Because of

The words because of is a preposition.

Prepositions are designed to be followed by only a noun -

because of the rain, because of the parade, because of the childs temper tantrum, etc. The object
of this or any preposition can be a gerund or gerund phrase - because of waiting for the senator,
because of limited parking, because of having eaten out every night this week, etc. That last
example is getting to the limit of how much action, how muchstory, the GMAT likes to pack inside a
prepositional phrase. On the Sentence Correction, the GMAT is adamantly opposed to the following
structure:
[preposition] + [noun] + [participle]
Even though this could be grammatically correct in a technical sentence, many would be likely to find
this in poor taste, and for GMAT Sentence Correction purposes, this is 100% wrong.
Example Because of the President going to Myanmar = WRONG!
As far as the GMAT is concerned, this is just too much action, too much story, for a preposition to
handle. If you are going to have both an action and the person/agent performing the action, then what
you need is a clause, not merely a prepositional phrase.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

First, a practice GMAT Sentence Correction question:

1) Because of Elnath Industries posting a second consecutive quarter of losses, its stocks tumbled 20%
in the last three days.
Because of Elnath Industries posting
Because of Elnath Industries having posted
Because Elnath Industries posting
Because Elnath Industries posted
Because Elnath Industries had been posting
The answer is D.

In most cases, because of and on account of are synonymous.

On account of is slightly less appropriate than because of in cases that do not involve thought or
record.
The water boiled because of the heat.
The water boiled on account of the heat.

Both uses are valid, but in this example, because of is slightly better than on account of because it
does not imply thought on the part of the water.
Very simply, due to modifies nouns and because of modifies verbs. They are not
interchangeable, though the perception of due to being 'more intelligent' than because
of ensures that plenty of people misuse it - delicious irony!
Example:
His failure was due to poor preparation

Here, due to poor preparation is modifying his failure via the linking verb was, so the
sentence works. If we change the sentence:
He failed due to poor preparation

Here, due to poor preparation is modifying.... errrrr. There is nothing for it to modify. If we
correct the sentence:
He failed because of poor preparation

Now, because of modifies failed and the sentence works.

You will hear some people saying this is prescriptive and old fashioned blah blah blah, but
they are simple excusing ignorance by calling it language change. Not knowing an adjective
from and adverb is not language change.
Looking at my examples, notice how due to follows was, and because of doesn't? That is one
quick and easy indicator that you should be using due to. Another is to substitute caused by.
His failure was caused by poor preparation

is okay, but
*He failed caused by poor preparation

isn't.
Using your example, substituting caused by gives us
This exception was thrown caused by invalid input.

which doesn't work, nor is there a linking verb, so

This exception was thrown because of invalid input.
Due to" does modify nouns, but it's typically used after the verb "to be."
For example, "The team's win today was due to better conditioning."

If Versus Whether
1). After Prepositions , we use only whether.
I haven't settled the question of whether I'll go back home.
There was a big argument about whether we should move to a new house.
2). Whether, but not if, is used before infinitives.
They can't decide whether to get married now or wait.

Now, here are some examples where the words are not interchangeable.
Squiggly didn't know whether Aardvark would arrive on Friday or Saturday.
Because I used whether, you know that there are two possibilities: Aardvark will arrive on Friday or Aardvark
will arrive on Saturday.
Now see how the sentence has a different meaning when I use if instead of whether:
Squiggly didn't know if Aardvark would arrive on Friday or Saturday.
Now in addition to arriving on Friday or Saturday, there is the possibility that Aardvark may not arrive at all.
These last two sentences show why it is best to use whether when you have two possibilities, and that is why I
recommend using whether instead of if when you have two possibilities, even when the meaning wouldn't
change if you use if. It's safer and more consistent.
Here's a final pair of examples:
Call Squiggly if you are going to arrive on Friday.
Call Squiggly whether or not you are going to arrive on Friday.
The first sentence is conditional. Call Squiggly if you are going to arrive on Friday means Aardvark is only
expected to call if he is coming.

The second sentence is not conditional. Call Squiggly whether or not you are going to arrive on Friday means
Aardvark is expected to call either way.
So to sum up, use whether when you have two discrete choices or mean "regardless of whether," and use if for
conditional sentences.

credit somebody with something

to believe that someone has a particular quality or ability I credited her with more sense than she showed.

Commas
Colons

Rule 1
To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more.
Example:
My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.
Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.

Rule 2
Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.
Examples:
He is a strong, healthy man.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort. You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.

Rule 3
Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives.
NOTE: To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma.
Examples:
Felix was a lonely, young boy.
I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used
between brightly and lit.

Rule 4
Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, Doctor, I will.
NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone.

Rule 5a
Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Example:
Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.

Rule 5b
If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.
Example:
They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.

Rule 6
Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a
document, you do not need a comma after the state.

NOTE: With addresses on envelopes mailed via the post office, do not use any punctuation.
Examples:
I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.
I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years.

Rule 7
Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II,
III, and so forth.
Example:
Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.

Rule 8
Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow.
Example:
I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.

Rule 9
When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong
clause followed by a weak clause.
Examples:
If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Rule 10
Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is
optional.
Examples:
To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.
On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers.
OR
On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers.

Rule 11
If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by
commas.
Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. Freddy is named, so the description is not essential.
The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description; therefore, no
commas are used.

Rule 12
Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction--and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the
clauses are both short.
Examples:
I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. I paint and he writes.

Rule 13
Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.
Examples:
I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.

Rule 14
A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a
semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation.
Incorrect:
Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice)
Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence)
Correct:
Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun.
OR
Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.)
OR
Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.

