UNIT:1

EE81-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND

CONSERVATION
1. Direct resistance heating

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The material or charge to be heated is taken as resistance and current is passed

through it. The charge may be in the form of powder, pieces or a liquid. Two electrodes
are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of D.C or single phase ac
supply. When some pieces of metals are to be heated some highly resistive powder is
sprinkled over the surface of pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows
through the charge and heat is produced.
This method has high efficiency since heat is produced in the charge itself.
Applications: salt bath furnaces and in the electrode boiler for heating water.
Indirect resistance heating

The current is passed through a wire or other higher resistance material forming a heating
element. The heat proportional to I2R loss produced in the heating element is delivered to
the charge by one or more of the modes of transfer of heat. If the heat transfer is by
conduction the resistor must be in contact with the charge. An enclosure known as

heating chamber is required for heat transfer by radiation and convection for the charge.
This arrangement provides a uniform temperature. Automatic temperature can be
provided.
Applications: Room heaters, immersed water heaters, domestic and commercial cooking,
and salt bath furnaces.
2. It is also called high frequency capacitive heating. It is used for heating of
insulating material (non-metallic) such as wood, plastics; ceramics, glass etc.The
material to be heated is placed as a slab between metallic plates or electrodes connected
to high frequency a.c supply. (From valve oscillator) for producing sufficient heating
frequency between 10 and 30 MHz is used.
1. 3.Arc lamp: Electric discharge through air provides intense light.
a. Carbon arc lamp
b. Flame arc lamp
2. High temperature lamps: Oil and gas lamps and incandescent filament type lamps,
which emit light when heated to high temperature.
a. Incandescent lamp
3. Gaseous discharge lamps: Under certain conditions, it is possible to pass electric
current through a gas or metal vapour, which is accompanied by visible
radiations.
a. Sodium vapor lamp,
b. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent types lamps: Certain materials, when exposed to ultra violet rays,
transform the absorbed energy into radiations of longer wavelength lying within
the visible range.
5. Electric lighting: Light is the main factor in the human life. All activities of human
being ultimately depend upon the light. Where there is no natural light. so artificial light
is made. This light produced electrically
Advantages:
1.
Cleanliness
2.
Very easy control.
3.
Reliability.
4.
Given steady output as well as low cost
Good lighting (Street lighting & Factory lighting) is very useful value in
Increasing production
Reducing workers fatigue
Protecting their healthy eyes and nervous system

Reducing accidents
5. Electric traction is meant locomotion in which the driving or tractive force is
obtained from electric motors.
Electric Trains
Tramcars
Trolley buses
Diesel electric vehicles etc.

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6.applications of electric traction:

1. Cleanliness-does not produce any smoke or corrosive fumes
2. Maintenance Cost- maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is 50% of that
for a steam locomotive
3. Starting Time-started at a moments notice against about about two hours
required steam locomotive to heat up.
4. High starting torque- It is possible to achieve high acceleration rate of 1.5 to
2.5 kmphps to against 0.6 to 0.8 kmphps in case of steam engine drive.
5. Braking-Regenerative braking
6. Saving in high grade coal-High grade coal is required for steam locomotive
but in this drive required for low grade coal
7. Absence of Unbalance force-higher coefficient of adhesion
7.Electrolysis:

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Electrolysis is the passage of an electric current through an ionic substance that is

either molten or dissolved in a suitable solvent, resulting in chemical reactions at the
electrodes and separation of materials.

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The main components required to achieve electrolysis are:

A liquid containing mobile ions - an electrolyte
An external source of direct electric current
Two solid rods or plates known as electrodes

8.out of syllabus

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9. Cost benefit analysis

The identified energy conservation opportunities should be analyzed in terms of the

costs of implementing the project versus the benefits that can be gained. If you want to,
say, install a heat plate exchanger to recover waste heat, you need to calculate the total
cost of installation and compare that with the savings you will derive from recovering
waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the project if there is a net positive benefit from
the project.

10. . Lights:
1. Make use of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) in place of filament
lamps / incandescent lamps / mercury vapour lamps.

2. A 36 / 40 Watt tubelight gives better illumination than a 60 or 100 Watt

bulb consuming 40 to 60% less power only.

3. 36 Watt slim tube lights give equivalent light output as that of 40 Watt
tubelights.
4. Use electronic ballasts / electronic choke against conventional
electromagnetic ballasts tubelights for they consume less power.

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5. A so called zero watt bulb consumes 12 to 15 Watts / hour. CFLs are

available in 5, 7, 9, 11 watts capacities and they give better light output.

6. Lighting devices like bulb, tubelights, CFLs etc., consume power as per
their capacities. Therefore use appropriate lighting depending on the
requirement.

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7. Reflectors can be provided in light fittings.

8. Install energy saver in lighting circuit.

9. Install photo electric contacts / daylight switch to switch off lights.

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10. Install solar energy systems.

11. Clean bulbs and tube lights periodically to avoid reduction in illumination.
II. Fans and motors:

1. Uselightweight/energyefficientfans.

2. Useelectronicregulatorsforfansfortheyconsumelesspowerandprovidefine
control.

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3. Avoidrewindingofmotors.

III. Washing machine:

1. Use washing machine to its full capacity.

2. Avoid using dryer in washing machines whenever possible.

IV. Ironing:

1. Adopt large scale ironing.

2. Avoid ironing one or two clothes daily.

V. Refrigeration:
1. Keep refrigerator away from the wall by at least 200 mm.

2. Avoid frequent closing and opening of refrigerator door.

3. Allow refrigerated food stuff to come to room temperature before heating.
4. Allow heated / cooled food stuff to cool down to normal temperature
before refrigerating.

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5. Get in the habit of keeping items in the same place in fridge (e.g., Milk in
the chiller, eggs in the door etc.,)

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6. Make sure foods are covered before they are kept in the refrigerator.
Otherwise, the moisture in them will evaporate which makes the
refrigerator use more energy.
7.Freezer works more efficiently when full than when nearly empty.
PART-B
11)a)Induction Heating:
TYPES OF INDUCTION HEATING
1. Core type furnaces
a. Direct core type induction furnace
b. Vertical core type induction furnace
c. Indirect core type induction furnace
2. Core less type furnaces

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1.Direct core-type induction furnace

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The primary winding which is supplied from an a.c source is magnetically

coupled (iron core) to the charge which act as the short circuit of single turn. The charge
is kept in the crucible. The current in the charge is very high, of the order of several
thousand amperes.
Drawbacks
Magnetic coupling between py and sy circuit is poor, therefore, leakage
reactance is high and power factor is low. it is overcome by employing supply

of frequencies as low as 10hz for operation of such furnaces. For obtaining

low frequency supply motor-generator set or frequency changer is required,
which involves extra cost.
If the current density exceeds about 5A/mm2 the pinch effect (formation of
bubbles and voids etc.) due to electromagnetic forces may cause complete
interruption of the secondary circuit and so of the supply.
The crucible for charge is of odd shape and convenient from the metallurgical
point of view.
Vertical core type induction furnace
This is an improved form furnace of direct core type induction furnace.It
employs a vertical channel instead of horizontal one for the charge. The convection
currents keep the circulation of molten metal round the V portion.( In certain case U or
rectangular shape. This V channel is narrow, so even a small quantity of charge is
sufficient to keep the secondary circuit closed. Hence the chances of discontinuity of the
circuit are less. Due to pinch effect the adjoining molecules carrying current in same
direction will try to repel to each other, but because of the weight of the charge they will
remain in contact and chances of interruption will be reduced.
Advantages:
1. Highly efficient heat, low operating cost and improved production.
2. Accurate temperature control, uniform castings, reduced metal losses and
reduction of rejects.
3. Absence of crucibles.
4. Ideal working conditions in a cool atmosphere with no dirt, noise or fuel.
5. Absence of combustion gases resulting in elimination of the most common source
of metal contamination
Application: Used for melting and refining of brass and other heavy non-ferrous metals.
Its efficiency is 75%, Size:60 to 300kw,all 1,50hz,upto 600V .

