebola Reston first caused disease in monkeys in a research facility
in the United States and Italy in which monkeys were imported from the Philippines.
Major outbreaks
Year of outbreak
Virus type
Country
1976
Ebola-Zaire
Zaire
1976
Ebola-Sudan
Sudan
1979
Ebola-Sudan
Sudan
1994
Ebola-Zaire
Gabon
1995
Ebola-Zaire
Zaire
1996
Ebola-Zaire
Gabon
2000-2001
Ebola-Sudan
Uganda
2001 -2002
Ebola-Zaire
2002-2003
Ebola-Zaire
Republic of Congo
2004
Ebola-Sudan
Sudan
2007
Ebola-Zaire
Ebola-Bundibugyo
Uganda
2014
Ebola
West Africa
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Clinical signs
The incubation period for Ebola virus was around 2 days 3 week. Case fatality rate was
around 50-90%. Sudden onset of illness and initial clinical signs includes fever, headache,
chills, joint and muscle aches, sore throat, arthritis and weakness, diarrhea, vomiting, and
stomach pain. Later stages hemorrhages from eye, ear, nose, gastrointestinal bleeding, genital
bleeding, and rashes over body surface. Also signs of coma, shock and disseminated
intravascular coagulation. Death occurs mainly due to shock.
Diagnosis
Due to non specific early clinical signs of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, diagnosis was difficult during
the early period. If a case was suspected, immediately isolate the patient and notify to health
authority. The samples suspected of Ebola hemorrhagic fever should be handled only in
biosafety level-4 laboratories. Initial tests include complete blood count, electrolytes, blood
clotting tests, liver function tests. Followed by virus isolation in cell culture, RT-PCR, serological
tests includes antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) testing, IgM
ELISA, indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA). Test should be conducted only in specialized
laboratories with biosafety level 4 facilities.
Treatment
There is no specific antiviral therapy available for Ebola virus, only supportive therapy is
available. Therapy for managing shock includes intravenous fluids and various medicines. Blood
transfusion is required if prolonged bleeding occurs. Balance the patients fluids and
electrolytes, maintaining their oxygen status and blood pressure. Treatment should be directed
towards the clinical signs. Shock, hemorrhage, neurological signs, high viremia and pregnancy
confer a poor prognosis.
Prevention
The prevention and control of Ebola HF faces many challenges, due to the lack of exact details
about the reservoir host. Present social and economic situation supports the spread of an
epidemic within health-care facilities. Therefore, health-care providers must be able to recognize
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a case of Ebola HF as early as possible. They should be also facility for conducting diagnostic
tests and should adopt practical viral hemorrhagic fever isolation precautions or barrier nursing
techniques. These techniques include the wearing of protective clothing, such as masks, gloves,
gowns, and goggles; the use of infection-control measures, including complete equipment
sterilization and the isolation of Ebola HF patients from contact with unprotected persons. Ebola
virus can stay alive in liquid or dried material for a number of days and also in freezing or
refrigeration conditions.
heating for 60 minutes at 60 C or boiling for five minutes. The virus is susceptible to sodium
hypochlorite and disinfectants.
Reference
1. Jaax, N. et al. "Transmission of Ebola virus (Zaire strain) to uninfected control monkeys
in a biocontainment laboratory." The Lancet. 346: 1669-1671.
2. Pringle, C. R. (2005). "Order Mononegavirales". In Fauquet, C. M.; Mayo, M. A.;
Maniloff, J.; Desselberger, U.; Ball, L. A. Virus Taxonomy Eighth Report of the
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego, US: Elsevier/Academic
Press. pp. 609614.
3. Kiley, M. P., Bowen, E. T., Eddy, G. A., Isacson, M., Johnson, K. M., McCormick, J. B.,
Murphy, F. A., Pattyn, S. R., Peters, D., Prozesky, O. W., Regnery, R. L., Simpson, D. I.,
Slenczka, W., Sureau, P., van der Groen, G., Webb, P. A., Wulff, H. (1982). "Filoviridae:
A taxonomic home for Marburg and Ebola viruses?".Intervirology. 18 (12): 2432.