Rule 15
If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.
Example:
He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

Rule 16
Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.

Examples:
He actually said, "I do not care."
"Why," I asked, "do you always forget to do it?"

Rule 17
Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example:
I can go, can't I?

Rule 18
Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example:
That is my money, not yours.

Rule 19
Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes.
Examples:
Yes, I do need that report.
Well, I never thought I'd live to see the day

Rule 20
Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interrupters.
Examples:
I would, therefore, like a response.
I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.

Rule 21
Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are
followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word.
Examples:
You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
OR
You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
NOTE: i.e. means that is; e.g. means for example

Like Versus Such As

Should you write, Chuck enjoys desserts such as brownies, cheesecake, and macaroons or Chuck enjoys desserts like
brownies, cheesecake, and macaroons? Either is acceptable to many grammarians and veteran writers, but lets look at
why using such as is better in this instance.

When Should You Use Such As

Instead of Like?
Note that the second example suggests a comparison (like brownies), whereas the first example implies inclusion (such
as brownies), and thats precisely what is meant. In other words, many consider likeness as not being the thing itself.
When you say desserts like brownies, you're implying that you don't enjoy brownies themselves, but instead enjoy a
different dessert similar to brownies. It's a subtle difference, but one to be aware of.
Here are a few more examples:
Brad laughs when he hears words such as flabbergasted, rutabaga, and hornswoggle. (The such as tells us
that flabbergasted, rutabaga, and hornswoggle are included in the list of words that make Brad laugh.)
Characters like Cinderella, Dracula, and Frankenstein continue to appear in movies and novels. (The like tells us
characters that are comparable to Cinderella, Dracula, and Frankenstein continue to appear in movies and
novels.)
Jill would love to travel to several European cities such as London, Florence, and Athens. (The such as tells us
these are specific cities Jill wants to see.)
Doctor Coughlin dreads seeing patients like Mrs. Carbuncle. (The like tells us there are other patients as difficult
as Mrs. Carbuncle and Doctor Coughlin doesn't enjoy seeing them either.)

And in the following case, the sentence is OK either way, depending on the intended meaning:
A zombie like Zeke should be small and sneaky.
A zombie such as Zeke should be small and sneaky

That or which?
Do you sometimes wonder whether to use that or which in a sentence? In many cases, in British English,
both words are equally correct.
She held out the hand which was hurt.
She held out the hand that was hurt.

In these sentences, that and which are introducing whats known as a restrictive relative clause. This is a clause
containing essential information about the noun that comes before it. If you leave out this type of clause, the
meaning of the sentence is affected indeed, it will probably not make much sense at all. Restrictive relative
clauses can be introduced by that, which, whose, who, or whom.

The other type of relative clause is known as a non-restrictive relative clause. This kind of clause contains extra
information that could be left out of the sentence without affecting the meaning or structure. Non-restrictive
clauses can be introduced by which, whose, who, or whom, but you should never use that to introduce them. For
example:

A list of contents would have made it easier to steer through the book, which also lacks a map.
She held out her hand, which Rob shook.

Note that a non-restrictive clause is preceded by a comma (so as to set off the extra information), whereas
no comma should precede a restrictive clause (indicating that the information is essential, not extra):
I bought a new dress, which I will be wearing to Jo's party. [non-restrictive]
I was wearing the dress that I bought to wear to Jo's party. [restrictive]

These or those?
These/those are the plural forms of this/that, and behave in the same way. As a determiner this is used to identify a specific person or thing
close at hand or being experienced. As a determiner that refers to the more distant of two things near to the speaker, or to a specific thing
previously mentioned.
For example, in context of the sentence
Sonny has many qualities worth recognizing, and the purpose of this letter is to point out two of [these/those] qualities.
these would be best.

I or me?
The two personal pronouns I and me are often used wrongly, usually in sentences in which I is being used
with another noun. Here are some tips to help you get it right:

Use the pronoun I, along with other subjective pronouns such as we, he, she, you, and they, when the pronoun is thesubject of a
verb:

He went to bed.
We waited for the bus.
Clare and I are going for a coffee.

In the last example, the pronoun I, together with the proper noun Clare, forms the subject of the sentence, so you
need to use I rather than me.

Use the pronoun me, along with other objective pronouns such as us, him, her, you, and them, when the pronoun is the object of a
verb:

Danny thanked them.

The dog followed John and me to the door.

In the last example, the pronoun me, together with the proper noun John, forms the object of the verb follow, so
you need to use me rather than I.

Use the pronoun me, along with other objective pronouns such as us, him, her, you, and them, when the pronoun is the object of a
preposition:

Rose spent the day with Jake and me.

Me, together with Jake, forms the object of the preposition with, so you need to use the pronoun me rather than the
pronoun I.

An easy way of making sure youve chosen the right pronoun is to see whether the sentence reads properly if you
remove the additional noun:

I am going for a coffee

X Me am going for a coffee

The dog followed me

X The dog followed I

Rose spent the day with me

X Rose spent the day with I

I would not use "as of today" and "to date" in the same way; there is a difference in emphasis. I would use
"as of today" to describe a condition at a single moment in time:
As of today, my savings account has $57,642.00 in it.
I would use "to date" to describe the cumulative effect of an ongoing process:
To date, our charity has distributed 27,000 meals to the hungry.
The main difference is that "to date" strongly suggests that whatever you are counting, or doing, or have, will
change in some way in the near future. That suggestion, if it is found at all with "as of today", is not nearly so
strong.
A subjunctive verb is used to express (1) conditional tenses, most of which involves would andwere.