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Coreless induction furnace

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The furnace consists of a ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed within a

coil which forms primary of transformer & the charge in the crucible, the secondary of
the transformer.
The flux produced by the primary winding sets up eddy currents in
the charge which flow concentrically with those in the primary winding. These currents
heat up the charge to the melting point & provide stirring action to the charge. Since the
frequency of the supply is high, the skin effect in the primary coil increases the effective
resistance of the coil & hence the cu losses tend to be high and artificial cooling is
necessary. The coil is, therefore, made of hollow cu conductors through which cooling
water can be circulated. The stray magnetic field due to current in the primary coil may
induce eddy currents in the metal supporting structures and cause over heating of these
structures.
Advantages:
1. They are fast in operation.
2. It is used for all industrial applications.
3. The speed of heating and the precise control of power into the charge result in
uniform quality of product unattainable be any other method of heating.
4. The working condition around the furnace is far better than any other type of
furnace.
Application:
Used for steel production.
Used for melting of non-ferrous metals like brass, bronze, Cu, aluminum etc.
11)b out of syllabus
12)a) TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEME
1. Direct lighting: It is mostly used type of lighting scheme. In this scheme more than
90% of light is directed to fall on the object to be illuminated with help of reflectors. This
scheme is usually employed in industries, residential lighting, commercial lighting etc.

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2. Semi direct lighting: In this scheme 60% to 90% of total light flux is made to fall
downwards directly with help of semi direct reflectors, remaining light is used to
illuminate the ceiling and walls. It is best suited to rooms with high ceilings where high
level of uniformly distributed illumination is desirable.
Upwards 30%
Downwards 45%

3. Indirect lighting: In this scheme 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards to the
ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflectors. In such a system the
ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare is reduced to minimum. It is used for
decoration purpose in cinemas, theaters and hotels etc.

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4. Semi indirect lighting: In this scheme 60% to 90% of total light flux is thrown
upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and the rest reaches the working plane
directly except for some absorption by the bowl. This scheme is with soft shadows and
glare free. It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes.

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12)b)Design of illumination for Residential-------------(8)

Design of illumination for commercial-------------(8)
13)a)energy efficient drives
--------------(8)
Comparison b/w battery driven vehicles & energy efficient drives -------------(8)

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13)b)

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14)a)Out of syllabus
14)b)Out of syllabus

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15)a) i)Out of syllabus

15)a)ii)Energy auditing

An energy audit is a preliminary activity towards instituting energy efficiency

programs in an establishment. It consists of activities that seek to identify
conservation opportunities preliminary to the development of an energy savings
program.

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The Role of an Energy Audit

To institute the correct energy efficiency programs, you have to know first
which areas in your establishment unnecessarily consume too much energy, e.g.
which is the most cost-effective to improve. An energy audit identifies where energy
is being consumed and assesses energy saving opportunities - so you get to save
money where it counts the most.

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Contents of an Audit

An energy audit seeks to document things that are sometimes ignored in the
plant, such as the energy being used on site per year, which processes use the energy,
and the opportunities for savings. In so doing, it assesses the effectiveness of
management structure for controlling energy use and implementing changes. The
energy audit action plan lists the steps and sets the preliminary budget for the energy
management program.

1. Analysis of energy use

Identifying where energy is used is useful because it identifies which areas the
audit should focus on and raises awareness of energy use and cost. The results of the
analysis can be used in the review of management structures and procedures for
controlling energy use.
Important Points to Consider When Collecting Site Load Data

2. Identification of energy projects

Opportunities for energy savings can range from the simplest, such as lighting
retrofits, to the most complex such as the installation of a cogeneration plant. The
important thing to remember is to focus on major energy users and areas. Always
apply the 80/20 rule, focus on opportunities that provide 80% of the saving but
require 20% input. After the preliminary identification of opportunities, spend more
time on those which have shorter payback periods.

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3. Cost benefit analysis

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The identified energy conservation opportunities should be analyzed in terms of

the costs of implementing the project versus the benefits that can be gained. If you
want to, say, install a heat plate exchanger to recover waste heat, you need to
calculate the total cost of installation and compare that with the savings you will
derive from recovering waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the project if there is
a net positive benefit from the project.

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4. Action plan to set implementation priority

After passing the cost benefit test, an action plan should be developed to ensure
that the opportunities identified are implemented. The action plan should include all
the major steps for implementing the opportunity as well as the people responsible.
Furthermore, there should be a plan for monitoring the results.

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10

UNIT: 2
EE81-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND
CONSERVATION

1)i).Today the entire world is talking about the need for discovering an alternative source of
energy. This situation popped out because of the fact that petroleum prices fluctuate at a
regular interval in the international market and most of the time it is priced high. Many
countries have already started hunting out for an alternative energy and the results are quite
convincing.

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ii)The current available stock of fossil fuels on earth is very limited, so before we completely
consume them, it is essential to come up with some alternative energy source. Big
investments have been made towards the direction of researching and producing different
sources of alternative energy. Alternative fuel is also known as non conventional fuel. It
could be any material which can be used as fuel other than the conventional fuels of
petroleum, coal, propane, and natural gas.

iii)Bio diesel, butanol, fuel cells, hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass and
peanut oil are some options available as alternative renewable fuel sources. The prime
advantage of alternative fuel is that they burns cleaner hence causing less pollution. It also
helps in reducing harmful emissions like carbon monoxide, organic compounds, nitrogen
oxide and sulfur thus maintaining the greenhouse gases effect. Moreover, alternative fuels are
cheaper than the conventional fuel and also last longer. Experts are of view that alternative
fuels are capable of enhancing the power of the engine which adds to low maintenance of the
car.

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iv)Today the new technology in the hybrid cars and other hybrid vehicles are using renewable
energy like hydrogen fuel cells and electric motor. With such alternative energy, we are sure
to save on gasoline and protect the earth from the danger of global warming.

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2. The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with reference to time is
known as a load curve.

3. Geothermal comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat.
Geothermal means heat from the ground. Geothermal power is energy generated by heat
stored beneath the Earth's surface.
4. Advantages of Power factor improvement:
Reduces KVA demand, T & D losses and IR loss.
Reduce downside capacity of equipment.

5. Properties of heating material.

High specific resistance. It should have high specific resistance so that a short length
of wire will be required for a particular resistance or the same length and current the
heat produced will be same.
High melting point. So that higher temperature can be obtained.
Free from oxidation. It should not oxides at higher temperature; otherwise its life will
be shortened.

Low temperature coefficient of resistance. So that its resistance does not change
during its temperature range of operation. Also with this the current drawn by the
element at cold will not be much different from that when it is hot.

6. There are two laws of illumination

1. Inverse square law
2. Lamberts Cosine law
Inverse square law
Illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the surface and
the source is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as point source.
Lamberts cosine law
The illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle between
the normal At that point and the direction of luminous flux.

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8..

9. load equalization.
In this process energy is stored during the interval of light load and given out during the
interval of peak load. Thus the power drawn from the supply mains remains almost constant.
The most common method of load equalization is by use of flywheel.
10).Individualdrive

Group drive

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11a) TIDAL ENERGY

The tides contain energy that can be harnessed to produce electricity. Two types of tidal
energy can be extracted. Kinetic energy can be harnessed from the ebbing (outgoing tide) and
surging tides. Potential energy can be harnessed from differences in the high and low tides.
Using tidal current remains the primary method of generating electricity.
Tidal energy is the utilization of the variations in sea level caused primarily by the
gravitational effects of the moon, combined with the rotation of the Earth. When Earth, the
moon and the sun are positioned in a straight line (called a full, or new, moon), the
gravitational attractions are combined, resulting in very large spring tides. At half-moon,
the sun and the moon are at right angles, resulting in lower tides called neap tides. Coastal
areas experience two high and two low tides over a period of slightly longer than twenty-four
hours.
TYPES OF TIDAL PLANTS
1. Tidal Fences
2. Barrage Tidal Plants
3. Tidal Turbines
used to determine cost effectiveness and efficiency of tidal power site
Advantages
1. Renewable
2. Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.)
3. Pollution free (except during construction)
4. Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is inconsistent and is highly
concentrated in certain areas depending on the topography.)
5. Water is a free resource
6. Presents no difficulty to migrating aquatic animals (avoidable)
Disadvantages
1. Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave climate that effects
shallow/shore plant life)
2. Expensive to construct (estimated 1.2 billion dollars.)
3. Reliability(have not been around long so we do not know long term reliability)
4. Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing, swimming, etc.)
5. Cost of Maintenance Higher
6. Power transmission from offshore facilities harder
7. Power quality (waves fluctuation)

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WIND ENERGY
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into useful form, such as electricity,
using wind turbines. In windmills, wind energy is directly used to crush grain or to pump
water. At the end of 2007, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 94.1
gigawatts. Although wind currently produces just over 1% of world-wide electricity use, it
accounts for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 9% in Spain and
Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland (2007 data). Globally, wind power
generation increased more than fivefold between 2000 and 2007.
India ranks 4th in the world with a total wind power capacity of 6,270 MW in 2006,
or 3% of all electricity produced in India. The World Wind Energy Conference in New Delhi
in November 2006 has given additional impetus to the Indian wind industry. The wind farm
near Muppandal, Tamil Nadu, India, provides an impoverished village with energy. India-

based Suzlon Energy is one of the world's largest wind turbine manufacturers. Wind power is
produced in large scale wind farms connected to electrical grids, as well as in individual
turbines for providing electricity to isolated locations.
World total (MW)

59,091

74,223

93,849

DEFINITION- WIND ENERGY

The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of energy, either
mechanical energy or electrical energy.
1. wind energy turns the rotor ...
2. This turns a generator, often through gearing...
3. This generates electricity.
4. Some wind turbines have a narrow "effective operating range".
Wind energy is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, cleans, and reduces
greenhouse gas emissions when it displaces fossil-fuel-derived electricity. The intermittency
of wind seldom creates insurmountable problems when using wind power to supply a low
proportion of total demand, but it presents extra costs when wind is to be used for a large
fraction of demand.

