paste might seize up, dogging the small holes in the screen rather

than nowing smoothly through them onto the dough.

Pdle.lllorL offe~ the baker innumerable possibilities for <:reo
alive decorative work. and this section :>hows just a small fradion
of what can be made. There are abundant methods beyond the few
shown here that can expand the baker"; expreSSion. ror example,
molds made [Jom either food-grade silicone or plaster of paris can
be fashioned, into which the dough is pressed, removed, and baked
prior to final assembly (I have used ml)lds to make thing<;as
diverse as legs for minialure lables, ears of com. and a bust of
Beethoven). Wheelbarrow~ and roosters, bakers peels and Easter
bunnies. tables and ch:lirs sJcepmg kittens-all can be made with
the dough. Certain skills are of course requlred to become profi
cient wilh pelle nlOne. aU attainable \\ith persewrance; once! these
arc acqUired. anI) your Imaginalion will dctermme the limits 01
potenual for thiS inleresling and rich aspen of baking.

350

B~: II. Bakar'_.Book of Teobn1qultS and

Reclpes

Appendix

Developing and Perpetuating a

Sourdough Culture
There is so much confusion and misink'lrtn3tionsurrounding the
lopic of making a sourdough culture lhal, evcn after more than a
quarter (cnlury of workiog with sourJough (or p~rhap5 hecause
of thaI quarteT cenLlITv), I find mvsc.lf baffled and befuddled b)
much of what I read Sometimes. it seems as if the baker has to he
a SCiCOlc:'l ina lab coat and mask surrounded by lest tubes to make
sourdough. Sometimes. it seems as if Lhe onl)' wa)' Lo make .sour
dough is to wait until Capricorn is somewhere or anolher in the
skr. thl:' winds are lightly from the east. the moon is \vaxjng. and
a sp~cial lypt: 01 crystal is hobhing ahove the bowl of nom and
water <IS one incants secret chants. Oh the mysteries' The reallly
Is. gratefully, between these tWO extremes. To make a \'iable and
long-lived sourdough cultUIl' takes understanding, persistcnce,
and ~ln occasional bir of intuirion but it 1S not a terribly daunting
endeavor.
1 hell' are two distinct phascs involved in sourdough: The
firsl is JI:vd.Jl'iltg lhe: culture. a process thal generally lakes (, to 10
tla'\os: the second is pt?Ipctllating the culture, so that it can be suc
cessfully used in bread production fOT years. Developing a sour
Jough culturt: simply requires allracting yeasLS anu bacteria that
will coexist. the wild yeasts providing Ieavcllingand the various
strains of LaclIJbacillus pro\idingjlavOl.
wild YC<l5ts live in abundance in the air, as w~lI as on seeds,
grains. frulLS, and vegetables, The skm of grapes and otha fruits
contain wild yeast, as tloes the powden film at the base of the
OUlLr leaves of, cabbage. Flour also is a fa\orahle environment for
wild vcast; in fact, there are lens of tho~nds of )'east cells in a
single gram of nour (a gram of commercial yeast. on the other
hand. con wins several billion veast cells).

,ndlx

351

Sourdough and
Alchemy

the eye to pause and linger on the

breadfriendly yeasts and bacteria

globe-like wholeness of each loaf.

to take up residence in our litde

We feel as if we are tn the presence

of some long ancient mystery. an

keep the culture in harmonious

cient yet always renewed.

The suffusingarom;u ofa bakery

filled with just-baked sourdough

bowl of fragile culture; when

\Y~

balance for years, fresh and "igor

Bread baking has always

ous, constantly renewed, and b:lk

brought me in touch with the

with it again and again, it is easy

ephemeral nature of life, and never

to

scious truth. It is tempting to sim

more lhan when I am producing

For rather than needless gold from

ply StOP in front of the fragrant

sourdough breads I have often

base metals the baker's alchemy

loaves. disregarding all the work

maintained that sourdough repre

is in the bringing together of

still around us: How perfectly the

sents the true alchemy of the

ingredients that on their own

cupped hands form around the

baker. When we create a sour

cannot uphold life and transform

contours of the warm bread; how

dough culwre from seemingly

ing them inco nourishing', life

(he subtle gradations of color draw

Inerr flour and water, and coa

sustaining bread.

bread~

have an allure that brings

us to a place of almoS[ precon

feel like an alchemist, and

mo,~.

Once water is added LO tbe aour, rhe life cycle of the incipient
t.ullure is begun After 24 hours in a wann room. the Oour-water
paste \\;11 show signs of having risen The evidence of rise indicates
the presence of gas within the bowl; the presence of gas means that
metabolism is under way-yes, there is life in the bowl: A liltle
colony of microorganisms has begun taking up residence. At fir!>t,
things aTe tentative and fragile. there is liLlle strength. the culture
is yulnerable to intrusion by non-bread-lriendly yeasts and bacte
ria Soon. a natural selection will take place. and if all goes well.
heneficial strains of bactena will dominate the culture. They will
work to create an environment that favors their own perpetuation.
the synergy between yeasts and bacteria sufficient to ward off the
incursion of competing strains The baker, by providing food anLl
water in suffiCient quantity. at proper intervals. and keeping th~
developmg culture in a favorable temperature zone. ooes hi.... or her
part to aid in the growth of the sourdough. Soon, thl: culture is
strong enough to make bread. and unfathomable Oavors fotlow
almost as if b) magiC.
Regional uniqueness is a fOTlunate characteristic of sour
dough bread. The ambient yeasts and bacteria In one area will nat
urall) differ from those in another and breads from different
locations have a ~ubtle distinctiveness of theu own. Although thet'

352

BIoead: A Baker'.