(2) wishes and demands, the construction of which follows two strict rules
(a) that always comes right after the verb, and
(b) the second verb is always in the infinitive form and should is always omitted.
The second use of a subjunctive construction.
1). The following verbs are used --- with such a construction to express importance (in such moods only).
Also remember that such verbs have other forms of usage (followed by to infinitive, for example) when
used in other moods.
ask
propose
demand
recommend
desire
request
insist
require
prefer
suggest .
urge
e.g
The Indian government demanded that the UK paycompensations for damages of the Indian embassy.
2. Nouns derived from subjunctive verbs above are also used with the construction.
demand
recommendation
insistence
request
preference
request
proposal
suggestion
e.g
The UK is considering the proposal that it paycompensations for damages of the Indian embassy.
3. The adjectives below are also used to express subjunctive moods essential
imperative
important
necessary
e.g:
It is essential that the UK pay compensation for the Indian government for the damages of the Indian
embassy.

in spite of / despite / although

In spite of, despite and although are all used to show a contrast but there are differences in the structures used with them.
In spite of / despite
After in spite of and despite we use a noun or a pronoun.

We enjoyed our camping holiday in spite of the rain.

Despite the pain in his leg he completed the marathon.
Despite having all the necessary qualifications, they didnt offer me the job.
Remember that the gerund (-ing form) is the noun form of a verb.
The only difference between in spite of and despite is the of.

Despite of the bad weather, there was a large crowd at the match.
Although
After although we use a subject and a verb.

We enjoyed our camping holiday although it rained every day.

Although he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
The holiday was great although the hotel wasnt very nice.
We can use in spite of and despite with a subject and verb if we include the expression the fact that.

In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
Even though
Even though is a slightly stronger form of although.

We decided to buy the house even though we didnt really have enough money.
You keep making that stupid noise even though Ive asked you to stop three times.
Like although, even though is followed by a subject and a verb.

I came across a question with "not....but" idiom.

Scientists argued that organisms sprang to life not through a
recognizable reproductive process but independently from non
living matter.
Bold part shows the correct choice, however, I did not find it parallel.
Can someone explain how not through is parallel to but
independently?

Even when we consider ellipsis, not through is not parallel

to but throughindependently.
Therefore, i chose "Scientists argued that organisms did not spring to
life through a recognizable reproductive process but came to
lifeindependently from non living matter.", which is incorrect. Can you
also explain why this is not a preferable choice? Can we use "did not +
verb" instead of "verb_ED + not " in a "not....but" idiom?
what you need to realize here is that parallel structures don't have
to look exactly like each other -- they just have to play the same
role in the sentence, in terms of both grammar and meaning.
here, you have:
1/
(not) through xxxxx
2/
independently of xxxx
both of these play the same role: they both describe the verb
"sprang (to life)". if you like grammar terms, they are both
"adverbial" -- they both play the role of adverbs describing that verb.
one of them is literally an adverb ("independently"); the other is a
prepositional phrase that acts as an adverb. that distinction isn't
relevant; what matters is that both of them play the same role.
for another example of this sort of thing, check out #50 in the
DIAGNOSTIC section (not the normal SC section) of og11, og12, or
og13.
in that problem, you have "just as frequently" and "in the same way
as..." doing the same thing that these two things are doing here.
When should you use a semicolon and when should you use a comma?
The bottom line: it's up to you. Semicolons and commas are used to link two sentences or independent clauses. An
independent clause must contain a subject and a verb. You have the choice of leaving one independent clause alone
and ending it with a period, or you may link two independent clauses together with either a comma orsemicolon. As long
as you follow the simple rules for commas and semicolons, grammatically, either way you will be correct.

Correct Usage of the Semicolon (;)

The semicolon is used when connecting two sentences or independent clauses. Unlike the comma, you do not use
coordinating conjunctions, e.g., and, or, but, etc. A semicolon can also be used when connecting two independent
clauses with conjunctive adverbs, e.g., however, therefore, thus, otherwise, etc. When beginning the second
independent clause after a semicolon, do not use a capital.

I love chocolate mint gelato; it's not as healthy as yogurt.

I love chocolate mint gelato; however, it's not as healthy as yogurt

Yesterday, we went to Walter Haas Park; Georgia was exhausted when we got home.

Yesterday, we went to Walter Haas Park; thus, Georgia was exhausted when we got home.

Correct Usage of the Comma with Independent Clauses

When linking two independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet), place the comma
before the conjunction. Remember: do not use the comma if you do not have two independent clauses.

I love chocolate mint gelato, but it's not as healthy as yogurt.

Yesterday, we went to Walter Haas Park, and Georgia was exhausted when we got home.

Yesterday, we went to Walter Haas Park and were exhausted afterward. (There is no comma before the "and" here
because "were exhausted afterward" is not a complete sentence.

OOPS- Common Mistakes

These sentences contain two independent clauses without coordinating conjunctions; thus, you need to
use a semicolon and not a comma.

She was a great dancer, she danced for the Hubbard Street Ballet Company.INCORRECT
She was a great dancer; she danced for the Hubbard Street Ballet Company.CORRECT

"Thus" is a conjunctive verb that is connecting two independent clauses. Commas are not used with
conjunctive verbs and independent clauses.