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Fig.1.30. Map of world wind

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ELECTRICITY GENERATED BY WIND TURBINE

All moving objects contain kinetic energy. The kinetic energy contained in wind can be
transferred to other objects, such as boat sails, or transformed into electrical energy through
wind turbine generators. Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a turning force.
The force will turn the shaft, gearbox and generator, which are all connected. The gearbox
increases the rotational speed, enabling the generator to produce electricity. The yaw control
would turn the rotor and nacelle to face the wind.

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Components of wind turbine

Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes
the blades to "lift" and rotate.
Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop
the rotor in emergencies.
Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per
hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind
speeds above about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds.
Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm,
the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a
costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive"
generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC
electricity.
High-speed shaft: Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed
shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to
land on.
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the
rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity.
Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the
wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind," facing away from the wind.
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing
into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive;
the wind blows the rotor downwind.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

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WORKING PRINCIPLES OF WIND TURBINES

Wind is the motion of the atmosphere, which is a fluid. As the wind approaches an
airfoil-shaped object, the velocity changes as the fluid passes the object, creating a pressure
gradient from one side of the object to the other. This pressure gradient creates a net force on
one side of the object, causing it to move in the fluid. When wind hits the airfoil-shaped blade
of a turbine, the lift force that is created causes the blade to rotate about the main shaft. The
main shaft is connected to an electric generator. When the rotor spins due to forces from the
wind, the generator creates electricity that can be fed directly into the electric grid or into a
system of batteries. It has also been used to capture energy from the wind. Drag mechanisms
consist of flat or cup-shaped devices that turn the rotor. The wind simply pushes the device
around the main shaft. Anemometers used to measure wind speed are often drag devices, as
are traditional farm windmills. Airplane propeller analysis relies upon the axial momentum
theory, which is based on energy, momentum, and mass conservation laws.
This theory has been applied to wind turbines as well. The power (Pw) of a fluid
passing across an area perpendicular to the flow is

TYPES OF WIND TURBINES

1. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)
2. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
3. Offshore Turbine

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1. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Drag is the main force
Nacelle is placed at the bottom
Yaw mechanism is not required
Lower starting torque
Difficulty in mounting the turbine
Unwanted fluctuations in the power output

Where, is the air density,

A is the disk area perpendicular to the wind,
Vw is the wind speed passing through the disk area.

Fig.1.32. Vertical axis wind turbine

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2. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Lift is the main force
Much lower cyclic stresses
95% of the existing turbines are HAWTs
Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower
Yaw mechanism is required

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Fig.1.33. HAWT-Downwind turbine

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Fig.1.34. HAWT-Upwind turbine

3. Offshore Turbines
More wind speeds
Less noise pollution
Less visual impact
Difficult to install and maintain
Energy losses due long distance transport

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind energy

Advantages
1. Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel source. Wind
energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion
of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.
2. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid
rain or greenhouse gasses.
3. Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which can't be
used up.
4. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the
heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the
earth's surface irregularities.
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Disadvantages
1. Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a
cost basis.
2. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the
past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than
fossil-fueled generators.
3. The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that the
wind is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is
needed.

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11)b) Distributed generation

INTRODUCTION
Electricity demand is growing in all the countries of the world. The electric utility
installed capacity in the world, at present, is about 3100000MW and to meet the
increasing demand about 80000MW of new capacity has to be added every year. In India
the utility installed capacity is about 118GW at present and is expected to increases by at
least 55 every year in the coming years. The situation in many other countries is almost
similar.
Another phenomenon taking place everywhere is power system deregulation and
opening up of competition. This is likely to compel the generating companies to set up
small generating plants close to the customers. This system of generation is called
decentralized or Distributed generation. The significant applications of DG systems
include backup generator utility grid enhancement, peak saving, load management etc. It
has been estimated that DG, in the world, would be about 20% in near future

The DG systems are small in size, less than 10MW and typically 1 or 2MW.They
feed into the distribution system directly and may be installed by the utility or by big
consumers. They may be of any type but are most likely to be solar plants or wind energy
plants.
ADVANTAGES OF DG SYSTEMS
DG systems offer promise to help in modernization and improvement of electric
distribution systems. The advantages will accrue to the utility, consumer as well as
commercial power producers and can be summarized as under;
a. Advantages for utilities
Transmission capacity relief
Distribution capacity relief
Hedge against high market prices
Grid investment deferment
Improved grid asset utilization
Improved grid reliability
VAR support
Voltage support
Contingency reserves
Energy and load management
b. Advantages for consumers
Efficient use of energy from combined heat and electricity
Improved reliability by having backup generation
Incentives from utility to provide capacity reserve
Low cost electricity
Improved power quality
c. Advantages for commercial power producer
Power market
Ancillary service market.

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DG SYSTEM ENEGY SOURCES

DG system energy sources can be classified into conventional and non
conventional. The conventional sources include combustion turbines, reciprocating
engines, micro turbines and fuel cells. Natural gas and petroleum are used for these forms
of DG. However there is growing trend towards using non conventional sources. This is,
evidently, due to the fact that natural gas and petroleum sources are fast depleting and
also due to growing environmental concerns. Biomass, solar and wind energy distributed
generation systems are being increasingly added to the grids and this and trend will
continue in future.
The non-conventional energy sources have the disadvantage of high investment
cost. A significant part of this investment cost is the cost of power electronic interface.

APPLICATIONS OF DG YSTEMS
Local voltage regulation
Frequency responsive spinning reserve
Power factor correction
Fault current limitation
Congestion management
Circuit isolation islanding
Intelligent power scheduling
Power leveling and peak shaving
Power quality services
Load shedding
Unit commitment
Power flow control
12)a)i)Need for energy conservation

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Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be
achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while
achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy
conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national
security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are
direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs
and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase
efficiency and thus maximize profit.

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Electrical energy conservation is an important element of energy policy. Energy

conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita and thus
offsets some of the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with population growth.
This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and
energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the
most preferred methods of energy production.

By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate

change. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with
renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy
shortages, and is a more environmentally benign alternative to increased energy
production

12)a)ii) An energy audit is a preliminary activity towards instituting energy efficiency

programs in an establishment. It consists of activities that seek to identify conservation
opportunities preliminary to the development of an energy savings program.

10

The Role of an Energy Audit

To institute the correct energy efficiency programs, you have to know first which areas
in your establishment unnecessarily consume too much energy, e.g. which is the most
cost-effective to improve. An energy audit identifies where energy is being consumed
and assesses energy saving opportunities - so you get to save money where it counts the
most.

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Contents of an Audit

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An energy audit seeks to document things that are sometimes ignored in the plant, such
as the energy being used on site per year, which processes use the energy, and the
opportunities for savings. In so doing, it assesses the effectiveness of management
structure for controlling energy use and implementing changes. The energy audit action
plan lists the steps and sets the preliminary budget for the energy management program.
1. Analysis of energy use

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Identifying where energy is used is useful because it identifies which areas the audit
should focus on and raises awareness of energy use and cost. The results of the analysis
can be used in the review of management structures and procedures for controlling
energy use.
Important Points to Consider When Collecting Site Load Data
2. Identification of energy projects

Opportunities for energy savings can range from the simplest, such as lighting retrofits,
to the most complex such as the installation of a cogeneration plant. The important thing
to remember is to focus on major energy users and areas. Always apply the 80/20 rule,
focus on opportunities that provide 80% of the saving but require 20% input. After the
preliminary identification of opportunities, spend more time on those which have shorter
payback periods.