Boo~

of Teclmtque. and R"",lpea

is a symbiotic stabiliLy between the yeasts and bacteria in a healthy

culture. if a baker gets a knob of mature sourdough culLurc from
another baker halfway around the world. it will lose some of Its
original characteristics once the recipient baker has refreshed and
worked with the culture in his home environment (in this sense.
the Vermont Sourdough in Chapter 5 would be erroneou!>l)
named if it were made in another area, thai formula and the same
production method will make Kansas Sourdough or Finland
Sourdough or Wherever Sourdough).

Notes on Sourdough
Methods are ofIered helow for making three different styles of
sourdough culture' while liqUid levain, stiff-textured levam, and a
e culture. Before giving the actual methods for each type. a few
considerations are in ordcr:
Occasionally grapes, potato water, grated onions. honey and so
on are added to Oour and water dunng the irutial phases of cul
ture development. While these can prOVide an additional nUln
tional boost. they are not required for success. GOl)d-qualll)
nour will be sufficient to supply the needed nutrients to the cul
ture.
Bleached nour is never appropriate when Lleveloping or perpetu
ating sourdough. Vital nutrients necessary to sustain the mIcro
organisms (not to mcntion the humans who later consume the
bread) are lost in the bleaching process.
High-gluten Oour is not a good Oour choice when beginninf; a
culture. Bemg higher in protein. it contains proportionally less
starch, and much of the nutrient supply for the microorgamsms
comes from the starc:h.
Chlorinated water impedes fermentation and can be harmful
during the fragile begmnmgs of culture development Chlorine
gas rapidly dissipates, however. and by keeping an open jug of
water on the counter for several hours. most alllhe chlorine will
dlSSipate. Filtered water and well water can. of course, bt:: used
to begin a culture.
Allor part rye nour is often used in the beginning slage of devel
oping a culture that will eventually become all white. Rye is
quite high in nutrients and fermentable sugars. and can help get

ppend1x

353

Sourdough and
Alchemy

the eye to pause and linger on the

breadfriendly yeasts and bacteria

globe-like wholeness of each loaf.

to take up residence in our litde

We feel as if we are tn the presence

of some long ancient mystery. an

keep the culture in harmonious

cient yet always renewed.

The suffusingarom;u ofa bakery

filled with just-baked sourdough

bowl of fragile culture; when

\Y~

balance for years, fresh and "igor

Bread baking has always

ous, constantly renewed, and b:lk

brought me in touch with the

with it again and again, it is easy

ephemeral nature of life, and never

to

scious truth. It is tempting to sim

more lhan when I am producing

For rather than needless gold from

ply StOP in front of the fragrant

sourdough breads I have often

base metals the baker's alchemy

loaves. disregarding all the work

maintained that sourdough repre

is in the bringing together of

still around us: How perfectly the

sents the true alchemy of the

ingredients that on their own

cupped hands form around the

baker. When we create a sour

cannot uphold life and transform

contours of the warm bread; how

dough culwre from seemingly

ing them inco nourishing', life

(he subtle gradations of color draw

Inerr flour and water, and coa

sustaining bread.

bread~

have an allure that brings

us to a place of almoS[ precon

feel like an alchemist, and

mo,~.

Once water is added LO tbe aour, rhe life cycle of the incipient
t.ullure is begun After 24 hours in a wann room. the Oour-water
paste \\;11 show signs of having risen The evidence of rise indicates
the presence of gas within the bowl; the presence of gas means that
metabolism is under way-yes, there is life in the bowl: A liltle
colony of microorganisms has begun taking up residence. At fir!>t,
things aTe tentative and fragile. there is liLlle strength. the culture
is yulnerable to intrusion by non-bread-lriendly yeasts and bacte
ria Soon. a natural selection will take place. and if all goes well.
heneficial strains of bactena will dominate the culture. They will
work to create an environment that favors their own perpetuation.
the synergy between yeasts and bacteria sufficient to ward off the
incursion of competing strains The baker, by providing food anLl
water in suffiCient quantity. at proper intervals. and keeping th~
developmg culture in a favorable temperature zone. ooes hi.... or her
part to aid in the growth of the sourdough. Soon, thl: culture is
strong enough to make bread. and unfathomable Oavors fotlow
almost as if b) magiC.
Regional uniqueness is a fOTlunate characteristic of sour
dough bread. The ambient yeasts and bacteria In one area will nat
urall) differ from those in another and breads from different
locations have a ~ubtle distinctiveness of theu own. Although thet'

352

BIoead: A Baker'.

Boo~

of Teclmtque. and R"",lpea

is a symbiotic stabiliLy between the yeasts and bacteria in a healthy

culture. if a baker gets a knob of mature sourdough culLurc from
another baker halfway around the world. it will lose some of Its
original characteristics once the recipient baker has refreshed and
worked with the culture in his home environment (in this sense.
the Vermont Sourdough in Chapter 5 would be erroneou!>l)
named if it were made in another area, thai formula and the same
production method will make Kansas Sourdough or Finland
Sourdough or Wherever Sourdough).