She was a great dancer, thus, she danced for the Hubbard Street Ballet Company.INCORRECT
She was a great dancer; thus, she danced for the Hubbard Street Ballet Company.CORRECT

In some instances it is best to use semicolons instead of commas. For example, when there are lists that
contain more than one word a comma may cause confusion. In the below examples, the first and third
sentences are confusing because we are unsure of which items are being listed.

I love dancers: they are graceful, which is evident by their delicate movements, they are hard working, which shows
through their strength in their movements, and they are disciplined, which we can see through their precision of steps.
INCORRECT
I love dancers: they are graceful, which is evident by their delicate movements; they are hard working, which shows
through their strength in their movements; and they are disciplined, which we can see through their precision of
steps. CORRECT
He was campaigning in Los Angeles, California, Lincoln, Nebraska, Boston, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode
Island. INCORRECT
He was campaigning in Los Angeles, California; Lincoln, Nebraska; Boston, Massachusetts; and Providence, Rhode
Island. CORRECT

TO VERB VS FOR VERB-ING

Let the title of the article not confuse you. Read the following two sentences:
1. Joe wrote a book to share his experiences with others.
2. Joe got acclaims for writing the book.
These are very easy simple sentences and so the usage of the highlighted phrases does not bother us. Fair enough. Now
lets reverse these phrase in the above two statements.
1. Joe wrote a book for sharing his experiences with others.
2. Joe got acclaims to write the book.
Now these sentences certainly strike you. You immediately tell yourself, Hey, these dont sound right.
Right? Dont only trust your ears or instincts. Read on to know why they dont get grammatical approval.

2. We must understand the usage of to verb and for verb to be able to distinguish between the contexts
where these phrases can be used correctly.
Use of to verb" This phrase is used when we need to present the purpose or the intention of an action.
This phrase is actually a shorter way of writing in order to verb. Lets take the simple sentences with
this phrase we mentioned in the beginning of the article.
1. Joe wrote a book to share his experiences with others.: This sentence correctly uses to share because
it presents the purpose why Joe wrote the book. It is explicit from the context that Joe wrote the book
because he wanted to share his experience with others.
2. Joe got acclaims to write the book.: This sentence does not use to write correctly because writing the
book is certainly not the purpose of Joe getting acclaims.
Use of for verb-ing Since for is a preposition, it can modify either a noun or a verb. Prepositional
phrase for verb-ing can modify the verb or the noun in that it denotes some relation to the entity it
modifies. Lets understand this through the previously mentioned simple sentences.
1. Joe got acclaims for writing the book.: This sentence correctly uses for writing because this
prepositional phrase logically modifies the verb got. Here, there is no question of presenting any
purpose. The sentence rather explains what for Joe got acclaims. Hence, use of for writing is correct.
2. Joe wrote a book for sharing his experiences with others.: This sentence incorrectly uses for sharing to
denote Joes intention of writing the book.
So, when the intention is explicit from the context of the sentence, then we must choose to verb over
for verb-ing. Lets see and evaluate the usages of these phrases in official examples.
EXAMPLE 1
Although this is not a heavily tested concept on GMAT, this is certainly one of those concepts that confuse a lot of test
takers. In such questions, generally we can narrow down our selection to two choices one having to verb and the other
for verb-ing. For example:
Warning that computers in the United States are not secure, the National Academy of Sciences has urged the nation to
revamp computer security procedures, institute new emergency response teams, creating a special nongovernment
organization to take charge of computer security planning.
A. creating a special nongovernment organization to take
B. creating a special nongovernment organization that takes

C. creating a special nongovernment organization for taking

D. and create a special nongovernment organization for taking
E. and create a special nongovernment organization to take
MEANING ANALYSIS:
The NAS has warned that the US computers are not secure. Hence, they have urged the nation to do a few things.
PoE:
We are not doing the Error Analysis here because those errors do not encompass the topic of discussion of this write-up.
After error analysis, we can narrow our choices to D and E. The only difference between these two choices is for taking
and to take. So lets analyze these choices:
D. and create a special nongovernment organization for taking: From meaning analysis we know that the NAS has asked the
US government to do a few things to secure its computers. One of these tasks is to create a special nongovernment
organization.
Now, per the context of the sentence, it is clear that taking charge of computer security planning is the purpose for
creating this special nongovernment organization. Hence, purpose is explicit from the context. So this choice
stands incorrect as it uses for creating instead of to create.
E. and create a special nongovernment organization to take: This choice correctly expresses the purpose by using the
correct phrase to create, and hence is the correct answer.

EXAMPLE 2

The same usage can be seen in OG13#76.

Combining enormous physical strength with higher intelligence, the Neanderthals appear as equipped for
facing any obstacle the environment could put in their path, but their relatively sudden disappearance
during the Paleolithic era indicates that an inability to adapt to some environmental change led to their
extinction.

ERROR ANALYIS
One of the errors in the sentence is the use of for facing. The context of the sentence tells us that the Neanderthals were
equipped with the purpose of doing something. And what is this purpose? The purpose was facing any environmental
obstacle. Since the purpose is explicit here, we should use to face and not for facing
Following is the sentence with correct answer choice:
Combining enormous physical strength with higher intelligence, the Neanderthals appear to have been equipped to face any
obstacle the environment could put in their path, but their relatively sudden disappearance during the Paleolithic era
indicates that an inability to adapt to some environmental change led to their extinction.
This choice corrects that error and changes for facing to to face to correctly express the explicit purpose in the
sentence.

OFFICIAL EXAMPLES FOR VERB-ING

EXAMPLE 1
New genetic evidence - together with recent studies of elephants skeletons, tusks, and other anatomical features - provide
compelling support for classifying Africas forest elephants and its savanna elephants as separate species.