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3. Cost benefit analysis

The identified energy conservation opportunities should be analyzed in terms of the

costs of implementing the project versus the benefits that can be gained. If you want to,
say, install a heat plate exchanger to recover waste heat, you need to calculate the total
cost of installation and compare that with the savings you will derive from recovering
waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the project if there is a net positive benefit from
the project.

4. Action plan to set implementation priority

11

After passing the cost benefit test, an action plan should be developed to ensure
that the opportunities identified are implemented. The action plan should include all the
major steps for implementing the opportunity as well as the people responsible.
Furthermore, there should be a plan for monitoring the results.
12)b)i)

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After the introduction of Available Based Tariff (ABT) by the Power Ministry of
India in the year 2003, the state electricity boards are encouraging the industrial units by
giving incentives for maintaining power factor close to unity. Power factor can be
improved by the following methods.

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Installingstaticpowercapacitors.
Operatingsynchronousmotorinoverexcitedcondition.
InstallingstaticVARcompensators.

Above three Static capacitor is a commonly used method since it has various
advantages:

Lossesarelessthan0.5%oftherating.
Easytoinstall,operateandmaintain.
Longlifeandgreaterreliabilitysinceithasnomovingparts.
Canbelocatedclosetoinductiveload.

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Advantages of Power factor improvement:

ReducesKVAdemand,T&DlossesandIRloss.
Reducedownsidecapacityofequipment.

Methods of power factor compensation:

Centralized/Group Compensation.
Distributed/Individual Compensation.
Mixed Compensation.

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12)b)ii power quality& the important parameters of power quality:

The power quality means the supply of power within the permitted values of voltages
&frequency and without any distortion of sinusoidal waveform in balanced condition.
Power quality mainly deals with the following four important parameters of power supply

Frequency

Voltage

Harmonics

Power Supply disturbances such as Sag, Swells, Transients, Flickers, Interruption,

Outages, etc
Voltage sags

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It is defined as a decreased in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency followed by

a rapid return to initial value. The voltage dips and saga are caused by ground faults,
energizing heavy loads etc. The problem caused due to the voltage sags includes shutting
of the equipments, motor starters and contractors, loss of data and damage to equipment.
Voltage swell
An increased in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for duration from 0.5
cycles to 1 minute is known as voltage swell.
Voltage Transients
These are very short duration over voltages usually associated with lightning impulses or
switching transients. These can result in a feeder outage.
Flickers
The variation of input voltage that is in sufficient duration to allow visual observation of
a change in electric light source intensity.
Interruption
It is defined by most of utility industry as a loss of power for 5 minutes or more.
Outage
A long term power interruption is called as blockout. Power interruption with duration
longer than 1 to 5 minutes is called outage.

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13)a)i) Sodium vapor lamp

A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited
state to produce light.
There are two varieties of such lamps:
low pressure and
high pressure.
High pressure Sodium vapor lamp

Theory of operation
An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp
and provides the sodium and mercury vapor in which the arc is drawn. The temperature
of the amalgam is determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher the lamp
power, the higher will be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of the
amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium vapor pressures in the lamp. An
increase in these metal pressures will cause a decrease in the electrical resistance of the
lamp.

13

For a given voltage, there are generally three modes of operation:

The lamp is extinguished and no current flows.
The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube.
The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.
The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to
the voltage, but the second state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will
cause an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will
cause a decrease in resistance, which will cause a further increase in current. This will
create a runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the high-current state (#3). Since
actual lamps are not designed to handle this much power, this would result in catastrophic
failure. Similarly, an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to extinction.
It is the second state which is the desired operating state of the lamp, because a
slow loss of the amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on the
characteristics of the lamp than a fully evaporated amalgam. The result is an average
lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours
In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage source in series with
inductive "ballast" in order to supply a nearly constant current to the lamp, rather than a
constant voltage, thus assuring stable operation.
The ballast is usually inductive rather than simply being resistive which
minimizes resistive losses. Also, since the lamp effectively extinguishes at each zerocurrent point in the AC cycle, the inductive ballast assists in the reignition by providing a
voltage spike at the zero-current point. High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient
about 100 lm/W, up to 150 lm/W, when measured for photopic lighting conditions. They
have been widely used for outdoor lighting such as streetlights and security lighting.

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13)a)ii)r=12.247
cos =0.408
illumination at each corner = CP/r2* cos
=1.361 lux
13)b)i)
Design of heating element
Normally, the wires of circular cross section or rectangular cross section ribbons
are used as heating element. Under steady state condition. A heating element dissipates as
much heat from its surface as it receives the power from the electric supply. Power input
P=Heat dissipated
Heat dissipated according to Stefan's law
4
4
4
2
---------1
2
1
Electrical input=V2/R
R=l/a= l / (d2/4)=4l/ d2 for a circular wire
Electrical input P=V2/(4l/ d2 )= d2V2 / 4l
l/d2= V2 / 4P
---------------------------- 2
Surface area S=dl
Heat dissipated= d l H
Since at steady temperature
Power input P=Heat dissipated

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P =dlH
d V /4l =dlH
d / l2 = 4 H / V2 ----------------------- 3
Solving expression 2 and 3 length and diameter of wire can be determined.
For ribbon type of conductor let is the width and t is the thickness.
Electrical input P=V2/R=V2/(l/ a )= V2 /( l/ t)
= V2t / l
2
l / t = V / P
Since at steady temperature
Power input P=Heat dissipated (2 l H)
V2 /( l/ t)= 2 l H
t / l2 = 2 H / V2 ------------------------------------- 4
So by solving the two equations 3 and 4, length l and width for a ribbon of thickness t
will be evaluated.
13)b)ii) WELDING TRANSFORMER - A.C SUPPLY
In tapped reactor method, output current is regulated by taps on the reactor. This has
limited number of current settings.
2

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In the moving coil method of current control, relative distance between primary and
secondary windings is changed. When coils are more separated out current is less.

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In magnetic shunt method, position of central magnetic shunt can be adjusted. This
changes the magnitude of shunt flux and therefore, output current. When central core is
more inside, load current will be less and vice versa.

15

In continuously variable reactor method, output current is controlled by varying the

height of the reactor. Greater the core insertion, greater the reactance and less the output
current. Reverse is true for less height of core insertion

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In saturable reactor method, the reactance of the reactor is adjusted by changing the
value of d.c excitation obtained from bridge rectifiers by means of rheostat.
When
d.c current in the central winding of reactor is more, reactor approaches magnetic
saturation. This means the reactance of reactor becomes less. Vice versa happens on the
decrease of d.c excitation.

Rectifier bridge

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Rheostat

Saturable
reactor

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A.C Supply

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14)a)i) TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL

The control of traction motors for starting and for smooth acceleration is very
much essential to avoid damage to the motors. The control equipment is provided for
manual and automatic operation. Usually a master controller is used for the purpose.
1. D.C series motor control or plain rheostat control
2. Series Parallel control
i.
Open circuit transition
ii.
Shunt transition control
iii.
Bridge transition control
3. Metadyne control
4. Multiple unit control

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14)a)ii) MECHANICS OF TRAIN MOVEMENT

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Fig.4.4.Transmissionoftractiveeffort

How traction motor produces tractive effort at the train wheel is shown in fig.4.4.
Armature of the driving motor drives pinion which meshes with gear wheel keyed to the
driving axle.
Let,
T=the torque exerted by motor
F=the tractive effort exerted by driving wheel
F=the tractive effort exerted by the pinion
d= diameter of pinion in meter
d= diameter of gear wheel in meter
D= diameter of driving wheel in meter

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Tractive effort exerted by the pinion

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= Efficiency of transmission of power from motor to driving axle

Coefficient of adhesion
The above equation suggests that tractive effort at the driving wheels can be
increased by increasing the torque exerted by the motor. This is possible up to a certain
limit after which any increase in the motor torque does not increase the tractive effort but
causes driving wheels to slip. It has been found that the maximum value of tractive effort