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synthetic drugs to monoclonal antibody, require different specific monoclonal antibodies against
each type of target drug while by chemical programming methods, it can be avoided as different
synthetic component equipped with reactive group bind at reactive centre of antibody
component.
Fig: A
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Fig: B
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required. Currently, small molecule drugs aim to inhibit neuraminidase are used as therapeutic
agents as neuraminidase catalytic site is resistance to mutation for maintaining the enzymatic
activity. Neuraminidase inhibitors such as oseltamivir and zanamivir are frequently used as antiinfluenza drugs but they have very short life, so frequent doses are required. To avoid frequent
dosing and enhancement of short of serum half life of drug, -lactam functionalized
neuraminidase inhibitors are conjugated to catalytic aldose monoclonal antibodies 38C2. This
conjugated chemically programmed antibodies bind with catalytic site of neuraminidase and
inhibit the release of newly formed viruses.
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of CD4 receptor along with CCR5 and CXCR4. A promising additional blockade to HIV-1
infection that should complement the targeting of viral proteins is the targeting of host proteins
required for viral entry and replication. A number of small-molecule inhibitors of the HIV-1
coreceptors CCR5 and CXCR4 have been developed and one CCR5-targeting drug has been
approved. CCR5-targeting small molecule, such as meraviroc or aplaviroc is conjugated to
BNmAbs and CD4-IgG, which function as bispecific chemically programmed antibodies. These
bispecific chemically programmed antibodies bind to CCR5 co-receptor and inhibit the entry of
virus in side T cells along with neutralization of HIV-1.
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Q) The techniques used earlier had been more complicated. With the invention of sequencing
techniques, PCR and multiple analysis technique helped people to overcome hurdles of
research nowadays. How you compare the earlier techniques and the current techniques of
research you use.
Comment: Techniques in research should be applied to the question at hand. Knowing which
ones to used reflects collaboration with mentors, mentees and colleagues.
Q) Looking back one of your research published in Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
(2010) on identified Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in patients HIVinfected and hemodialysis patients. In that research findings one in every three individuals have
the prevalence of MRSA in different populations. MRSA ranks 1 in spreading hospital acquired
infection. Does Hospitals can overcome this problem of defeating MRSA with a proper drug?
Comment: Reducing risk of MRSA colonization and infection in hospitalized patients depends
on a strong infection prevention and control program. We have an aggressive program for
MRSA and we have tremendously reduced risk of such infections to our patients over the last 2
decades.
Q) You had been visiting professor at University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison and
Baystate Medical Center, Springfield,MA. How you interact with your students about the
research you carry out? Do you influence your students to think over any complications of
medical research?
Comment: I emphasize that finding a project that is within the scope of the resources and time
frame are critically important as well as finding a mentor who has the time and expertise to
assist in that endeavor.
Q) During the course of your research experience have you ever come up with a bacterium
which you find very hard to disinfect it because of its high resistance (apart from MRSA)?
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Resistance of bacterium is acquired based on the resistance genes present in their plasmid.
Have you come up with any research technique to reduce copy numbers of the plasmid of those
bacteria?
Comment: My research has not focused on reducing plasmid transmission of resistance genes.
However, I have collaborated on research looking at novel anti-infective compounds such as
using catheters coated with 5-fluorocytosine as well as more recently looking at novel
compounds with antimicrobial properties to use as antimicrobial lock solutions to prevent or treat
catheter infections.
Q) Highlight one more important and spectacular research of yours, Infection Prevention and
Control during Prolonged Human Space Travel published in Clinical Infectious Diseases (2012).
Prolonged space flight and microgravity can provide unique advantages to germs specially
Salmonella or Pneumococcus outbreak. We would like to know how encouraging was that
journey in solving the entire mystery behind microbial advantage in space.
Comment: It is my great fortune to work with bright individuals at Johnson Space Center and
discuss prevention of infections during prolonged human space flight. This is a most interesting
issue as microgravity of space travel presents tremendous challenges and in some cases novel
solutions to mitigate such risk.