A. provide compelling support for classifying

B. provide compelling support for the classification of
C. provides compelling support to the classification of
D. provides compelling support for classifying
E. provides compelling support to classify
MEANING ANALYSIS:
The sentence says that New genetic evidence together with some other things provide compelling support. Support for
what? Support for classifying Africas forest elephants and savanna elephants as separate species.
PoE:
Again, the error analysis helps us eliminate the first three choices for errors we are not discussing here. Again the only
difference between D and E is for classifying and to classify.
D. provides compelling support for classifying: Per the meaning, new genetic evidence provides support. Most certainly, the
new genetic evidence does not have any purpose for providing such support. Rather we can ask what is this support for?
This support is for doing something else. Hence this choice correctly uses for classifying.
E. provides compelling support to classify: This choice is clearly incorrect because there cannot be any purpose here per
the context of this sentence.
P.S: Also, this sentence involves usage of correct idiom. provide support or help is always followed a preposition + Noun.
Hence, choice E is incorrect idiomatically as well.

EXAMPLE 2

There are many official problems in OG the study of which can be useful to understand the usage of for
verb-ing. Although, the sentences that Im going to talk about in this section do not necessarily test this
usage, they are useful for understanding the correct usage of the phrase.
This is the sentence with the correct answer choice as the topic of discussion is not tested in this question:
Dr. Tonegawa won the Nobel Prize for discovering how the body can constantly change its genes to fashion
a seemingly unlimited number of antibodies, each targeted specifically at an invading microbe or foreign
substance.
This sentence correctly uses for discovering because Dr. Tonegawa won the Nobel prize for something. If
we change for discovering to to discover, the meaning will be distorted. There is no purpose involved
in this sentence and hence for discovering clearly answer what for Dr. Tonegawa won the Nobel Prize.

While some propose to combat widespread illegal copying of computer programs by attempting to change people's attitudes
toward pirating, others by suggesting reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by
calling for the prosecution of those who copy software illegally. (OG 10)

A) by suggesting reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by calling
B) by suggesting the reduction of software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others call
C) suggest the reduction of software pricesfor decreasingthe incentive for pirating, and still others call
D) suggest the reduction of software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by calling
E) suggest reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others are calling
While some propose to combat widespread illegal copying of computer programs by attempting to change people's attitudes
toward pirating, others by suggesting reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by
calling for the prosecution of those who copy software illegally.
Meaning Analysis:
Different people have different views for combating widespread illegal copying of computer programs. Some propose to do
so by attempting to change peoples attitude toward pirating; others suggest to do so by reducing software prices to
decrease the incentive for piracy. Some others suggest to do the same by calling for the prosecution of those who copy
software illegally.
Error Analysis:
The intended list in the sentences should consist propose, suggest and call.
The list per the original sentence is by attempting, by suggesting, and by calling. This is certainly the wrong list.
PoE:
A) by suggesting reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by calling: Incorrect for the
reason stated above.
B) by suggesting the reduction of software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others call: Incorrect. by
suggesting is not parallel to propose and call.
C) suggest the reduction of software prices for decreasing the incentive for pirating, and still others call: Incorrect. Use of
for decreasing to denote the purpose of reducing the software prices is incorrect.
D) suggest the reduction of software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others by calling: Incorrect. by
calling is not parallel to propose and suggest.
E) suggest reducing software prices to decrease the incentive for pirating, and still others are calling: Correct. Even if "are
calling is in present continuous tense, it is still a verb in present tense that is parallel to the other present tense verbs.

in order to / so as to
Note that, as an alternative to to + infinitive, we might use in order to, or so as to, to express individual
purpose when we want to be more formal or explicit about the reason for doing something. All of these structures
answer the question: Why?. Compare the following:

I went to bed early in order to get enough sleep before the exam.

After four weeks of exams, I went to the seaside to rest.

After twenty days of exams, I went to the seaside for a rest.

After all those exams, I went to the seaside so as to have a good rest.

The in order to and so as to structures are particularly useful with stative verbs such as be, have, know, appear, and
before negative infinitives:

So as not to appear foolish, I learnt all I could about the company before going for the interview.

I'm going to move to the city centre in order to be near where I work.

In order not to have to commute, she bought a flat in the town centre.

In order to know more about him, she studied his movements carefully.

For is commonly used with nouns to express individual purpose

I popped into the supermarket for some apples on the way home. (Not: I popped into the supermarket for
buying some apples)

To express individual purpose with verb we use To + Infinitive

I popped into the supermarket to buy some apples on the way home.

To express purpose of object we use For + V(ing)

Schools are for learning. Life is for living.

Whereby & thereby?

Of the two, whereby acts more like a relative pronoun; thereby, more like a demonstrative.
whereby: by which (means), through which (means)
thereby: by that (means), through that (means); because of that, for that reason, by doing that
A revolution is an act of violence whereby (= by which) one class shatters the authority of another. -- James MacGregor Burns
No one in this world has ever lost money by underestimating the intelligence of the great masses of the plain people. Nor has
anyone ever lost public office thereby (= by that means; by doing that). -- H. L. Mencken

Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. Here is a brief list of causative
verbs, in no particular order: let, make, help, allow, have, let, require, allow, motivate, get, make, convince, hire,
assist, encourage, permit, employ, force, allow. Most of them are followed by an object (noun or pronoun) followed
by an infinitve: "She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill. She hired a carpenter to build a new
birdcage."
Three causative verbs are exceptions to the pattern described above. Instead of being followed by a noun/pronoun
and an infinitive, the causative verbs have, make and let are followed by a noun/pronoun and the base form of the
verb.