17

at which driving wheels will not slip, depends upon the dead weight over the driving
axle.
F W
F = W if F is expressed in Newton and W in tonnes
Where, is called the coefficient of adhesion
Coefficient of adhesion in electric train is greater than steam traction due to the following
two reasons.
1. In electric traction the torque exerted is continuous whereas in steam engine the
torque is pulsating which causes jolting and skidding.
In electric traction the driving wheels are distributed over a much greater length whereas
steam engine they are close to each other
14)b) RECENT TRENDS IN ELECTRIC TRACTION
The modern trend is towards the use of d.c motors (both separately excited and
d.c series motors) equipped with thyristor control. The operating voltages are 600V or
1,000V. Braking employed are mechanical, rheostatic and regenerative, Thyristorised
converters provide accurate control and fast response. Main advantages of thyristor
control are the absence of bulky on load tap changer and electro magnetic devices, saving
of energy, notch less control, incease in pulling ability of the motive power, and
minimum wear and tear because of absence of conventional moving parts in the motor
control circuits.
In electric traction, it is desirable that the train accelerates and decelerates at a
constant rate for the comfort of the passengers. Using thyristors, this objective can be met
in the following way:
When the speed goes down during braking the generator voltage decreases. For a
particular braking torque a particular armature current is required. This is achieved by
increasing the field excitation to a relatively high value. If, however, the generator
voltage exceeds the supply voltage, in dynamic braking, this increase is permissible as
the armature is not connected to the supply and the energy of the generator can be
dissipated in the braking resistors, external resistances in series with the armature are
connected in case of regenerative braking to absorb the voltage difference between the
armature voltage and supply voltage. With this, of course, part of the generated power is
wasted in the external resistors and the efficiency of the overall system is decreased.
Various methods of speed control and electric braking employing thyristors have
already been studied in power electronic subjects.

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From catenary

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Anti-parallel full converters

To Rail

Fig.4.25 Thyristorised DC Electric traction system

In addition to ordinary phase control methods, cycle selection methods of control

of SCR for varying the voltage applied to the traction motors are also employed. In this

19

method the required average voltage is obtained by accepting or rejecting a certain

numbers of complete half cycles. In practice, at the start only one half out of eight is
accepted and as the speed builds up, it is gradually raised to 2/8, 3/8 and finally 8/18 for
full power operation. This method is advantageous due to low frequency harmonics, low
rate of rise of current, better power factor etc.
In chopper control of traction motors, at start, the on period of pulse is kept
very short which lengthens during the period of controlled acceleration. Thus the average
voltage applied across the traction motors is gradually increased keeping the mean value
of the input current close to the desired value.
Fig.4.25 shows a typical thyritorised dc traction system supplying a group of four
separately excited motors. The armatures are supplied from half controlled bridge
converters. However, it is desirable to feed the field windings through fully controlled
bridge converters so as to reduce the ripple in the field current. Low ripple in the field
current ensures low iron losses in the machines. However, if regenerative braking is
required then the armature should be supplied from fully controlled bridges.
Freewheeling diodes are connected as illustrated to ensure good waveform of armature
current. The armatures are connected in series parallel arrangement to ensure good
starting and running characteristics. It is seen that armatures are supplied by three bridges
connected in series. For starting first only bridge A is triggered and firing angle is
advanced as speed builds up. When bridge A is fully conducting (i.e. when =0), bridge
B is triggered and then bridge C is triggered. During starting field currents are set to
maximum to provide high starting torque. The use of three bridges ensures better power
factor than would be possible with a single bridge.
15)a) MOTOR SELECTION AND RELATED FACTORS
1. Nature of electric supply
2. Types of drive
3. Nature of loads
4. Electrical characteristics
1. Transient characteristics : starting and braking
2. Steady state characteristics: Running
3. Speed control
5. Mechanical consideration
1. Type of enclosure
2. Bearing
3. Transmission of power
4. Noise level
6. Service capacity
1. Continuous intermittent or variable load cycle
2. Over load capacity and maximum torque

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7. Appearance
8. Cost
1. Capital cost
2. Running cost

20

15)b)Various methods of speed control of Industrial drive:

i)Constant torque applications
ii)Variable torque applications
DC Variable drive
Speed control of induction motors
a)AC Variable frequency drive
b)Slip power recovery drives

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UNIT: 3

EE81-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND

CONSERVATION

I. Tidal energy, Wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy... (Any two)

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2. The minimum wind velocity required for power generation through wind mill is about 2.5mis.
3. Methods of improving power -factor: .
(i) Static capacitors (ii) Synchronous condensers
(iv) High Power-factor motors
(iii) Induction motors with phase advancers

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4. Different types of Tariff:

(i) Simple tariff (ii) Block rate tariff (iii) Two part tariff (iv) Maximum demand tariff (v) Power
factor tariff

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5. Illumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.
6. Advantages of electric heating:
(i) Cleanliness (ii) Absence of flue gas
cost (v) Uniform heating
(iii) Ease of control (iv) Low attention and maintenance

7. Merits of series-parallel starting of traction motors:

(i) In series-parallel method the efficiency of the starter increases with more number of motors
(ii) It gives economical running speeds without any resistance in the circuit

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8. Factors affecting specific energy consumption:

(i) Gradient (ii) Average (or) maximum speed (iii) Distance between stops (iv) Acceleration and
Retardation

9. In many industrial applications the load varies between wide limits over a span of few seconds.
This causes large peak demands of current and therefore voltage drop in the network is maximum.
The process of smoothing out such fluctuating loads is kno as load equalization.
10. Group Drive
Merits: (i) A single machine of rating less than the sum of all connected loads can be used.
(ii) Economical
Demerits: (i) Efficiency is low as losses occur in several transmitting mechanisms
(ii) The complete system requires shutdown if the motor requires servicing or repair
(iii)little flexibility
(iv) More noise

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PART-B
II. (a) Conventional methods of power generation: (i) Hydro electric (ii) thermal! steam (iii)
Nuclear (2)
Explanation for anyone method (14)
II. (b) Wind mill ~ SchematicDiagram
(8)
Exp lanation

(8)

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12. (a) (i) Types of Energy Audit:

Preliminary Energy Audit
(4)
To establish energy consumption
To estimate the scope for energy savings
Identify simple energy saving proposals
Detailed Energy Audit
(4)
Pre Audit phase
.
Detailed Audit phase
Post Audit phase

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12. (a) (ii)Need for energy conservation in industry:

(4)
To maintain profits of the unit in the face of increasing energy costs
To ensure proper and adequate energy supply needed for the production
processes.
To ensure compliance with energy conservation targets and efficiency
standards
To ensure compliance of environment protection
Benefits of industries in implementation of energy conservation plans: (4)
Fuel savings, smaller size and lower cost of heating and cooling appliances, lesser maintenance
costs, lesser pollution, savings ill labor costs, etc.,
12. (b)

(8)
Load Factor = average load/ maximum demand
= energy consumed/ (maximum demand x 24)

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= [(8000x4)+(7500x4)+(4500x4)+(4000x6)+(3000x4)+(2000x2)]/(8000x24)
= 62.5% or 0.625 .
(2)

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13.(a) (i) Mercury Vapor lamp

Explanation

(4)

13. (a) (ii) Lamp intensity =500c.p

Maximum illumination at the centre of the floor area= E/D2= 500/32= 55.55lux (4)
Minimum illumination at the comers of the floor area =(E /D2) x cos [= 36.86]

13.(b)

= ( 500 / 32 ) x 0.6= 33.33 lux

(4)

Vph= 440/3
Power / phase (P) = Vph2 /R = 10000 W
R =Vph2 //P=(440//3)2/10000
= 6.4516

(4)

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= 0.9, = 0.5, TI= 1373K (1100+273), T2. = 973 K (700+273)

H=6.86x104W/m2
Area available for heat radiation =2 x w x L m2
Assuming loss less heat transfer, 6.86 x 104x 2 x w x L= 10000
W x t= 0.0728 ---------(B)
Solving(A) &(B),
L = 10.75 m I phase
(4)
and w =6.77mm
(4)

Explanation

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14. (a)(i)

(6)
(10)

14. (a) (ii) Average speed =45 kmph; D =1500

= 1.5 kmphps =0.416 m /sec2;
= 3 kmphps = 0.833 m/ sec2
t = tl(acceleration)+ t2(free running) + t3(braking)

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t =(distance between stations)/ (average speed in m/s) = 120 s

(8)
Equating and then solving (A) and (B),
WL= 65.55 tonnes
15. (a) Factors affecting selection of motor (explanation with example)
(i) Electrical characteristics
(4)
(ii) Size of motor
(4)
(iii)Mechanical factors
(4)
(iv)Cost
(4)

15. (b) Modern methods of speed control

DC motor control: (i) rectifier and (ii) chopper
(2)
AC motor control: (i) inverter (ii) chopper and (iii) ac voltage control (2)
Explanation for any 2 of the above methods
(12)

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UNIT:4 & 5
EE81-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND
CONSERVATION
1

.Nicrome (Nickel-80%+chromium-20%)
-is suitable for temperatures upto 1150o and for work in severe conditions.