Notes on Sourdough
Methods are ofIered helow for making three different styles of
sourdough culture' while liqUid levain, stiff-textured levam, and a
e culture. Before giving the actual methods for each type. a few
considerations are in ordcr:
Occasionally grapes, potato water, grated onions. honey and so
on are added to Oour and water dunng the irutial phases of cul
ture development. While these can prOVide an additional nUln
tional boost. they are not required for success. GOl)d-qualll)
nour will be sufficient to supply the needed nutrients to the cul
ture.
Bleached nour is never appropriate when Lleveloping or perpetu
ating sourdough. Vital nutrients necessary to sustain the mIcro
organisms (not to mcntion the humans who later consume the
bread) are lost in the bleaching process.
High-gluten Oour is not a good Oour choice when beginninf; a
culture. Bemg higher in protein. it contains proportionally less
starch, and much of the nutrient supply for the microorgamsms
comes from the starc:h.
Chlorinated water impedes fermentation and can be harmful
during the fragile begmnmgs of culture development Chlorine
gas rapidly dissipates, however. and by keeping an open jug of
water on the counter for several hours. most alllhe chlorine will
dlSSipate. Filtered water and well water can. of course, bt:: used
to begin a culture.
Allor part rye nour is often used in the beginning slage of devel
oping a culture that will eventually become all white. Rye is
quite high in nutrients and fermentable sugars. and can help get

ppend1x

353

the culrure off to a good start. Similarly, some bakers soak bran
in water overnight before commencing their culture; the draine
water is mixed with the flour. as it is nutrient rich Crom the bran.
Yeast production is faster than the production of acidity during
the early stages. This is wh} we see evidence of a rise in the cul
ture after several hours, but taste little acidity. If correCt feedings
and temperature are maintainecL aCIdity will become evident
after a few days.
The bacteria m sourdough cultures come mainly from the genus
Lacwbadl/us. In young and developing cultures, homofermenta_
tive bacteria develop, producing lactic acid. Older cultures have
more complex flavors than young ones, largely due to the pres
ence of heterofennentative bacteria, which produce bOth lactic
and acetic acid.
The presence of both lactic and acetic acids, in balance. is most
favordble in sourdough bread production. The laCtic acid pro
vides smoothness (somewhat akin to yogurt), willIe the acetic
acid gives a pronounced sour bite (think vinegar) The develop
ment of lactic acid is favored in warm environments and loose
dough condltions; acetic acids develop more readiI}' in cool and
still conditions The baker can use that knowledge to impart
desired navors to his or her bread through manipttlanon of tem
perature and hydration.

Ideall), <;ourdough cultures should be refreshed dail) and used

LO make bread daily (this is more proof that we live Ln a le55
than-ideal world). "Refreshing~ simply meam feeding the cul
ture with nour and water. In typical hread production, the
sourdoughs are built in 1. 2. or 3 stages 0\ er a period of roughly
]6 to 2-+ hOUTS. Each build constitutt:s a refreshing, and when
the baker removes a small portion of the npe. sourdough just
before mixing Lhe final dough. the removed sourdough is con
sidered fully refreshed. One prinCIple remains the same.
\\ hethcr the sourdough 15 developed using 1 build or 3 builds.
and this principle is at the hean of sourdough bread produttion:
Once the culture has been built and is at the pomt of maturity.
a small pomon must be removed and sayed for future use.
It's good practice to evaluate the maturity of the sourdough
prior to each bread-making sesslOn The signs of ripeness in a
sourdough art' simllar to those of a yeasted pre-ferment. The rye
or stiff \\-hite sourdough will be domed on the top. and JUSt
beginning to recede in the cenler. This is the lime of perfect
ripeness: The microorganisms have happily acidified the nuur
you fed them and are now read} Lo make hread If the culture
is maintained in liqUid form, look (or evidence that the sour
dough has not nscn and then fallen from overnpeness. If there
is a "hlgh-water mark~ at the edges of the container and the cul
ture has dropped. then it is overripe The solution is to ripen the
sourdougb in a cooler environment, to let less time elapse
between the building or the sourdough and the mixing of the
bread. or to add a small percentage of salt in order to retard the
aCl1vity of the \\>ild yeast in tbe culture (see "Sourdough and
Salt" on page 357).
It is important to mention [he effect of cold temperatures on a
natural sourdough cultUTe. According to Professor Raymond
Calvel. "To maintain the viability of the culture, it is necessary
to ensure thal the temperature of the refrigeration chamber
stays between 8 and 10C (46.4 and 500 whenever the chef
Imature culture I is retarded for periods of 48 hours or more. At
lower temperatures, part of the nora of the culture rna) be
destroyed. and consequent!} the taste of bread produced from
this culture may be spoiled' (The Taste oj Bread) Master
Montreal baker James MacGuire adds.. Below SoC it tS usual for
wHd yeasts in the culture to be destroyed. while the acetic acid
bacteria will conti nue to thrive. ~

1\1'W'(

I turf

I ~ !7\. j Id

2,'ld blAi Id

Full

50wr

b\"ld

Building a culture and saving a portion

354

Bftad: A Baker's Book of '1'eclmiques end BeeJ.pes

ItlA/? ,S

'l'mov~d

FillA

dOH

AppendlI

355

the culrure off to a good start. Similarly, some bakers soak bran
in water overnight before commencing their culture; the draine
water is mixed with the flour. as it is nutrient rich Crom the bran.
Yeast production is faster than the production of acidity during
the early stages. This is wh} we see evidence of a rise in the cul
ture after several hours, but taste little acidity. If correCt feedings
and temperature are maintainecL aCIdity will become evident
after a few days.
The bacteria m sourdough cultures come mainly from the genus
Lacwbadl/us. In young and developing cultures, homofermenta_
tive bacteria develop, producing lactic acid. Older cultures have
more complex flavors than young ones, largely due to the pres
ence of heterofennentative bacteria, which produce bOth lactic
and acetic acid.
The presence of both lactic and acetic acids, in balance. is most
favordble in sourdough bread production. The laCtic acid pro
vides smoothness (somewhat akin to yogurt), willIe the acetic
acid gives a pronounced sour bite (think vinegar) The develop
ment of lactic acid is favored in warm environments and loose
dough condltions; acetic acids develop more readiI}' in cool and
still conditions The baker can use that knowledge to impart
desired navors to his or her bread through manipttlanon of tem
perature and hydration.