Professor Villa had her students read four short novels in one week.
She also made them read five plays in one week.
However, she let them skip the final exam.

The difference in degree between "You may be right" and "You might be right" is slight but not insignificant: If I
say you may be right about something, there is a higher degree of probability (I think) that you are right about it
than if I say you might be right about something. "You think Einstein is the most brilliant physicist who ever lived?

Hmm. You may be right." versus "You think it's going to rain this afternoon even though the sun is shining this
morning? Well, you might be right."

Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which means they can do just about anything that a
noun can do. Although they name things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than
people or objects. Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives (and one additional non-noun use,
the adjective complement, that we throw in here, free of charge).
Gerunds and infintives can both function as the subject of a sentence:
a.

Playing basketball takes up too much of her time.

b. To play basketball for UConn is her favorite fantasy.

It is not impossible for an infinitive to appear at the beginning of a sentence as the subject (as in
Ib), but it is more common for an infinitive to appear as a Subject Complement:
a. Her favorite fantasy is to play basketball for UConn.
The gerund can also play this role:
b.

Her favorite fantasy is playing basketball for UConn.

Both of these verbal forms can further identify a noun when they play the role of Noun
Complement and Appositive:
a. Her desire to play basketball for UConn became an obsession.
b. I could never understand her desire to play basketball for UConn.
c. Her one burning desire in life, playing basketball for UConn, seemed a goal within reach.

The infinitive is often a complement used to help define an abstract noun. Here is a very partial list
of abstract nouns, enough to suggest their nature. Try following these adjectives with an infinitive
phrase (their desire to play in the championship game, a motivation to pass all their courses,
her permission to stay up late, a gentle reminder to do your work) to see how the phrase modifies and
focuses the noun.
advice
appeal
command
decision
desire
fact
instruction
motivation

opportunity
order
permission
plan
possibility
preparation
proposal
recommendation

refusal
reminder
request
requirement
suggestion
tendency
wish

Infinitive phrases often follow certain adjectives. When this happens, the infinitive is said to

play the role of Adjective Complement. (This is not a noun function, but we will include it here
nonetheless.)
a. She was hesitant to tell the coach of her plan.
b. She was reluctant to tell her parents, also.
c. But she would not have been content to play high school ball forever.

Here is a list of adjectives that you will often find in such constructions.
ahead
amazed
anxious
apt
ashamed
bound
careful
certain
content
delighted

determined
disappointed
eager
eligible
fortunate
glad
happy
hesitant
liable
likely

lucky
pleased
proud
ready
reluctant
sad
shocked
sorry
surprised
upset

Although we do not find many infinitives in this next category, it is not uncommon to find
gerunds taking on the role of Object of a Preposition:
a. She wrote a newspaper article about dealing with college recruiters.
b. She thanked her coach for helping her to deal with the pressure.

Two prepositions, except and but, will sometimes take an infinitive.

a. The committee had no choice except to elect Frogbellow chairperson.
b. What is left for us but to pack up our belongings and leave?

And, finally, both gerunds and infinitives can act as a Direct Object:
Here, however, all kinds of decisions have to be made, and some of these decisions will
seem quite arbitrary. The next section is about making the choice between gerund and infinitive forms
as direct object.
Verbs that take other verb forms as objects are called catenatives (from a word that means to link,
as in a chain). Catenatives can be found at the head of a series of linked constructions, as in "We
agreed to try to decide to stop eating between meals." Catenatives are also characterized by their
tendency to describe mental processes and resolutions. (Kolln)
Although it is seldom a serious problem for native English speakers, deciding whether to use a
gerund or an infinitive after a verb can be perplexing among students for whom English is a second
language. Why do we decide to run, but we would never decide running? On the other hand, we might
avoid running, but we would not avoid to run. And finally, we might like running and would also like
to run. It is clear that some verbs take gerunds, some verbs take infinitives, and some verbs take either.

The following tables of verbs should help you understand the various options that regulate our choice
of infinitive or gerund.
Some students may find it convenient to have a list of
verbs that take infinitives, verbs that take gerunds,
verbs that take eitherwithout the lists being broken
into verb categories as they are below. Click the button
to see such a list.
We also make available a chart of 81 verbs that take gerunds and
infinitives along with pop-up examples of their usage.
Click HERE for that chart.

The verbs in the table below will be followed by an infinitive. We decided to leave. He manages,
somehow, to win. It is threatening to rain. Notice that many, but not all, of these verbs suggest a
potential event.
Some of the verbs in the following table may be followed by a gerund if they are describing an
"actual, vivid or fulfilled action" (Frodesen). We love running. They began farming the land. These are
described, also, below.
Emotion
care
desire
hate

hate
like
loathe

love
regret
yearn

Choice or Intent
agree
choose
decide
decide
expect

hope
intend
need
plan
prefer

prepare
propose
refuse
want
wish

Initiation, Completion, Incompletion

begin
cease
commence
fail

get
hesitate
manage
neglect

Mental Process

start
try
undertake

forget
know how

learn

remember

Request and Promise

demand
offer

promise
swear

threaten
vow

seem

tend

Intransitives
appear
happen

Miscellaneous
afford
arrange

claim
continue

pretend
wait

The verbs in the next table will often be followed by an infinitive, but they will also be
accompanied by a second object. We asked the intruders to leave quietly. They taught the children to
swim. The teacher convinced his students to try harder.
The verbs in blue, with an asterisk, can also follow the same pattern as the verbs in the table above
(i.e., the second object is optional). We all wanted to go. They promised to be home early.
Communication
advise
ask*
beg*
challenge
command
convince

