THE BIO SEM.

1 SUPER STUDY GUIDE

(real goons only)

DNA
DNA= Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA is located in the nucleus (eukaryotes)
Contains genetic information (instructions for building proteins)
Gene = stretch of DNA that codes for a specific protein
DNA Vocabulary
Genome = all of an organisms DNA
Chromosome = packages of DNA . Coiled piece of DNA with many genes.
*Usually paired, with each half called a sister chromatid
Human DNA
We have 23 PAIRS of chromosomes, 46 TOTAL
1 set of 23 from mom,
1 set of 23 from dad
rd

The 23 pair is the sex chromosome

XX for girls, XY for boys
Structure of DNA
1953- Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA, a double-stranded helix
DNA structure
Human DNA is made up of over 6 billion nucleotides
1 Nucleotide = 3 parts:
1 Sugar (deoxyribose)
1 Phosphate
*1 Nitrogen BASE:
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine or Cytosine
Nucleotide (building block of DNA)
DNA Shape- Double Helix (Twisted Ladder)
Sides of Ladder- alternating sugar and phosphate
Rungs -MATCHED pairs of BASES
Bases
The 4 bases have different structures for specific bonding (hydrogen bonded)
Base-Pairing Rules
A matches with T (Awesome Teacher)
C matches with G (Cool Girl)

DNA REPLICATION
DNA Replication: What is it?
Copying of DNA
Occurs in the nucleus
During S-phase of cell cycle
Results in 2 identical strands of DNA

3 stages:
1.Initiation
2.Replication
3.Termination

Stage 1 = Initiation
DNA Helicase: enzyme that unwinds and separates DNA strands. Breaks weak hydrogen bonds.
RNA Primers bind to starting points.
Help DNA replication enzymes find starting point

Stage 2 = Replication
DNA Polymerase = enzyme "reads" the original DNA strand and then synthesizes a new complimentary strand.
builds the new DNA strand
DNA Polymerase also proof reads to check for errors
DNA Polymerase Creates the complimentary nucleotides (new DNA)
Adenine (A) Thymine (T)

Stage 3 = Termination
Enzymes proofread sequence to ensure proper base pairing.
DNA Polymerase removes incorrect DNA and fills in the gap
DNA Ligase joins newly formed base pairs (sticks them together)

SUMMARY
1. DNA Helicase - unwinds DNA molecule.
2. DNA Polymerase- creates new strand by adding nucleotides.
3. If errors exist, Polymerase removes and corrects the mistake.
4. DNA Ligase - joins newly formed base pairs.

Meiosis
Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction = Single parent passes exact copies of genes to offspring (clone)
Sexual Reproduction = 2 parents give rise to offspring with unique combinations of genes

Purpose of Meiosis
Produce eggs & sperm for reproduction
To create genetic variation among offspring
Chromosome Number
Characteristic # of chromosomes for each species
Human = 46
Chromosomes
Have many genes
Gene: sequence of DNA coding for a protein
Diploid vs. Haploid Cells
Diploid cells (2n) =
2 of each kind of chromosome = Homologous chromosomes (homo = same)
All Somatic (body) cells
Haploid cells (1n)
1 of each kind of chromosome
Sex cells ONLY: egg, sperm (aka Gametes)
Fertilization (sperm and egg meet)
Two haploid (1n) gametes join
Form a diploid (2n) zygote
n + n = 2n
Facts About Meiosis
2 Cell divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Only in testes and ovaries
Results in 4 cells genetically different cells that are haploid (23 chromosomes, no pairs)
Chromosomes and Meiosis
Parent cell is diploid (2n)
Produces 4 haploid (1n) daughter cells
Chromosomes are DIFFERENT (variation)

Meiosis: Two Part Cell Division

Meiosis I: Reduction Division
Synapsis = during Prophase 1, homologous pairs of chromosomes join to form a tetrad.
Tetrad = 4 chromatids
*CROSSING OVER (genetic recombination) = pieces of chromosomes are exchanged
Genes are exchanged at the chiasma (crossing over point)
Produces Genetic recombination in the offspring
Meiosis 2
Spermatogenesis
Making sperm in the testes
Meiosis produces 4 sperm

Oogenesis
Making eggs in the ovaries
Meiosis produces 3 polar bodies that die and 1 egg
Starting at puberty, an immature egg matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days

RNA, Transcription and Translation

Making Proteins From DNA!
Gene to Protein
Gene = sequence of DNA that codes for a single protein
RNA = nucleic acid that uses DNA information to make proteins
Nucleic Acid = DNA or RNA
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Building block = nucleotide
Phosphate
Sugar
Nitrogen base
Contrast: DNA and RNA

Sugar
Nitrogen bases
Shape
Where it does its job

DNA

RNA

Deoxyribose

Ribose

C, G, A, T

C, G, A, U

2 strands

1 strand

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

U = uracil

Types of RNA
3 types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries information from DNA to the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - site of protein synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA) - transfers amino acids to ribosomes

mRNA
Straight chain
Uses DNA as a template
Carries instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
Read in codons
1 Codon = 3 bases (letters)

rRNA
Globular shape
Combines mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids for protein synthesis
tRNA
Cloverleaf shape
Has 1 Anticodon =3 bases (compliments mRNAs codon)
Carries one specific Amino Acid
Brings amino acids to the ribosome to make protein
Overall Flow of DNA Protein

Transcription
Transcription = Process of making mRNA from DNA
RNA Polymerase binds to DNA, separates the strands, and creates complementary strand of RNA
Example: DNA = GAC AAG TCC ACA ATC
What is the complementary RNA strand?
RNA = CUG UUC AGG UGU UAG
Translation
After mRNA is created in the nucleus, it is transported to the cytoplasm
Translation: Decoding of mRNA into a chain of amino acids
DNA amino acids protein!