Q) Being a professor, researcher and doctor you might have faced varied controversies during
the course of your research. How you used to overcome them and stayed focused in your work?
This will definitely provide a better understanding and will grow motivation among young
researchers and students.
Comment: Controversy abounds in science. It is important to try to remain objective and openminded to other points of view, even if in conflict with ones own research findings. History will
ultimately reveal what was the right direction, but at the time, it may be hard to know which is
why replication of scientific findings by other investigators is essential in the scientific endeavor.
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Q) While concluding your journey of research, we would like to know your personal message
towards young researchers and students of medical microbiology.
Comment: I hope I am not concluding my journey but continuing down the same rewarding
path as I have done over the last quarter century. My message is find a good mentor, be
patient, humble, forward-thinking, keep up with the medical literature and acknowledge those
who help you along the way.
Q) There is obvious a wonderful happy life behind research which help in focusing any work.
Thereby would like to know about your life apart from research.
Comments: I have many other interests, I enjoy biking, hiking, surfing, photography, music, and
I have a moderate-sized vegetable garden and numerous fruit trees all of which I planted,
manage, and harvest.
Saumyadip Sarkar
Science Communicator and Reviewer,
Microbiology World,
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saumyadip@microbiologyworld.com
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It is prove that water is life but now a day that life is threatening due to the advancement in
industrialization. The increase in demand of chemical dyes, fertilizers also increases the
manufacturing and its supply by many industries. During this manufacturing gallons of dyes and
chemicals are incorporated into the river that can cause damage to the environment. Pollutants
mainly include acids, bases, toxic organic and inorganic dissolved solids and colors and their
sources are varying. Textile industry is one of them which extensively use synthetic chemicals
for dye production. Fortunately microbes have ability to reduce these dyes and hence an
attempt is made in Microbiology Research Lab, R. A. College, Washim as a part of project.
Consequences of dyes and chemical in rivers:
Textile industries generate high volume of waste water and dyes. About 10,000 different dyes
and pigments produced annually and about 10% are lost in river via waste water of industry.
The strong color of this waste water is most serious problem because it is the most undesirable
character of water. The disposal of such waste water containing dyes into the river causes
damage to the environment. Generally dye can be describe as, a colored compound that has an
affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. Dyes affect the photosynthetic activity in
aquatic habitat; it is toxic to aquatic life and causes dangerous effect on all living system. Some
physicochemical methods are available for water treatment including ozonation, photooxidation, adsorption, activated carbon, froth flotation etc. but these techniques creates
secondary disposal problem and are expensive.
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microorganisms
and
helminthes.
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Fever,
Severe
symptoms
become
weight
loss,
the
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Aromatherapy
*Hasnain Nangyal1, Upvan Bhushan 2, Ammara Nawaz 3
1Department
2Department
3Department
Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy is composed of two Greek letters, Aroma (fragrance) and therapy (treatment).It
means that treatment with different fragrances.
Does aromatherapy really work?
It is use of aromatic compounds like
essential oils that derived from plant
sources
that
help
to
promote
the
leaves, seed and twigs etc. Essential oils does not means that it have some nutritional type
values, but it means that they are extracted from plants that have aromatic
and volatile
components that may contain antibiotics, vitamins, to some extant hormones and antiseptics.
Fragrances of these essential oils have been used to reduce the mental stress and help to
relieve the tension since many centuries. Further research and experimentation, now it is
proved that these essential oils have been play its role in reduce the dandruff and enhance the
healing properties. Most commonly used essential oils are lavender, rose, orange and sand
wood oils. So aromatherapy massage helps to reduce the anxiety and depression
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History of Aromatherapy
History of aromatherapy is as old as history of
human being. History of aromatherapy is
started from circa (460-377 BC) era that first
physician of Egypt and had belief that illness
was caused by supernatural forces.So for the
treatment of such supernatural forces different therapies recommended, and aromatherapy is
one of them. More than 200 herbs had studied by Hippocrates that used for source of essential
oils in aromatherapy.