Ideall), <;ourdough cultures should be refreshed dail) and used

LO make bread daily (this is more proof that we live Ln a le55
than-ideal world). "Refreshing~ simply meam feeding the cul
ture with nour and water. In typical hread production, the
sourdoughs are built in 1. 2. or 3 stages 0\ er a period of roughly
]6 to 2-+ hOUTS. Each build constitutt:s a refreshing, and when
the baker removes a small portion of the npe. sourdough just
before mixing Lhe final dough. the removed sourdough is con
sidered fully refreshed. One prinCIple remains the same.
\\ hethcr the sourdough 15 developed using 1 build or 3 builds.
and this principle is at the hean of sourdough bread produttion:
Once the culture has been built and is at the pomt of maturity.
a small pomon must be removed and sayed for future use.
It's good practice to evaluate the maturity of the sourdough
prior to each bread-making sesslOn The signs of ripeness in a
sourdough art' simllar to those of a yeasted pre-ferment. The rye
or stiff \\-hite sourdough will be domed on the top. and JUSt
beginning to recede in the cenler. This is the lime of perfect
ripeness: The microorganisms have happily acidified the nuur
you fed them and are now read} Lo make hread If the culture
is maintained in liqUid form, look (or evidence that the sour
dough has not nscn and then fallen from overnpeness. If there
is a "hlgh-water mark~ at the edges of the container and the cul
ture has dropped. then it is overripe The solution is to ripen the
sourdougb in a cooler environment, to let less time elapse
between the building or the sourdough and the mixing of the
bread. or to add a small percentage of salt in order to retard the
aCl1vity of the \\>ild yeast in tbe culture (see "Sourdough and
Salt" on page 357).
It is important to mention [he effect of cold temperatures on a
natural sourdough cultUTe. According to Professor Raymond
Calvel. "To maintain the viability of the culture, it is necessary
to ensure thal the temperature of the refrigeration chamber
stays between 8 and 10C (46.4 and 500 whenever the chef
Imature culture I is retarded for periods of 48 hours or more. At
lower temperatures, part of the nora of the culture rna) be
destroyed. and consequent!} the taste of bread produced from
this culture may be spoiled' (The Taste oj Bread) Master
Montreal baker James MacGuire adds.. Below SoC it tS usual for
wHd yeasts in the culture to be destroyed. while the acetic acid
bacteria will conti nue to thrive. ~

1\1'W'(

I turf

I ~ !7\. j Id

2,'ld blAi Id

Full

50wr

b\"ld

Building a culture and saving a portion

354

Bftad: A Baker's Book of '1'eclmiques end BeeJ.pes

ItlA/? ,S

'l'mov~d

FillA

dOH

AppendlI

355

356

Bread: A Baker'. Book

I remember once asking a respected yeast microbiologist if he

thought sourdough rye breads generated from rye cuhure \\ere
supenor to rye breads made using \\ hitc culture.. He responded
Ihal, as long as a culture has a balanced component of hell'lofer
mcntall\e bacteria. it mattered not at all whether the bread W'lS
derived from rye or while cullUre. 1 suspect Ihat from a 1<lb'Jrn
tory perspectiH this is entirely true rrom my empirical baker's
perspective, having used rye and \\ hHc culture for many ycar~, I
feel thal rye breads are superior when mature rye cui lure is their
foundation. perhaps because the microorganisms in the m:.HUre
culture have a lhorough familtarity with mnabolizing rye nour,

Sourdough
and Salt

The words sourdough and lrvain are oflen used interchangeably in

the United States. This. however. is not the case in Eumpe. In
ennany. the word for sourdough is SaurrLflg, and it alw:1\"'\
reters II) a culture o( rye nour and water. In France, lhe word for
sourdough is It'\'ain, which refers lO a culture thal is madc tn
tireLy. or almost so, of white Oour. (rhe ac:.st'1lI method of -"our
clough production, originall) from Belgium. utilizes a
whole-wheat culture. maimaincd in a cool environment. and al
most always the bread is made without the addilion of baker's
)'easl) Wlule outwardly these methods are different, there are a
number of Similarities between them Mosl important is thai e,ll'h
Is a culture of naturally occurring yeasts and bacteria thal havc
rhe capacity to both ie-wen bread and provide Il with navor. i\
Gcnnan-sl}le cul.lure is made using aU rye nour and waler. A
white (evain culture rna) begin with a high peoccnlag" of rye
nour. or wlIh all white nour. In an)' case 1l eventually is m.lin
tained "''ith all or vinuaUy all white nour \\11i1e a rye culture is
almosr alwavs of comparalively still texlure, a levam culture can
be either loose or still (ranging in hydration between 50 and 115
percent) Wluchever method is used. the prinCIple is the same
The baker mlXes a small paste or dough of nour and waler, fresh
ens it with new food and water on a consistenl schedule, and de
velops a colony of microorgamsm.s that ferment aod muillpl)'. 111
~)rder 10 retain the purity of the culture. a small punion of ripe
culture is removed befon' the mixing of the final dough. ThiS por
lion is held back. uncontaminated b, "easl, c;alL or other addi
tions to Ihe final dough. and used to begin lhe next balch of
bread.