forbid
invite
order
permit
persuade
promise*

remind
require
tell
warn
urge

Instruction
encourage instruct
help
teach

train

Causing
allow

force

need*

cause
choose

get
hire

would like*

Miscellaneous
dare*
expect*

trust
prepare*

want*

Gerunds accompany a form of the verb to go in many idiomatic expressions: Let's go shopping.
We went jogging yesterday. She goes bowling every Friday night.
The following verbs will be followed by a gerund. Did I mention reading that novel last summer?
I recommend leaving while we can. I have quit smoking These verbs tend to describe actual events.
Initiation, Completion and Incompletion
anticipate
avoid
begin
cease
complete

delay
finish
get through
give up
postpone

quit
risk
start
stop
try

Communication
admit
advise
deny
discuss

encourage
mention
recommend

report
suggest
urge

Continuing Action
continue
can't help

practice
involve

keep
keep on

love
mind
don't mind
miss
prefer

regret
can't stand
resent
resist
tolerate

Emotion
appreciate
dislike
enjoy
hate
like

Mental Process
anticipate
consider
forget

imagine
recall
remember

see
can't see
understand

The verbs in the following table can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, and there will
be virtually no difference in the meaning of the two sentences. I like to play basketball in the park.
I like playing basketball in the park.
attempt
begin
continue
hate

like
love
neglect
prefer

regret
can't stand
stand
start

The verbs in this next, very small table can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, but there will be a
difference in meaning. I stopped smoking means something quite different, for instance, from I stopped to smoke.
The infinitive form will usually describe a potential action.
forget remember stop

Finally, the verbs below will be followed by either a gerund or a simple verb and a second subject
will be required. I saw the team losing its composure. I overheard my landlord discussing a rent
increase. (I heard Bill sing/singing.) These verbs involve the senses.

Verbs Involving Senses

feel
hear
listen to

look at
notice
observe

overhear
see
watch

Verbs of perception hear, see, watch and a handful of other verbs help, let, and make
will take what is called the bare infinitive, an infinitive without the particle "to." This is true of these
verbs only in the active voice.
a. We watched him clear the table.
b. They heard the thief crash through the door.
c. She made me do it.
d. We helped her finish the homework.

Using Possessives with Gerunds

Do we say "I can't stand him singing in the shower," or do we say "I can't stand his singing in the
shower"? Well, you have to decide what you find objectionable: is it him, the fact that he is singing in
the shower, or is it the singing that is being done by him that you can't stand? Chances are, it's the
latter, it's the singing that belongs to him that bugs you. So we would say, "I can't stand his singing in
the shower."
On the other hand, do we say "I noticed your standing in the alley last night"? Probably not,
because it's not the action that we noticed; it's the person. So we'd say and write, instead, "I
noticed youstanding in the alley last night." Usually, however, when a noun or pronoun precedes a
gerund, that noun or pronoun takes a possessive form. This is especially true of formal, academic
writing.
There are exceptions to this. (What would the study of language be without exceptions?)

When the noun preceding the gerund is modified by other words, use the common form of that noun, not the
possessive.
a. Federico was pleased by Carlos's making the Dean's List for the first time.
but
b. Federico was pleased by Carlos, his oldest son, making the Dean's List for the first time.

When the noun preceding the gerund is plural, collective, or abstract, use the common form of that
noun, not the possessive.
c. Professor Villa was amazed by her students working as hard as they did.
d. The class working collaboratively was somebody else's idea.
e. It was a case of old age getting the better of them.

There are certain situations in which the possessive and the gerund create an awkward combination.
This seems to be particularly true when indefinite pronouns are involved.
f.

I was shocked by somebody's making that remark.

This would be greatly improved by saying, instead . . .
g. I was shocked that somebody would make that remark.

This is also true when the "owner" of the gerund comes wrapped in a noun phrase:
o

I was thankful for the guy next door shoveling snow from my driveway.

go so far as to do something also go as far as to do something

to be extreme in talking about or doing something They went so far as to threaten violence if we did not pay them.

Different due to because of . . .

The word pairs because of and due to are not interchangeable. The reason they are not is that they grew
up differently in the language.
Because of grew up as an adverb; due to grew up as an adjective. Remember that adjectives modify only
nouns or pronouns, whereas adverbs usually modify verbs. (The fact that adverbs occasionally modify other adverbs

or even adjectives and entire phrases is not relevant to this particular discussion.)
To be more precise, with their attendant words, due to and because of operate as adjectival and adverbial
prepositional phrases. To understand how the functions of due to and because of vary, look at these sentences.
1. His defeat was due to the lottery issue.
2. He was defeated because of the lottery issue.
In sentence #1, his is a possessive pronoun that modifies the noun defeat. The verb was is a linking verb. So, to
create a sentence, we need a subject complement after the verb was. The adjectival prepositional phrase due to
the lottery issue is that complement, linked to the subject by was. Thus, it modifies the noun defeat.
But in sentence #2, the pronoun "he" has become the sentence's subject. The verb is now was defeated. As
reconstructed, He was defeated could in fact be a complete sentence. And due to has nothing to modify. It's an
adjective, remember? It can't very well modify the pronoun he, can it?
Neither can it refer to was defeated because adjectives don't modify verbs. Sentence 2, therefore, should read:
He was defeated because of the lottery issue. Now the why of the verb was defeated is explained, properly,
by an adverbial prepositional phrase, because of.
In informal speech, we probably can get by with such improper usage as His defeat was because of the lottery
issue, and He was defeated due to the lottery issue. But we shouldn't accept that kind of sloppiness in writing.
We don't want to look stupid among those in the audience who know better. If we show them we don't care about
the language, how can we expect them to believe us when we tell them that we care about the facts?