Over 2000 years later such therapies was employed in Egypt in form of bath, massage and
even embalming bodies. Between 18th and the 25th Dynasty (1539-657 BC), the Egyptians
continued to refine the use of aromatics in incense, medicine, cosmetics, and finally perfumes.
Similarly in 1928 this therapy is introduced in France by a chemist, Ren Maurice Gattefoss. In
France this therapy got importance when Rene become interested in healing proprieties of
essential oils that extracted from different plant sources. He uses the technique of distillation
with the help of which, he extract the aromatic compounds in form of essential oils from the
plants that have wonderful smell. Then a question arouses in His mind how the sm ell of these
aromatic compounds helps in relaxation of body and mind. To find out the question of this
answer, accidently his hand burnt during the laboratory work then he used the lavender oil for
relieving the pain it was amazing for him within few minutes sensation of burning was gone.
With the passage of time and advancement in science and technology, Aromatherapy get more
importance in 20th century and more working will be continued on aromatherapy.
Why we use Aromatherapy
Basic purpose of aromatherapy is to keep the mind and body in good state. It helps to promote
the sensory experiences of massage and relieve the mental tension. The fragrance of aromatic
compounds helps to maintain the outlook of limbic system that helps to regulate the mental
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stress. Aromatic compounds that obtain from the different plant sources help to regulate the
emotional condition and mental stress where the synthetic medicines currently fail.
Essential oils
These are the extracted material obtain
from the different parts of plants by
different methods. Basic component of
these
essential
oils
are
aromatic
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tissues .The aroma from the oils sends a message to limbic system which is center of
controlling the emotions, memory and sexual arousal.
production of these hormones weaken the immune system by reducing the T helper cell and
inhibit the natural killer cells. Now a day's research on aromatherapy may leading to this aspect
the persons who treated by aromatherapy boost up their immune system during the depression
and stress conditions. Regular treatment of aromatherapy and massage with essential oils helps
to break the depression cycle and boost up the immune system.
Applications of Aromatheorapy
Several different methods are adopted to use the essential oils in aromatherapy.
Full-body baths: 5 to 10 drops of essential oils are mixed in tub of water either hot or cold.
Hand or foot baths: 2 to 3 drops of essential oils are mixed in tub of water either hot or cold
and then soaked hand or feet in this water for 10 to 20 minutes.
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Inhalations: This is apply in treatment of nasal problems such as sinus or allergic reactions.
Small amount of water boil and then add 2 to 3 drops of essential oils and inhale its steam.
Diffusion: In this technique special type of nebulizer used that help to disperse small droplets of
essential oil into the air. This is recommended to break down the depression cycle.
Massage: In this technique essential oils mixed with other carrier oils e.g wheat germ, avocado,
olive, safflower, grape seed, or Soya bean oil. A ratio that is commonly recommended is 2.55%
essential oil to 9597.5% carrier oil.
Essential oils that commonly used: some of important essential oils presented there that mostly
commonly used
Roman chamomile oil;
It is helpful in treatment of skin diseases, menstrual pain and depression.
Peppermint oil;
It helps to relax the stomach muscles and gastrointestinal tract. Its acts as
an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antimicrobial that make effective in
treatment of cold and flu symptoms.
Rosemary oil;
It helps in treatment of muscular, as well as low blood pressure,
gastrointestinal problems and headaches.
Lemon oil;
It acts as anti-stress and anti-depressant.
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Eucalyptus oil;
It helps to aid respiratory system ailments by enhancing deep
breathing
Lavender oil;
Aroma therapists use it to treat respiratory problems, abdominal cramps,
depression, insomnia, tension-related problems, burns, sun-damaged skin,
and various types of skin infections.
Rose oil;
Good for headache, nervous tension, stress related conditions, insomnia,
and nausea. Use against broken capillaries, dry skin, and poor circulation.
Jasmine oil;
Relaxing and intoxicating. Jasmine is valued in skincare in aiding dry,
sensitive and irritated skin
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sesame oil) before applying to your skin, and avoid using near your eyes. In addition, essential
oils are highly volatile and flame able so they should never be used near an open flame.