the sourdough). This allows the

or Te.cIm1qUe. aud Be4lpetI

before refrigeration was universal

empirical rather than strictly sci

in bakeri6}. The salt serves to

entific), it is apparent that the wild

retard the tivity of the wild

east in the cullure, prolonging

German baker1 employ a rech

nique called 5aJZStIuer, in which up
[0

2 percent of salt IS included in

the sourdough phase (as in other

full ripening.
This merhod is not reserved

yeast and bacteria in sourdough

cultures are strains that are not
averse

to

salt, since they continue

to thrive when mixed into a salted

just for rye breads, and can be

bread dough, We can surmise

used With similarly successful

therefore, that no damage Is done

applications of baker's math, this

results when using non rye cui

ro a culture when salt is added to

means that there is 1 percent salt

tures. During hotter months, I fre

sourdough an order to slow the

the amount of flour in

quently use this technique. JUSt to

pace of its ripening. As for

prevent a sourdough from over

amounts. it would

relatr..e

to

s~m

prudent

sourdough to remain viable for up

ripening In the 16 hours between

to add salt to a sourdough in an

to 48 hours before final dough

mixing it and then mixing the final

amount that does not exceed the

mixing (I imagine the method was

dough. Is it detrimental to a cul

percent used in the overall for'

also used in order to enable the

ture to be in che presence of salt?

mula, thac is, 1.8 to 2 percent.

baker to have a day off in the days

From a baker's perspective (chat is,

Below arc detailed methods for developing three uifferem

styles of sourdough culture All the sourdough breads in lhis book
are generated [rom one of these three. Il will bt.:. noted thai at each
feeding. a portion of the prior feed is thrown away. Thls is done so
lhallhe quantil) of sourdough remains workabk At each feeding
we are addiog flour and water 'hat weigh approximatcl} thc same
as tI1C culture we arc adding it to, and if we didn't discard a por
lion of the culture. '\Ie would soon need a cement mixer to hold
lhe conlents of the culture.
The culture needs a certain mass in order 10 aUrae, needed
nora and build its strength. Although lhe wClghts given below can
be reduced. II is recommended. even lor home lise, lhal the gIven
weights be observed so the culture can get off 10 a vigorous stan.

Appendlx

357

fl

356

Bread: A Baker'. Book

I remember once asking a respected yeast microbiologist if he

thought sourdough rye breads generated from rye cuhure \\ere
supenor to rye breads made using \\ hitc culture.. He responded
Ihal, as long as a culture has a balanced component of hell'lofer
mcntall\e bacteria. it mattered not at all whether the bread W'lS
derived from rye or while cullUre. 1 suspect Ihat from a 1<lb'Jrn
tory perspectiH this is entirely true rrom my empirical baker's
perspective, having used rye and \\ hHc culture for many ycar~, I
feel thal rye breads are superior when mature rye cui lure is their
foundation. perhaps because the microorganisms in the m:.HUre
culture have a lhorough familtarity with mnabolizing rye nour,

Sourdough
and Salt

The words sourdough and lrvain are oflen used interchangeably in

the United States. This. however. is not the case in Eumpe. In
ennany. the word for sourdough is SaurrLflg, and it alw:1\"'\
reters II) a culture o( rye nour and water. In France, lhe word for
sourdough is It'\'ain, which refers lO a culture thal is madc tn
tireLy. or almost so, of white Oour. (rhe ac:.st'1lI method of -"our
clough production, originall) from Belgium. utilizes a
whole-wheat culture. maimaincd in a cool environment. and al
most always the bread is made without the addilion of baker's
)'easl) Wlule outwardly these methods are different, there are a
number of Similarities between them Mosl important is thai e,ll'h
Is a culture of naturally occurring yeasts and bacteria thal havc
rhe capacity to both ie-wen bread and provide Il with navor. i\
Gcnnan-sl}le cul.lure is made using aU rye nour and waler. A
white (evain culture rna) begin with a high peoccnlag" of rye
nour. or wlIh all white nour. In an)' case 1l eventually is m.lin
tained "''ith all or vinuaUy all white nour \\11i1e a rye culture is
almosr alwavs of comparalively still texlure, a levam culture can
be either loose or still (ranging in hydration between 50 and 115
percent) Wluchever method is used. the prinCIple is the same
The baker mlXes a small paste or dough of nour and waler, fresh
ens it with new food and water on a consistenl schedule, and de
velops a colony of microorgamsm.s that ferment aod muillpl)'. 111
~)rder 10 retain the purity of the culture. a small punion of ripe
culture is removed befon' the mixing of the final dough. ThiS por
lion is held back. uncontaminated b, "easl, c;alL or other addi
tions to Ihe final dough. and used to begin lhe next balch of
bread.

the sourdough). This allows the

or Te.cIm1qUe. aud Be4lpetI

before refrigeration was universal

empirical rather than strictly sci

in bakeri6}. The salt serves to

entific), it is apparent that the wild

retard the tivity of the wild

east in the cullure, prolonging

German baker1 employ a rech

nique called 5aJZStIuer, in which up
[0

2 percent of salt IS included in

the sourdough phase (as in other

full ripening.
This merhod is not reserved

yeast and bacteria in sourdough

cultures are strains that are not
averse

to

salt, since they continue

to thrive when mixed into a salted

just for rye breads, and can be

bread dough, We can surmise

used With similarly successful

therefore, that no damage Is done

applications of baker's math, this

results when using non rye cui

ro a culture when salt is added to

means that there is 1 percent salt

tures. During hotter months, I fre

sourdough an order to slow the

the amount of flour in

quently use this technique. JUSt to

pace of its ripening. As for

prevent a sourdough from over

amounts. it would

relatr..e

to

s~m

prudent

sourdough to remain viable for up

ripening In the 16 hours between

to add salt to a sourdough in an

to 48 hours before final dough

mixing it and then mixing the final

amount that does not exceed the

mixing (I imagine the method was

dough. Is it detrimental to a cul

percent used in the overall for'

also used in order to enable the

ture to be in che presence of salt?