2.1.Butt welding
2.Flash welding
3.Spot welding
4. Seam welding
5.Projection welding

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3. lumen
The lumen is defined in relation to the candela by

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1 lm = 1 cdsr

That is, a light source that uniformly radiates one candela in all directions radiates a total
of 4 lumens
Lux:

The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance. It is used in
photometry as a measure of the apparent intensity of light hitting or passing through a
surface Lux is a derived unit based on lumen, and lumen is a derived unit based on
candela.

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One lux is equal to one lumen per square metre, where 4 lumens is the total luminous
flux of a light source of one candela of luminous intensity:

1 lx = 1 lmm = 1 cdsrm2.
4. luminous efficiency - 40W incandescent lamp 1.9%
luminous efficiency - 40W fluorescent lamp 8-11%

-2

5.Tractive effort:
"The force exerted at the edge of the driving wheel of a locomotive expressed in pounds
5. 1.Cheaper method
2.It has smooth and rapid acceleration and braking
3. Maintenance cost is less.
4.It has very high starting torque.

6. The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is equal to the gram-atomic or

gram-molecular mass of this substance divided by the number of electrons
involved in the electrode reaction.
7. The battery capacity that battery manufacturers print on a battery is usually the
product of 20 hours multiplied by the maximum constant current that a new
battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a predetermined
terminal voltage per cell.
8. The judicious and effective use of energy to minimize energy cost and maximize
profits.

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10. Cost-benefit analysis is a term that refers both to:

helping to appraise, or assess, the case for a project or proposal, which itself is a
process known as project appraisal; and
an informal approach to making decisions of any kind.

PART-B
11.i)Sodium vapour lamp
Construction -----------------------(3)
Diagram ----------------------------(2)
Operation----------------------------(3)
Sodium vapor lamp
A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited
state to produce light.
There are two varieties of such lamps:
low pressure and
high pressure.
High pressure Sodium vapor lamp

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Theory of operation
An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp
and provides the sodium and mercury vapor in which the arc is drawn. The temperature
of the amalgam is determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher the lamp
power, the higher will be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of the
amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium vapor pressures in the lamp. An

increase in these metal pressures will cause a decrease in the electrical resistance of the
lamp.
For a given voltage, there are generally three modes of operation:
The lamp is extinguished and no current flows.
The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube.
The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.
The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to
the voltage, but the second state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will
cause an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will
cause a decrease in resistance, which will cause a further increase in current. This will
create a runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the high-current state (#3). Since
actual lamps are not designed to handle this much power, this would result in catastrophic
failure. Similarly, an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to extinction.
It is the second state which is the desired operating state of the lamp, because a
slow loss of the amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on the
characteristics of the lamp than a fully evaporated amalgam. The result is an average
lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours
In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage source in series with
inductive "ballast" in order to supply a nearly constant current to the lamp, rather than a
constant voltage, thus assuring stable operation.
The ballast is usually inductive rather than simply being resistive which
minimizes resistive losses. Also, since the lamp effectively extinguishes at each zerocurrent point in the AC cycle, the inductive ballast assists in the reignition by providing a
voltage spike at the zero-current point. High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient
about 100 lm/W, up to 150 lm/W, when measured for photopic lighting conditions. They
have been widely used for outdoor lighting such as streetlights and security lighting.

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11)ii)

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(i) Illumination at A = illumination due to lamp L1 + Illumination due to lamp L2

Illuminationat A=

(ii) Since point C is symmetrically situated between the two lamps its illumination is
twice that due to either lamp
=

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Illumination at C =

12)a)i) Ajax-Wyatt Induction furnace

Construction -----------------------(2)
Diagram ----------------------------(2)
Operation----------------------------(3)
Merits &Demerits -----------------(1)

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12)a)ii)

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Current flowing through the material,

12)b)i)Arc Welding

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Principle of operation of
Arc Welding --------------(4) Welding is a material
joining process that produces coalescence * of materials by heating them to the welding
temperature with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure
alone, and with or without the use of filler metal.
Applications: It is used to replace riveted or bolted joints in the construction of ships,
bridges steel frame, buildings, tank pipe lines etc
*The growing together or growth into one body of the materials being welded.
Advantages:
1. Welding is the lowest cost joining method
2. It affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials.
3. It joins all commercial metals.
4. It provides design flexibility.
Disadvantages
1. Some welding depends on the human factor.
2. It often needs internal inspection.
TYPES OF WELDING
I. Resistance welding
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Projection welding
4. Butt welding
II. Arc welding
1. Carbon arc welding
2. Metal arc welding
3. Atomic hydrogen welding
III. Modern welding
Ultrasonic welding
Comparison &Contrast of Carbon &metal arc Weldiing -------(4) An electric arc
is produced by bringing two conductors (electrode and metal piece) connected to suitable
source of electric current, momentarily in contact and the separating by a small distance.
The current continues to flow across the small gap and gives intense heat. The heat
developed is utilized to melt the part of the work piece, and the filler metal and thus
forms the joint. It is used for joining of metal parts, repair of fractured castings and the
filling by the deposition of new metal on worn out parts.
1.
Carbon arc welding

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For heavier welds or where heavy build-up is required, carbon arc is employed with
carbon electrode size up to 25mm diameter and current up to 800A. Arc is struck between
carbon electrode and work piece and filler electrode may be used for required deposition
of metal.
To avoid transfer of electrode material into the weld metal, electrode is
always kept negative and work as positive. Due to high rate of heat production, carbon
arc welding is used for copper welding as copper has high thermal conductivity.

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2.Metal arc welding

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In metal arc welding, arc is drawn between work piece and wire electrode. The wire is
melted down into the weld. Bare metal arc welding is not considered satisfactory. During
welding process, both the globules of molten electrode wire and parent metal are exposed
to the oxidizing and nitrating action of oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere. Oxides
reduce the ductility of the weld and nitrides produce embrittlement in the weld deposit.
Thus the weld lacks required strength and ductility. So it is preferred for unimportant
works and for metal deposition on railway wagon wheels, travelling crane wheels etc...

12)b)ii)Arc resistance RA=EA/I

=50/5000
=0.01

Total resistance in the secondary circuit=0.012

Total reactance in the secondary circuit=0.004

ZS=R2+X2=0.0126
VS=I ZS=63.25 Volts
tan=X/R=0.333
=1118.435
cos=0.9487

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power drawn from the supply= 3ESIS cos

=900KW

13)a)D.C.Series motor suitable for electric traction:

i)Starting characteristics
ii)Operating characteristics
iii )Mechanical characteristics
iv)Regulation characteristics
13)a)ii)

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13)b)i)Tractive effort on a gradient:

Diagram
-----------------(2)
Derivation
---------------(4)
Co-efficient of adhesion ---------(2)
MECHANICS OF TRAIN MOVEMENT

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---------------(8)

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Fig.4.4.Transmissionoftractiveeffort

How traction motor produces tractive effort at the train wheel is shown in fig.4.4.
Armature of the driving motor drives pinion which meshes with gear wheel keyed to the
driving axle.
Let,
T=the torque exerted by motor
F=the tractive effort exerted by driving wheel
F=the tractive effort exerted by the pinion
d= diameter of pinion in meter
d= diameter of gear wheel in meter
D= diameter of driving wheel in meter

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Tractive effort exerted by the pinion

= Efficiency of transmission of power from motor to driving axle

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Coefficient of adhesion
The above equation suggests that tractive effort at the driving wheels can be
increased by increasing the torque exerted by the motor. This is possible up to a certain
limit after which any increase in the motor torque does not increase the tractive effort but
causes driving wheels to slip. It has been found that the maximum value of tractive effort
at which driving wheels will not slip, depends upon the dead weight over the driving
axle.
F W
F = W if F is expressed in Newton and W in tonnes

Where, is called the coefficient of adhesion

Coefficient of adhesion in electric train is greater than steam traction due to the following
two reasons.
1. In electric traction the torque exerted is continuous whereas in steam engine the
torque is pulsating which causes jolting and skidding.
In electric traction the driving wheels are distributed over a much greater length whereas
steam engine they are close to each other

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13)b)ii)Series parallel control

i) Series parallel starting shunt transition -------------(4)
ii) Series parallel starting bridge transition -------------(4)
Series Parallel Control
This method is usually employed in electric traction as motors employed for
traction work are usually 2, 4, 6 or greater than even. First consider two motors; these
two motors are connected in series with each other and starting resistance. At the starting
instant, the voltage across the motors is approximately equal to zero and voltage drop
across starting resistance is maximum and equal to zero. As the motor speed up, the
external resistance is gradually reduced to zero. During this period the voltage acting
across each motor gradually increases from 0 to V/2.