Precautions
Some essential oils directly apply to the skin in form of perfume. Oils of orange and peppermint
cause irritation to the skin if applied in concentrated form. During the massage ess ential oils are
mixed with carrier or vegetable oils. A final precaution is to avoid taking essential oils internally
without a consultation with a physician or naturopathist. Citrus-based essential oils, including
bitter and sweet orange, lime, lemon, grapefruit, and tangerine, are phototoxic, and exposure to
direct sunlight should be avoided for at least four hours after their application. Before using
essential oils on the skin, individuals should perform a skin patch test by applying a small
amount of the diluted oil behind the wrist and covering it with a bandage or cloth for up to 12
hours.
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Electrical Conductivity
This test measures the increase in conductance in milk caused by the elevation in levels of ions
such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chloride during inflammation. Janzekovic
et al., (2009) indicated that the conductivity in individual quarters was <5.5 mS/cm for healthy
udders and >6.5 mS/cm for subclinical udders.
NAGase test
According to Pyrola et al., (2003) estimation of endogenous enzyme N- acetyl--Dglucosaminidase is the most accurate of the indirect tests. It is an intracellular lysosomal
enzyme from neutrophils and epithelial cells. Production month, breed, lactation stage and milk
yield significantly affects NAGase activity. Compared to primiparous animals activity is higher for
multiparous animals. NAGase activity is higher at beginning of lactation and in late lactation.
Colorimetric and fluorometric assays have been developed to measure the elevated
concentration levels of these enzymes in milk (Larsen, 2005).Chagunda et al., 2005 states that
in mastitis NAGase tend to increase before the day of diagnosis and drop after treatment. The
enzyme activity tends to increase about eight days before diagnosis and more rapidly than
somatic cell count. So NAGase activity could be effectively utilized for diagnosis of mastitis.
Normal animals: 43.47nmol/ml mastitic: 69.42nmol/ml.
LDH estimation
Lactose dehydrogenase (endogenous) activity tends to increase 8 days before diagnosis and
more rapidly compared to somatic cell count. Compared to NAGase and SCC, LDH activity has
highest change in mastitis; SCC has the lowest (Chagunda et al., 2005). In healthy animals LDH
activity in milk is 485.9413.66 IU/l, where as subclinical mastitis cases it is 1524.04111.74
IU/l. The activity of LDH, NAGase and SCC could be used as early indicators of mastitis.
Production month, lactation stage and milk yield significantly affects LDH activity. Age at first
calving and parity didnt have significant effect on enzyme activity. Compared to primiparous
animals activity is higher for multiparous animals. LDH activity is higher at beginning of lactation
and in late lactation than in mid lactation. Mohammadian (2011), states that the mean activity of
(LDH) was higher in milk from mastitic udders than in milk from healthy udders.
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Spectrophotometry, colorimetric LDH quantification assay, ELISA are the tests used for
estimating LDH activity in milk.
L (+) lactate estimation
Lactate concentration may increase in a series of secretory, post secretory, physiological and
pathological reasons, still it can be used as a supportive parameter for diagnosis of s ubclinical
mastitis, and special attention must be given to physiological factors. Davis, et al., (2004)
described a rapid increase in lactate concentration during mastitis. Lactate can be used as
supportive parameter for mastitis detection (Grabowski et al., 2005). Milk sample should be
fixed properly in trichloroacetic acid to avoid post secretory lactate increase. Lactate is oxidized
to NAD+ and pyruvate and NADPH produced is measured photometrically. L+ Lactate content
in milk healthy: 01mM, subclinical: 07 to 15 mM, clinical: 33 mM. Bacteria also produce
lactate but it is D type rather than L type. Lactate together with pyruvate is used to estimate
bacterial count in milk.
Lactose estimation
In mastitis lactose content reduces to 2.5-2.83 %. According to Solverod (2005) a somatic cell
counts of more than 400000/ml corresponds with reduction in lactose content in same fraction
possibly because of damage of epithelium. Lactose content in milk can be used as indicator of
subclinical mastitis (Sharif et al., 2007).