mula, thac is, 1.8 to 2 percent.

baker to have a day off in the days

From a baker's perspective (chat is,

Below arc detailed methods for developing three uifferem

styles of sourdough culture All the sourdough breads in lhis book
are generated [rom one of these three. Il will bt.:. noted thai at each
feeding. a portion of the prior feed is thrown away. Thls is done so
lhallhe quantil) of sourdough remains workabk At each feeding
we are addiog flour and water 'hat weigh approximatcl} thc same
as tI1C culture we arc adding it to, and if we didn't discard a por
lion of the culture. '\Ie would soon need a cement mixer to hold
lhe conlents of the culture.
The culture needs a certain mass in order 10 aUrae, needed
nora and build its strength. Although lhe wClghts given below can
be reduced. II is recommended. even lor home lise, lhal the gIven
weights be observed so the culture can get off 10 a vigorous stan.

Appendlx

357

fl


In

elop... &&~

DAYS THREE. FOUR. AND FIVE. TWO FEEDINGS

B

.4S Ib

200 g

5S02(halfofabove)

111%

White flour

Alb

180g

2.4 02 ('/, cup)

100%

Water

.sIb

225 g

3 oz (If. cup)

125%

TOTAL

1.3Slb

60Sg

10.9

Initial mix
DAY ONE. INITIAL MIX

Whole-rye flOUT

.751b

300g

4.8 02 (1;' cups)

100%

W. cup)

125%

Water

941b

375 g

602

Honey

.03 Ib (.5 oz)

109

.2 02 (1 ESp)

TOTAL

1.nlb

68Sg

11 02

QZ

3.3%

Mix the ingredienls well, cover with plastic. and let stand in a
wann area (75 LO 80F) for 2+ hours. Medium rye nour can b
used in place of whole rye. but avoid using whiLe rye nour.

?>.lix Lhe ingredients well. cover WiLh plastic, and leL sIano in a
warm area (75 to 80F) Ideally. Lhe 2 feedings should be 12 hours
aparL B) day six., Lhe culture should have enough ripeness 10 be
used for bread production. In order LO conunue developing
slrength and complexity (heterofermenlative bacLeria), however,
it may be fed (or 2 or 3 more days betoTe begmning LO use it. In
that case, follow the same feeding schedule as for days three. four.
and five.

DAY TWO. TWO FEEDINGS

Initial mix

451b

200g

5502 (half of above)

111%

Whole-rye flour

.21b

90g

11

OZ

('I, cup)

50%

White flour

.21b

90g

1.2

02

('I. cup)

50%

Water.90F

.51b

22Sg

302

TOTAL

1.3SIb

605 g

10.902

('I cup)

125%

Mix Lhe ingredlents well. cover with pl~Lic, and let stano in a
wann area (75 0 10 BOOr) Ideally, Lhe 2 feedings should be 12 hours
apart. The white flour should be an unbleached bread nour \\iiLh 11
La 11 percent protein

358

Bread: A Baker'. Book of TecbnlquBll and Recipes

Appendix

359


In

elop... &&~

DAYS THREE. FOUR. AND FIVE. TWO FEEDINGS

B

.4S Ib

200 g

5S02(halfofabove)

111%

White flour

Alb

180g

2.4 02 ('/, cup)

100%

Water

.sIb

225 g

3 oz (If. cup)

125%

TOTAL

1.3Slb

60Sg

10.9

Initial mix
DAY ONE. INITIAL MIX

Whole-rye flOUT

.751b

300g

4.8 02 (1;' cups)

100%

W. cup)

125%

Water

941b

375 g

602

Honey

.03 Ib (.5 oz)

109

.2 02 (1 ESp)

TOTAL

1.nlb

68Sg

11 02

QZ

3.3%

Mix the ingredienls well, cover with plastic. and let stand in a
wann area (75 LO 80F) for 2+ hours. Medium rye nour can b
used in place of whole rye. but avoid using whiLe rye nour.

?>.lix Lhe ingredients well. cover WiLh plastic, and leL sIano in a
warm area (75 to 80F) Ideally. Lhe 2 feedings should be 12 hours
aparL B) day six., Lhe culture should have enough ripeness 10 be
used for bread production. In order LO conunue developing
slrength and complexity (heterofermenlative bacLeria), however,
it may be fed (or 2 or 3 more days betoTe begmning LO use it. In
that case, follow the same feeding schedule as for days three. four.
and five.