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Fig.4.7(a)Seriesparallelcontrol

Letthetimerequiredbehalfoftotalacceleratingperiodi.eT/2seconds.

Now, the motors are changed from series grouping to parallel grouping (starting
to running). Starting resistance is again in the motors circuit. The voltage across the each
motor is equal to V/2 volts .The current per motor is I ampere, Current drawn from the
line is 2I amperes. As the motors speed up, the external resistance is gradually reduced to
zero and voltage across each motor increases gradually from V/2 to V volts.

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Fig.4.7(b)Seriesparallelcontrol

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14)a)

VIT

Electroplating is a plating process that uses electrical current to reduce cations of a

desired material from a solution and coat a conductive object with a thin layer of the
material, such as a metal. Electroplating is primarily used for depositing a layer of
material to bestow a desired property (e.g., abrasion and wear resistance, corrosion
protection, lubricity, aesthetic qualities, etc.) to a surface that otherwise lacks that
property. Another application uses electroplating to build up thickness on undersized
parts.

11

The process used in electroplating is called electrodeposition. It is analogous to a

galvanic cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is the cathode of the circuit. In one
technique, the anode is made of the metal to be plated on the part. Both components are
immersed in a solution called an electrolyte containing one or more dissolved metal salts
as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity. A rectifier supplies a direct
current to the anode, oxidizing the metal atoms that comprise it and allowing them to
dissolve in the solution. At the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte
solution are reduced at the interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they
"plate out" onto the cathode. The rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate
at which the cathode is plated, vis-a-vis the current flowing through the circuit. In this
manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are continuously replenished by the anode.

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Other electroplating processes may use a nonconsumable anode such as lead. In these
techniques, ions of the metal to be plated must be periodically replenished in the bath as
they are drawn out of the solution.

Limitations:
Obtaining a uniform thickness with electroplating can be difficult depending on the
geometry of the object being plated. The plating metal is preferentially attracted to
external corners and protrusions, but unattracted to internal corners and recesses.
These difficulties can be overcome with multiple anodes or a specially shaped anode
that mimics the object geometry, however both of these solutions increase cost.[

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14)b)Nickel Cadmium Cell: The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd

or nicad) is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic
cadmium as electrodes.

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The abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this

brand name is commonly used to describe all nickel-cadmium batteries. On the other
hand, the abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and
cadmium (Cd), though it is not to be confused with a chemical formula.

There are two types of NiCd batteries: sealed and vented.

When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the NiCd battery has a number of
distinct advantages.

The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep
discharge for long periods. In fact, NiCd batteries in long-term storage are
typically stored fully discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion
batteries, which are highly volatile and will be permanently damaged if
discharged below a minimum voltage.

12

NiCd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge

cycles, than other rechargeable batteries.

Compared to lead-acid batteries, NiCd batteries have a much higher energy

density. A NiCd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead-acid battery.
In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example,
aircraft), NiCd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead-acid batteries.

In consumer applications, NiCd batteries compete directly with alkaline batteries.

A NiCd cell has a lower capacity than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs
more. However, since the alkaline battery's chemical reaction is not reversible, a
reusable NiCd battery has a significantly longer total lifetime. There have been
attempts to create rechargeable alkaline batteries, such as the rechargeable
alkaline, or specialized battery chargers for charging single-use alkaline batteries,
but none that has seen wide usage.

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The terminal voltage of a NiCd battery declines more slowly as it is discharged,

compared with carbon-zinc batteries. Since an alkaline battery's voltage drops
significantly as the charge drops, most consumer applications are well equipped to
deal with the slightly lower NiCd voltage with no noticeable loss of performance.

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are the newest, and most similar,
competitor to NiCd batteries. Compared to NiCd, NiMH batteries have a higher
capacity and are less toxic, and are now more cost effective. However, a NiCd
battery has a lower self-discharge rate (for example, 20% per month for a NiCd,
versus 30% per month for a traditional NiMH under identical conditions),
although low self-discharge NiMH batteries are now available, which have
substantially lower self-discharge than either NiCd or traditional NiMH. This
results in a preference for NiCd over NiMH in applications where the current
draw on the battery is lower than the battery's own self-discharge rate (for
example, television remote controls). In both types of cell, the self-discharge rate
is highest for a full charge state and drops off somewhat for lower charge states.
Finally, a similarly-sized NiCd battery has a slightly lower internal resistance, and
thus can achieve a higher maximum discharge rate (which can be important for
applications such as power tools).

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Disadvantages

The primary trade-off with NiCd batteries is their higher cost and the use of cadmium.
They are more costly than lead-acid batteries because nickel and cadmium are more
costly materials.
One of the NiCd's biggest disadvantages is that the battery exhibits a very marked
negative temperature coefficient. This means that as the cell temperature rises, the
internal resistance falls. This can pose considerable charging problems, particularly with
the relatively simple charging systems employed for lead-acid type batteries. Whilst lead-

13

acid batteries can be charged by simply connecting a dynamo to it, with a simple
electromagnetic cut-out system for when the dynamo is stationary or an over-current
occurs, the NiCd under a similar charging scheme would exhibit thermal runaway, where
the charging current would continue to rise until the over-current cut-out operated or the
battery destroyed itself. This is the principal factor that prevents its use as engine-starting
batteries. Today with alternator-based charging systems with solid-state regulators, the
construction of a suitable charging system would be relatively simple, but the car
manufacturers are reluctant to abandon tried-and-tested technology.

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"Eveready" sealed nickel-cadmium batteries are ideally suited for use in many types of
battery-operated equipment. Some of the many applications are listed here:
Calculators
Cassette players and recorders
Dictating machines
Digital Cameras
Instruments
Personal Pagers
Photoflash equipment

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15)a) Energy audit Introduction -----------------------(4)

Need for Energy audit
----------------------(4)
Various methods of energy audit
-------------------(8)
A systematic approach, to monitor industrial energy consumption and to pin-point
sources of wastage, is known as Energy Audit. In the present energy scenario and the era
industrial competition Energy Auditing has become a very important part of any
industrial
activity.

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An Energy Audit Study helps an organization to understand and analyse its energy
utilisation and identify areas where energy use can be reduced, decide on how to budget
energy use, plan & practice feasible energy conservation methods that will enhance their
energy efficiency, curtail energy wastage and substantially reduce energy costs.

The Energy Audit serves to identify all the energy streams in a facility, qualify energy
usage with its discrete functions, in an attempt to balance the total energy input with its
use. Energy Audit is thus the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the
area of Energy Management. As a result, the Energy Audit Study becomes an effective
tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive Energy Management Programme (EMP).

An Energy Audit Study includes

Auditing of Energy Consumption (including any heat and power generated)

14

General examination of work place (including physical condition of organisation,

its processes, occupancy time, and variations in ambient temperature and energy
consumption pattern etc.)
Measurement of all energy flows( including testing of boiler or steam raising,
heating equipment, refrigeration, etc.)
Analysis and appraisal of energy usage.(e.g. specific fuel consumption, energyproduct interrelationship).
Energy management procedures and methodology.
Identification of energy improvement opportunities and recommendations for
energy efficiency measures and quantification of implementation costs and
paybacks.
Identification of possible usages of co-generation, renewable sources of energy
and recommendations for implementation, wherever possible, with cost benefit
analysis.

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The term energy audit is commonly used to describe a broad spectrum of energy studies
ranging from a quick walk-through of a facility to identify major problem areas to a
comprehensive analysis of the implications of alternative energy efficiency measures
sufficient to satisfy the financial criteria of sophisticated investors. Three common audit
programs are described in more detail below, although the actual tasks performed and
level of effort may vary with the consultant providing services under these broad
headings. The only way to insure that a proposed audit will meet your specific needs is to
spell out those requirements in a detailed scope of work. Taking the time to prepare a
formal solicitation will also assure the building owner of receiving competitive and
comparable proposals.
Preliminary Audit

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The preliminary audit alternatively called a simple audit, screening audit or walk-through
audit, is the simplest and quickest type of audit. It involves minimal interviews with site
operating personnel, a brief review of facility utility bills and other operating data, and a
walk-through of the facility to become familiar with the building operation and identify
glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency.