Acute phase proteins - Milk Amyloid A
Lahtolainen, T., (2004) found that in experimental udder infections had a promising potential for
production of milk amyloid A as an indicator. A local synthesis of Milk amyloid A, a milk specific
acute phase protein in inflamed udder has been reported (Jacobsen et al., 2005). Petersen, et
al, 2005 stated that even though there is no overall difference in diagnostic performance the
somatic cell count and milk amyloid A have different diagnostic potential that could be depend
on factors such as nature of causative agents, milk kinetics during inflammation and degree of
tissue damage. M-SAA concentrations for healthy cows and cows with clinical mastitis were
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reported also by Haghkhah et al., (2009) 9.90 and 105.12 g/ml, respectively. MAA as a
potential physiological marker of subclinical mastitis (Gerandi, et al., 2009)
Diagnosis of mastitis by benzoic acid and sodium carbonate
Ayaz et al., (2005) described a method to diagnose mastitis using benzene sulfonic acid and
sodium carbonate solution as somatic cell count increase in mastitis sodium carbonate liquefy
DNA of these cells and release in solution to form jelly like substance with benzene sulfonic
acid. This test could be the cheapest and easy test to diagnose subclinical mastitis.
Cytokines analysis
TNF, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 have been found to be released in bacterial mastitis For cytokine
analysis milk should be centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 20 min at 4C to get fat free cell free milk
extract and should be kept at -30 C until assayed using ELISA or flurescencoptical method. In
a study conducted by Winter et al., 2005, found that during experimental challenge with
Staphylococcus epidermidis to ovine udders showed elevation of IL-8 in infected gland at 2hr
and peak at 8hr 24 hr and will remain for 10wks and IL-1 transiently elevated at 1 and 2 day.
Conclusion
The challenge in treatment and control of mastitis is mainly due to presence of multiple
etiological agents and development of resistance to antimicrobial agent. Timely diagnosis and
prompt treatment can reduce the losses to the livestock economy by this disease syndrome.
Since the disease is of public health significance diagnosis of mastitis at the earliest is a
requisite for human health too.
References
1. Ayaz , M. M. and Akhtar, M (2005) Diagnosis of mastitis by benzoic acid and sodium
carbonate on pregnant and lactating mastitic animals. Mastitis in Dairy production
Current knowledge and future solutions.
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13. Oviedo- Boyso, J., Valdez- Alarcon, J.J., Cajero- Juarez, M., and Baizabal-Auirre,
V.M.(2007) Innate immune response of bovine mammary gland to pathogenic bacteria,
responsible for mastitis. J.Infect., 54(4):399-409
14. Petersen, H. H., Gardner I.A., Rossito, P., Larsen H.D. Heegard, P.M.H.( 2005) Milk
amyloid A concentration and somatic cell count in diagnosis of bovine mastitis. Mastitis
in Dairy production Current knowledge and future solutions.
15. Pyrola , S. 2003, Indicators of inflammation in the diagnosis of mastitis. Vet. Res. 34 p :
565578
16. Sharif, A., Ahamad T., Bilal M.Q., Yusuf ,A. and Muhammad,G. 2007. Effect of severiety
of subclinical mastitis on somatic cell count and lactose content of buffalo milk. Pak.Vet.
J., 27(3) 142-144
17. Solverod L., Simonsen, S., Waldmann, A. and Ropstad, E.(2005) Variation in somatic
cell count and milk components in fraction collected quarter milk samples. Mastitis in
Dairy production Current knowledge and future solutions.
18. Viguier, C., Arora, S., Gilmartin, N., Welbeck, K., O'Kennedy, R., 2009. Mastitis
detection: Current trends and future perspectives. Trends Biotechnol. 27,486.
19. Winter, P., Fuch, K. and Schilcher, F. 2005. Host response reaction in lactating ovine
udder during experimental challenge with Staphylococcus epidermidis. Mastitis in Dairy
production Current knowledge and future solutions
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CSFs: multilineage CSF or interleukin-3, macrophage CSF, granulocyte CSF, granulocytemacrophage CSF.