The Classification of The Word Groups

In order to get a clear understanding of how to use both the word groups it is imperative to first know their
classifications.
Due to is an adjective, which means it can only modify pronouns and nouns according to the purest English
grammar rules.
Because of is an adverb, which means it can only modify verbs, adjectives and clauses, but not nouns and
pronouns.

The Explanation
It is quite difficult to grasp the concept outrightly with just categorizing the two word groups. So, it is
important to lay down a little explanation along with some examples for you to get a clearer idea. Here are
some examples of the usage of both the word groups:
His frustration was due to the mucked up windscreen.
He was frustrated due to the mucked up windscreen.
In general, both of the sentences may sound right to you, but they are not. Carefully look at the first sentence
and apply the grammar rule of noun modification. The word his is a possessive noun and it is
complementing the noun frustration, and was is there as a linking verb. Now, due to the mucked up
windscreen itself is an adjectival prepositional phrase which is the complement or the reason being attached
to the noun with the help of the linking verb was. Therefore, in this case the usage of due to is absolutely
right because it is fulfilling the purpose of modifying the noun.
Now, take a look at the second and apply the same rule there. The pair due to is not connecting nor
complementing the noun because the possessive noun his has been changed to he, which is a pronoun.
This way, he is not the possessive noun now has become the main subject of the sentence and a pronoun.
The pair due to has nothing to modify here because the verb is now was frustrated and adjectives cannot
modify verbs. Henceforth, to connect a reason or a compliment to this sentence the adverb because of
should be attached with the reason to make it appropriate. The correct sentence would be:
He was frustrated because of the mucked up windscreen.
As you can see, the pair because of is now modifying the verb was frustrated, so this sentence is correct
now.

Use This Trick When in Doubt

One trick you can use is to substitute due to with caused by. If the substitution does not work, then you
probably shouldnt use due to there. For example:
My low grade was due to lack of study.
My low grade was caused by lack of study.
The substitution works, so due to is being used correctly. Here is another example:
I missed the class due to the rain.
I missed the class caused by the rain.
The substitution doesnt work here, so due to shouldnt be used there. The correct sentence would be:
I missed the class because of the rain.

there are three main reasons for the use of dashes.

-1) dashes can be used in the place of commas, to express some degree of surprise or irony at
the content of the modifier that is being set off.

examples:
john, who is from las vegas, complained that winters in san francisco were cold.
there is no degree of surprise or iron into this modifier, so it is set off with commas as usual.
john -- who is from alaska -- complained that winters in san francisco were cold.
this modifier has a great deal of irony/surprise (for readers from other countries, alaska is much, much
colder than san francisco). therefore, the modifier is set off with dashes, because its content is ironic or
unexpected.
this is not the use of the dashes in the above examples.
-(2) dashes may also be used as a substitute for commas to set off a modifier that NAMES
people or things, especially if there is a LIST of such people/things.
example:
three of the players -- john, joe, and sammy -- and their wives were absent from the team banquet.
--> in this sentence, it's actually imperative that we use the dashes, since the sentence would be
ambiguous if you just used commas:
three of the players, john, joe, and sammy, and their wives were absent from the team banquet.
there are two possible meanings for this version: (a) three unnamed players, john, joe, sammy, and all
six of their wives; or (b) the above intended meaning.
this is more along the lines of what they are doing in the problems cited above. unlikely example that i
have just given, those sentences are not ambiguous without the dashes, but the dashes help them
become much more readable.
-3) dashes can be used to replace colons.

as far as i know, a dash can be used in essentially any context in which one would normally use a colon.

If you see a modifier that starts with "being", then you should be suspicious. In most cases, "being" is
unnecessary, and only seems attractive because people would probably say it (if they were speaking
aloud).
E.g.
Being a sales manager, Carl enjoys negotiations.
--> Here, "being" is unnecessary.
A sales manager, Carl enjoys negotiations.
--> Better. (Of course, if you imagine the way this sentence sounds, rather than considering it in terms
of the written language, then you won't like it.)
Even then, though, it's possible that "being" may be necessary.
I don't know any of the models currently being photographed.
(if I'm standing in the studio watching them as the pictures are taken)
If you'd use essendo fotografati/e rather than just fotografati/e here, it's the same deal.

So, when BEING + noun or adj (= modifier), 'being' should be omitted.

Ie #1: being happy, John drove back home.
--> Better: happy, John drove back home.
Ie#2: being a fashion designer, Mary admires Mr Armani.
--> Better: a fashion designer, Mary admires Mr Armani.
OR
As a fashion designer, Mary admires Mr Armani.
Instead when BEING + noun or adj (= subj of the clause), 'being' is necessary
Ie #3: being a teacher is a hard work.
Ie #4: being patient is not always easy.

unless you're referring to something that is ongoing in the timeframe of the sentence.
E.g.,
Zoe, being stubborn just to annoy her parents, refused to eat the vegetables.
--> Here, you can't take out "being" without changing the meaning. (Right now, the sentence just says
that Zoe was being stubborn at this one point. If you take out "being", you're saying Zoe was a stubborn
child in general.)