DAY TWO. TWO FEEDINGS

Initial mix

451b

200g

5502 (half of above)

111%

Whole-rye flour

.21b

90g

11

OZ

('I, cup)

50%

White flour

.21b

90g

1.2

02

('I. cup)

50%

Water.90F

.51b

22Sg

302

TOTAL

1.3SIb

605 g

10.902

('I cup)

125%

Mix Lhe ingredlents well. cover with pl~Lic, and let stano in a
wann area (75 0 10 BOOr) Ideally, Lhe 2 feedings should be 12 hours
apart. The white flour should be an unbleached bread nour \\iiLh 11
La 11 percent protein

358

Bread: A Baker'. Book of TecbnlquBll and Recipes

Appendix

359

eveI

Sti

Levain Culture

Developing

Sourdough Rye Culture

DAY ONE INITIAL MIX

DAY ONE INITIAL MIX

Whole-rye flour

.651b

300g

4 oz (1 cup)

SO%

Whole-rye Oour

lib

SOg

White flour

.6S Ib

300 g

4 oz (1 cup)

50'lb

Water

1 Ib

4S0 g

6.4 oz

65%

TOTAL

21b

900 1

11.802

Water

.851b

390g

S.6 OZ W. cup)

TO'rAL

2.151b

990~

13.602

.6Slb

Initial mix

300g

4.5 oz (one-third of above)

oz (1 cup)

.651b

300g

Water

39lb

180g

2402

TOTAL

1.691b

780g

10.902

(less than 1/. cup)

100%

Initial mix

Sib

100%

Whole-rye flour

60%

Water
TOl'AL

Mix the ingredients well, cover with plastic, and lel stand in a
warm area (75 to 80F). Ideally, Lhc 2 feedmgs should occur 12
hours apart. By day six, the culture should have enough npeness to
be used for bread production. In order to continue developing
strength and complexity (heterofermentaLive bacleria), however. It
may be feel for 1 or 3 more days before beginning to use it. In that
case, follow tbe same feeclmg schedule as for days two, three. four.
and five.

Bread: A Baku'. Book of 1'echntqulJ'S lIDd Recipe.

100%
100%

DAY TWO. ONE FEEDING

White flour

360

W. cup)

Mix Lhe ingredients to a smooth paste. cover with plastic, and leL
stand in a warm area (75 to 80F) for 24 hours. V,'hole rye.
preferably organic. is preferred when developing a rye culture, due
to its full spectrum of nutrients, which \\-ill encourage a popula
tion of healthy and content microorganisms. 1C medium rye is
used. the hydration can be reduced to approximately 90 percent.
Avoid using white rye nour, as iL is essentially devoid of beneficial
nutrients.

Mix the ingredIents well, cover with plastic, and let stand in a
warm area (75 La 80"F) for 24 hours. Medium rye can replace lhe
whole rye, but aVOld using white rye flour. The whiLe (lour should
be an unbleached bread (lour wiLh 11 to 12 percent protein. Since
rye nour has a higher absorption rate than white, the hydration
will be 65 percem on day one, Note Lhat ftom here on, 11 is reduced
LO 60 percenl.

DAYS TWO. TRREE, FOUR. AND FIVE. TWO FEEDINGS

6.4 oz (11. cups)

225g

3.202 (one-quarter of above) 100%

.Slb

225 g

3.2 oz h cup)

100%

Sib

225 g

3.202 ('/, cup)

100%

1.S Ib

675

9.602

Mix tbe ingredients to a smooth paste. cover with plastic, and let
stand in a wann area (75 to BOF) for 24 hours.

DAYS THREE. FOUR. FIVE. AND SIX. TWO FEBDINGS

Whole-rye flour

.sIb
.sIb

Water

.Slb

225 g

3.2 oz (11 cup)

TOTAL

1..slb

67Sg

9.60'l

Initial mix

22Sg

3.2 02 (one-third of above)

100%

22Sg

3.2 oz ('II cup)

100%
100%

Appendlx

361

eveI

Sti

Levain Culture

Developing

Sourdough Rye Culture

DAY ONE INITIAL MIX

DAY ONE INITIAL MIX

Whole-rye flour

.651b

300g

4 oz (1 cup)

SO%

Whole-rye Oour

lib

SOg

White flour

.6S Ib

300 g

4 oz (1 cup)

50'lb

Water

1 Ib

4S0 g

6.4 oz

65%

TOTAL

21b

900 1

11.802

Water

.851b

390g

S.6 OZ W. cup)

TO'rAL

2.151b

990~

13.602

.6Slb

Initial mix

300g

4.5 oz (one-third of above)

oz (1 cup)

.651b

300g

Water

39lb

180g

2402

TOTAL

1.691b

780g

10.902

(less than 1/. cup)

100%

Initial mix

Sib

100%

Whole-rye flour

60%

Water
TOl'AL

Mix the ingredients well, cover with plastic, and lel stand in a
warm area (75 to 80F). Ideally, Lhc 2 feedmgs should occur 12
hours apart. By day six, the culture should have enough npeness to
be used for bread production. In order to continue developing
strength and complexity (heterofermentaLive bacleria), however. It
may be feel for 1 or 3 more days before beginning to use it. In that
case, follow tbe same feeclmg schedule as for days two, three. four.
and five.

Bread: A Baku'. Book of 1'echntqulJ'S lIDd Recipe.

100%
100%

DAY TWO. ONE FEEDING

White flour

360

W. cup)

Mix Lhe ingredients to a smooth paste. cover with plastic, and leL
stand in a warm area (75 to 80F) for 24 hours. V,'hole rye.
preferably organic. is preferred when developing a rye culture, due
to its full spectrum of nutrients, which \\-ill encourage a popula
tion of healthy and content microorganisms. 1C medium rye is
used. the hydration can be reduced to approximately 90 percent.
Avoid using white rye nour, as iL is essentially devoid of beneficial
nutrients.

Mix the ingredIents well, cover with plastic, and let stand in a
warm area (75 La 80"F) for 24 hours. Medium rye can replace lhe
whole rye, but aVOld using white rye flour. The whiLe (lour should
be an unbleached bread (lour wiLh 11 to 12 percent protein. Since
rye nour has a higher absorption rate than white, the hydration
will be 65 percem on day one, Note Lhat ftom here on, 11 is reduced
LO 60 percenl.