The cytokine that regulates the production of red blood cells is from a different family and is
called erythropoietin. Thus, the commitment of a progenitor to a particular lineage depends on
the expression of specific receptors on the cell membrane for particular cytokines.
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antibody
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of two identical heavy polypeptide chains and two identical light polypeptide chains. Each heavy
chain is joined with a light chain by disulfide bonds, and additional disulfide bonds hold the two
pairs together. The amino-terminal ends of the pairs of heavy and light chains form a cleft within
which antigen binds. When a naive B cell (one that has not previously encountered antigen) first
encounters the antigen that matches its membrane bound antibody, the binding of the antigen to
the antibody causes the cell to divide rapidly; its progeny differentiate into memory B cells and
effector B cells called plasma cells. Memory B cells have a longer life span than naive cells, and
they express the same membrane-bound antibody as their parent B cell. Plasma cells produce
the antibody in a form that can be secreted and have little or no membrane-bound antibody.
Although plasma cells live for only a few days, they secrete enormous amounts of antibody
during this time. It has been estimated that a single plasma cell can secrete more than 2000
molecules of antibody per second. Secreted antibodies are the major effector molecules of
humoral immunity.
T Lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes also arise in the bone marrow. Unlike B cells, which mature within the bone
marrow, T cells migrate to the thymus gland to mature. During its maturation within the thymus,
the T cell comes to express a unique antigen-binding molecule, called the T-cell receptor, on its
membrane.Unlike membrane-bound antibodies on B cells,which can recognize antigen alone,
T-cell receptors can recognize only antigen that is bound to cell-membrane proteins called
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. MHC molecules that function in this
recognition event,which is termed antigen presentation, are polymorphic (genetically diverse)
glycoproteins found on cell membranes. There are two major types of MHC molecules: Class I
MHC molecules, which are expressed by nearly all nucleated cells of vertebrate species, consist
of a heavy chain linked to a small invariant protein called 2-microglobulin. Class II MHC
molecules, which consist of an alpha and a beta glycoprotein chain, are expressed only by
antigen-presenting cells.When a naive T cell encounters antigen combined with a MHC
molecule on a cell, the T cell proliferates and differentiates into memory T cells and various
effector T cells. There are two well-defined subpopulations of T cells: T helper (TH) and T
cytotoxic (TC) cells.Although a third type of T cell, called a T suppressor (TS) cell, has been
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CD8
membrane
glycoproteins
on
their
secretes various growth factors known collectively as cytokines. The secreted cytokines play an
important role in activating B cells, TC cells, macrophages, and various other cells that
participate in the immune response.
Differences in the pattern of cytokines produced by activated TH cells result in different types of
immune response. Under the influence of TH-derived cytokines, a TC cell that recognizes an
antigenMHC class I molecule complex proliferates and differentiates into an effector cell called
a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL). In contrast to the TC cell, the CTL generally does not secrete
many cytokines and instead exhibits cell-killing or cytotoxic activity. The CTL has a vital function
in monitoring the cells of the body and eliminating any that display antigen, such as virusinfected cells, tumor cells, and cells of a foreign tissue graft. Cells that display foreign antigen
complexed with a class I MHC molecules are called altered self-cells; these are targets of CTLs.
An Antigen-Presenting Cell (APC):
An antigen-presenting cell (APC) is a cell that displays foreign antigen complexes with MHC on
its surface. T-cells may recognize this complex using their T-cell receptor (TCR). Although
almost every cell in the body is technically an APC, since it can present antigen to CD8+ T cells
via MHC class I molecules, the term is often limited to those specialized cells that can prime T
cells (i.e., activate a naive T cell). These cells generally express MHC class II as well as MHC
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class I molecules, and can stimulate CD4+ ("helper") T cells as well as CD8+ ("cytotoxic") T
cells. To help distinguish between the two types of APCs, those that express MHC class II
molecules are often called professional antigen-presenting cells.
The
APCs
are
very
efficient
at
dendritic
cells
or
macrophages
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cell
receptors
to
distinguish
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