Vocabulary
Codon = 3 nucleotides on mRNA. Codes for 1 amino acid.
Anticodon = 3 nucleotides on tRNA (1 amino acid)
Amino acid = building block of proteins

Translation
In the cytoplasm, mRNA attaches to ribosome
Ribosome reads mRNA, 1 codon at a time
The amino acid is brought to the ribosome by tRNA with the complementary anticodon
The amino acid chain grows, until a stop codon is reached
EXAMPLE
Given the following strand of DNA:
DNA:

TAC AAG TTT GAC ACT

What is the result of transcription?

RNA:

AUG UUC AAA CUG UGA

What is the result of translation?

Amino Acids: Met -- Phe -- Lys -- Leu - Stop!
Overall flow of information
DNA BECOMES PROTEIN!!!

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Why Do Cells Divide?
Reduces demands on the DNA
Increases the ratio between cell's surface area and volume
More surface area allows the cell to:
Absorb enough materials
Transport materials within the cell efficiently (no wasted space)

The Cell Cycle

Cycle of events from one cell division to the next.
2 Main parts
Interphase (G1, S, G2)
Cell division (MITOSIS)
Interphase
Interphase = 90% of cell cycle
Consists of 3 phases: G1, S, G2
G1 Gap 1. Growth. Cells increase in size and create new organelles.
S Synthesis of DNA: DNA is COPIED (replication)
G2 Gap 2. Growth (preparation for mitosis)
Interphase: G1
Nucleus is surrounded by nuclear envelope.
Chromatin = DNA + proteins (histones) is in the form of loose threads.

Mitosis: Introduction
Mitosis = Cell division resulting in production of 2 daughter cells from 1 parent cell.
Daughter cells are identical to one another (and to parent cell).
4 Stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
Prophase
Chromatin coils into chromosomes
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Centrosomes form (organelle that organizes microtubules for division)
Mitotic spindle forms (fibers and microtubules)

Chromosome Vocabulary
Centromere = region where 2 sister chromatids are attached
Kinetochore = proteins where spindle fibers attach (to pull apart chromatids)
Metaphase
The chromosome centromeres align at metaphase plate (middle)
Centrosomes are at opposite poles
Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores
Anaphase
Separation of sister chromatids, kinetochore spindles shorten
Pulled apart towards poles
Telophase
Daughter chromosomes reach poles
2 Nuclear envelopes appear
Cytoplasm divides
Cleavage furrow
cell membranes pinch
Cytokinesis (cyto = cell, kinesis = motion) Cell cytoplasm divides, producing 2 new identical cells (daughter
cells)

The Compound Light Microscope

Light passes through an object
Can magnify up to 2000 times
Resolution: 500x of eye
Used to view living organisms

Why is it called a compound microscope?

Compound= combining the magnifying power of 2 lenses (one is the eye piece and the other you
select for the power you want.. High, Medium, or low)
Magnification= making objects appear larger in size
Total magnification = ocular lens (eye piece) x objective lens

Low= 10 x 4 = 40x
Med= 10 x 10= 100x
High= 10 x 40=400x
Resolution= ability to make an object have greater detail

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Use electrons

Takes a lot of space,, 2D

EXPEN$IVE (>$50,000){bruhhhhhh}
High magnification, high resolution

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Uses electrons
Used at universities and labs, 3D
250,000$ - 1million ${BRUHHHHHH}
Magnifies 500,000x
-9

Resolution: 0.1 nanometers (10 )

Parts of the Microscope

Eyepiece/Ocular lens: to view image. Magnifies 10x
Objective: Magnifying lenses (4x red, 10x yellow, 40x blue)
Stage: Flat platform where you place slides
Stage clips: Hold slide in place
Arm: Grasping handle
Diaphragm: Controls amount of light
Coarse Focus Knob: Focuses image by moving stage (never use on high power)
Fine Focus: focuses by moving the stage by small amounts(small turning knob)
Illuminator: light source, controls brightness of light

Rules to follow
When turning on/off microscope :
1. Rotate Objective to LOWEST POWER (4x Red)
2. Lower stage all the way
3. Remove slides
4. Turn power off
MUST BE DONE IN THIS ORDER ONLY!
Tips for using the microscope
Light- The amount of light available is controlled by the diaphragm and the illuminator. When you increase
magnification power, the amount of light available decreases. As you magnify you may need to increase
the brightness or open up the diaphragm.
Losing the image As you increase magnification, you see less of the image and you might lose sight of
the image entirely. It is helpful to center the image before moving to the next level of power