DAYS TWO. TRREE, FOUR. AND FIVE. TWO FEEDINGS

6.4 oz (11. cups)

225g

3.202 (one-quarter of above) 100%

.Slb

225 g

3.2 oz h cup)

100%

Sib

225 g

3.202 ('/, cup)

100%

1.S Ib

675

9.602

Mix tbe ingredients to a smooth paste. cover with plastic, and let
stand in a wann area (75 to BOF) for 24 hours.

DAYS THREE. FOUR. FIVE. AND SIX. TWO FEBDINGS

Whole-rye flour

.sIb
.sIb

Water

.Slb

225 g

3.2 oz (11 cup)

TOTAL

1..slb

67Sg

9.60'l

Initial mix

22Sg

3.2 02 (one-third of above)

100%

22Sg

3.2 oz ('II cup)

100%
100%

Appendlx

361

.........

r
Mix the ingredients to a smooth paste, cover with plastiC, and let
stand La a wann area (75 to 80F). Feedings should be roughly 12
hours apart. On day seven, the culture can be used to make bread.
I t will have more vigor and flavor, however, if the feeding schedule
is followed for 2 or 3 more days. A common practice among
German bakers is to sprinkle the surface of the sourdough with rye
flour when the culture has been refreshed. This prOVides a bit of
food source for the microorganisms within, and also acts ~ an
environmental buffer, helping to prevent the culture from drying.
When the sourdough has ripened and risen, the [lour will look like
islands on the surface.

Converting a
Liquid Levain
Culture to a
Stiff-Textured
Culture

me to use a liquid culture. it is really

In the 225 grams of liquid culture,

no great matter to transform a bit

125 ofthose grams are water- I

of liquid to stiff, and the resulting

divide the 125 by 60 (the desired

bread will probably be a little doser

hydration for the stiff culture);

to the original Intent if made with

125 -'- 60 = 2,08, The 2.08 repre

the stiff culture.

sents the weight of 1 unit (either

Let's suppose we want to con

flour or water) in the new culture.

velt a liquid culture to a stiff one

I know that there will be 100 units

of 60 percent hydration. Here is

of flour in the new culture, so now

It is rarely pranicali or necessary,

the method: The liquid culture

I mulriply 2.08 X 100. This tells me

for the baker to develop and main

that I maintain has a hydration of

that there will be 208 grams total

cain 3 or more sourdough cultures.

125 percent. This means that in

flour in the 60 percent hydration

In my baking life. j find good use in

any given amount of culture, there

culture. Since I already have 100

the mainten;ance of just' 2:-3 stiff rye

are 125 units of waterfor each 100

grams of flour in the initial liquid

s.ourdough and a white liquid lev

units of flour. For Visual ease. I will

culture, I simply add 108 grams of

Olin. Yet there have been instances

begin the conversion by taking 225

flour: 100 g + 108 g = 208 g. So we

when I have come upon a formula

grams of the liquid culture. Those

halle:

for a bread, and I can't resist [he

225 grams consist of:

urge to make it AliU, it ails for a

Flour

208 g

Flour

100 g

Water

125 g (60% hydration)

Water

125 g (125% hydration)

Total

333g

Total

225 g

stiff white culture.md alii halle is a

liquid one. While I could reconfig
ure the formula in it wav that allows

362

Bread: A Baker'. Book of Technique. and Recipes

Rheological Testing and the

Analysis of Flour

I:

Rheology is defined as Mthe study of deformation and flow of mat

ter~;

e"l'resscd another way, rheology measures ho\\ substances

break down. It may seem odd to intentionally mix a dough only to
see how slowly or quickl) it ddorms, but in facl, by knowing the
parameters of the dough as indicated in various tests, the baker or
miller can make a number of educated deductions about how the
nour nught perform during bakmg. [n thIS sectlon, we wi1llook at
a number of tests performed al a lab on a sample of bread nOUT,
discuss the various tests, and examine the specific information the
tests provide that help to indicate Oour performance in the bakery.
Thom Leonard from Lawrence, Kansas, and Tod Bramble of the
King Arthur rlour Company have both generously offered their
expertise in this sec.tion of lhe book. and I would like to acknowl
edge and thank both for tJ1eir efforts.
Anyone who has worked or observed in a baker} where there
is an old-timer or two running around will attest to the marvelOl.1S
knac.k they have. Years of skIll in the hand have given them the
ability to tell much about the nature of a given dough: whether it
needs more or less water in I he mix, whether it's young or old.
how well or poorly it ferments, and the overall tolerance of the
dough to the rigors it undergoes on the path from Oour in the bag
to bread heing pulled from the oven, These bakers are mvolved in
unscientific but very real rheological assessments. The scientific
rheological tests discussed here are precise. interesting, and cer
tainly have an application to the baker's daily life. While it's help
ful to learn how to understand them, it should also be borne in
mind thal the information they prOVide is more of a suggestion
than a guarantee of flour performance. The baker. in the bakery,
with dough in the bowl or forming under his or her hands, is the
final judge of how well or poorly a certain Oour fun Cllons.
Nevertheless, by interpreting rheological information about a
nour before actually mixing it, the baker can (and does, as more
anti more bakers become nuent in rheologlcat interpretations)
make small adjustments-Cor example, an extra fold or two in a
dough made with Oour that has a low PIL value_ or a small addi
tion of malt because of a high Falling Number,

Appendh

363

I I11