Typically, only major problem areas will be uncovered during this type of audit.
Corrective measures are briefly described, and quick estimates of implementation cost,
potential operating cost savings, and simple payback periods are provided. This level of
detail, while not sufficient for reaching a final decision on implementing a proposed
measures, is adequate to prioritize energy efficiency projects and determine the need for a
more detailed audit.

General Audit
The general audit alternatively called a mini-audit, site energy audit or complete site
energy audit expands on the preliminary audit described above by collecting more
detailed information about facility operation and performing a more detailed evaluation

15

of energy conservation measures identified. Utility bills are collected for a 12 to 36

month period to allow the auditor to evaluate the facility's energy/demand rate structures,
and energy usage profiles. Additional metering of specific energy-consuming systems is
often performed to supplement utility data. In-depth interviews with facility operating
personnel are conducted to provide a better understanding of major energy consuming
systems as well as insight into variations in daily and annual energy consumption and
demand.

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This type of audit will be able to identify all energy conservation measures appropriate
for the facility given its operating parameters. A detailed financial analysis is performed
for each measure based on detailed implementation cost estimates, site-specific operating
cost savings, and the customer's investment criteria. Sufficient detail is provided to justify
project implementation.

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Investment-Grade Audit

In most corporate settings, upgrades to a facility's energy infrastructure must compete

with non-energy related investments for capital funding. Both energy and non-energy
investments are rated on a single set of financial criteria that generally stress the expected
return on investment (ROI). The projected operating savings from the implementation of
energy projects must be developed such that they provide a high level of confidence. In
fact, investors often demand guaranteed savings.

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The investment-grader audit alternatively called a comprehensive audit, detailed

audit, maxi audit, or technical analysis audit, expands on the general audit described
above by providing a dynamic model of energy use characteristics of both the
existing facility and all energy conservation measures identified. The building model
is calibrated against actual utility data to provide a realistic baseline against which to
compute operating savings for proposed measures. Extensive attention is given to
understanding not only the operating characteristics of all energy consuming systems,
but also situations that cause load profile variations on both an annual and daily basis.
Existing utility data is supplemented with submetering of major energy consuming
systems and monitoring of system operating characteristics.

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15)b)Depreciation and its objectives:-------------------------------(6)

The value of the power plant decreases from its initial value to the salvage value
at the end of its useful life. This depreciation is due to ageing, wear and tear of
machinery, corrosion, weathering, inadequacy and obsolescence of equipment etc. At the
end of the useful life of the plant, funds must be available to replace the equipment. The
depreciation charge represents the amount which is set aside from income every year and
placed in depreciation reserve. For calculating this charge, it is necessary to estimate the
useful life of plant.
METHODS OF DETERMINING DEPRECIATION

1. Straightlinemethod
2. Diminishingvaluemethod
3. Sinkingfundmethod

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Straight Line Method

A constant depreciation charge is made every year on the basis of total
depreciation and the useful life of the property.
If,
Where, P = Initial cost of equipment; n = useful life of the equipment (yrs); S = Scrap or
salvage value after the useful life
Defects: Assumption of constant depreciation charge every year is not correct. It does not
account for the interest which may be drawn during accumulation.
P

Total depreciation

Value

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Fig.2.9.Straightlinemethod
Useful life

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Depreciation

Diminishing value method

Depreciation charge is made every year at a fixed rate on the diminished value of
equipment. i.e. Depreciation is first applied to the initial cost of equipment and then to its
diminished value.
Depreciation rate per annum (x) is given as;

Defects: Low depreciation charges are made in the late years when maintenance and
repair charges are quite high. Depreciation charge is independent of the rate of interest
which it may draw during accumulation. (If earned can be treated as interest)

Value

Depreciation

Total depreciation

Fig.2.10.
Diminishing
Useful
life value method
Sinking fund method
Fixed depreciation charge is made every year and interest compounded on it
annually. The constant depreciation charge is such that total of annual installments plus

17

the interest accumulations equal to the cost of replacement of equipment after its useful
life.
Let, r = is annual rate of interest in decimal value.
q = is depreciation charge every year and interest compounded on it so that
amount (P-S) is available after n years.
Then, q can be obtained as;
Value q gives uniform annual depreciation charge.

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Depreciation

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Total depreciation

Value

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Useful life

TwoMethods
The Straight line method

------------------------------(10)

It first calculates the depreciable base (cost less salvage) before dividing it by number of
years (life of machine) to arrive at annual rate of depreciation. The straight-line method
is the most straightforward method of Asset Value Depreciation. But:

Not all equipment deteriorates equally e.g. a car, over its

useful life.

Methods based on actual usage: total life are too

cumbersome to be practicable

For Example: Say a machine costs Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 1,000 (as additional setup/installation/maintenance expenses) = Rs 11,000 but we anticipate/guess its Kabari
(Scrap Value) at Rs. 3,000 at the end of its useful life, of say, 10 yrs,
we get:

Cost of Machine + Installation + Directly Associated Costs = Total Cost

Total Cost - Salvage Value (At end of 10 yr. Period) = Depreciable base
10,000 + 1,000 =11000 (Total cost)
11000 3,000 = 8,000 as the Depreciable Base
Depreciable Base = Rs. 8,000, Spread out over 10 yrs = Rs. 8000/10(Yrs) = Rs 800/depreciation per year.

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This happens when we accurately assess asset life, but:

If the machine outlasts its estimated life, we stop depreciation thereafter.
If it fetches more salvage value, we book a Gain. If salvage value is 5000, against
3000 (Book Value at end of 10 yrs), we show a Gain of Rs. 2000.
If the machine becomes obsolete after a mere 3 years, depreciation is 3(yrs) x 800
(p.a.) = 2400/-, less scrap value Rs. 500/-, we have a net loss of
11,000 2400 = Rs. 8600 (book value) 500 (salvage returns) = Rs 8,100 (loss).
Cost = 11000
Annual Depreciation = 800 x 3= 2400 = 8600 (Book value)
(Book value) 8600 500 (salvage value) = 8100 (Net loss)

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Proportionate Annual Depreciation of Rs. 800 (8000 10) is an example of the Straight
Line Method of Depreciation.

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The Written Down Value Method

Written down value, applicable to machines that have high rates of

depreciation in the initial year or two, and later taper it e.g. a car, is a usable method.

Under this method, depreciation is charged at a fixed rate every year, ON

THE REDUCING BALANCE. A certain percentage is applied to the previous
years book value, to arrive at the current years depreciation/ book value,
WHICH SHOWS A DECLINING BALANCE, WEIGHTED FOR
EARLIER YEARS, AND LOWER AND LOWER FOR LATER YEARS, as
the machine grows older.
Accelerates depreciation taken in early years. Reduces the amount taken in later
years. Ignores salvage value; starts with depreciable base = asset cost.

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Declining Balance Method

It can be of many types: For example,
200 per cent declining balance, OR
Double declining balance, is one popular method

EXAMPLE OF DOUBLE DECLINING BALANCE METHOD:

[The Double Declining Method takes an amount (usually double, i.e. 200% of the amount
that we take in the Straight Line Method) and applies it to the book value of an asset each
year]:

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Suppose the asset costing Rs.16,000 has AN ESTIMATED USEFUL LIFE OF 5

YEARS, the depreciation would be calculated as follows:
YEAR

DEPRECIABLE BASE

PERCENTAGE
(FIXED)

DEPRECIATION

16000-0

x 0.40

6,400

16000-0-6400

x 0.40

3,840

16000-6400-3840=5750

x 0.40

2,304

16000-6400-3840-2304

x 0.40

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Depreciation in the 5 year is only Rs. 74 to finally write off the entire machine
depreciable base (Rs. 16000/-) less scrap value (Rs. 2000).

This example also shows accelerated, i.e. realistic, depreciation in early years of the
machines life, when its productivity/ book value is higher, as opposed to its fall in value
in later years, and commensurate retarded depreciation.

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Comparison of Methods of Depreciation:

Many companies choose straight-line method for reporting depreciation to

shareholders because net income is higher in early year.
Because net income is lower in early years, some companies prefer the written
down value method, especially for Income Tax purposes

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