ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS FOR GRAVITY LOADS

As discussed in previous chapter, building frames may be of three types, namely, simple
framing, semi-rigid framing and rigid framing. Generally, the beams and girders of upper
floors may very well be designed on the basis of simple beam moments, while those of lower
floors may be designed as continuous members with moment resisting connections.
Simple Framing
If a simple framing is used, the design of beams is quite simple because they can be
considered as simply supported. In such cases, shears and moments can be determined by
statics. The gravity loads applied to the columns are relatively easy to estimate, but the
column moments may be a little more difficult to find out. The column moments occur due to
uneven distribution and unequal magnitude of live load. If the beam reactions are equal on
each side of interior column, then there will be no column moment. If the reactions are
unequal, the moment produced in the column will be equal to the difference between
reactions multiplied by eccentricity of the beam reaction with respect to column
Semi Rigid Framing
The analysis of semi-rigid building frames is complex. The semi-rigid frames are designed by
using special techniques developed based on experimental evidence. This will be discussed in
a later chapter.
Rigid Framing
Rigid frame buildings are analysed by one of the approximate methods to make an estimate
of member sizes before going to exact methods such as slope-deflection or momentdistribution method or any computer based analysis (using any software like ETABS, SAP,
NISA or STAAD). If the ends of each girder are assumed to be completely fixed, the bending
moments due to uniform loads are as shown in full lines of Fig. 1(a). If the ends of beam are
connected by simple connection, then the moment diagram for uniformly distributed load is
shown in Fig. 1(b). In reality, a moment somewhere between the two extremes will occur
which is represented by dotted line in Fig. 1(a). A reasonable procedure is to assume fixed
end moment in the range of wl2/10, where l is clear span and w is magnitude of uniformly
distributed load.

Fig. 1 (a) Fixed beam (b) Simply - supported beam bending moment diagrams
Analysis of structural frames for gravity loads - (according to IS: 456 - 1978)
The following assumptions are made for arrangement of live load for the analysis of frames:
a) Consideration is limited to combination of:
1. Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on two adjacent spans and
2. Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on alternate spans.
b) When design live load does not exceed three-fourths of the design dead load, the load
arrangement of design dead load and design live load on all the spans can be used.

Unless more exact estimates are made, for beams of uniform cross-section which support
substantially uniformly distributed loads over three or more spans which do not differ by
more than 15% of the longest, the bending moments and shear forces used for design is
obtained using the coefficients given in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. For moments at
supports where two unequal spans meet or in cases where the spans are not equally loaded,
the average of the two values for the hogging moment at the support may be used for design.
Where coefficients given in Table 1 are used for calculation of bending moments,
redistribution of moments is not permitted.
Table 1: Bending moment coefficients

Table 2: Shear force coefficients

Substitute frame method

Rigid frame high-rise buildings are highly redundant structures. The analysis of such frames
by conventional methods such as moment distribution method or Kanis method is very
lengthy and time consuming. Thus, approximate methods (such as two cycled moment
distribution method) are adopted for the analysis of rigid frames under gravity loading, one of
such methods is Substitute Frame Method.
Substitute frame method is a short version of moment distribution method. Only two cycles
are carried out in the analysis and also only a part of frame is considered for analysing the
moments and shears in the beams and columns. The assumptions for this method are given
below:
1) Moments transferred from one floor to another floor are small. Hence, the moments for
each floor are separately calculated.

2) Each floor will be taken as connected to columns above and below with their far ends
fixed.
If the columns are very stiff, no rotation will occur at both ends of a beam and the point of
contraflexure will be at about 0.2 l. The actual beam can be replaced by a simply supported
beam of span 0.6 l as shown in Fig. 2(a). If, the columns are flexible, then all the beams can
be considered as simply supported of span l as the beam column joint will rotate like a
hinge, an approximate model for middle floor beam is shown in Fig. 2(b). An approximate
method of analysis for gravity loads is illustrated in worked

(a) Stiff column frame

(b) Flexible column frames

Fig. 2 Substitute approximate models for analysis of frames

Drift in Rigid Frames
The lateral displacement of rigid frames subjected to horizontal loads is due to the following
three modes:
Girder Flexure
Column Flexure
Axial deformation of columns
The sum of the storey drifts from the base upward gives the drift at any level and the storey
drifts can be calculated from summing up the contributions of all the three modes discussed
earlier in that particular storey. If the total drift or storey drift exceeds the limiting value then
member sizes should be increased to avoid excessive drift
COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF RIGID FRAMES
Although the approximate methods described earlier have served structural engineers well for
decades, they have now been superseded by computer analysis packages. Computer analysis
is more accurate, and better able to analyse complex structures. A typical model of the rigid
frame consists of an assembly of beam-type elements to represent both the beams and
columns of the frame. The columns are assigned their principal inertia and sectional areas.
The beams are assigned with their horizontal axis inertia and their sectional areas are also
assigned to make them effectively rigid. Torsional stiffnesses and shear deformations of the
columns and beams are neglected. Some analysis programs include the option of considering
the slab to be rigid in plane, and some have the option of including P-Delta effects. If a rigid
slab option is not available, the effect can be simulated by interconnecting all vertical
elements by a horizontal frame at each floor, adding fictitious beams where necessary,
assuming the beams to be effectively rigid axially and in flexure in the horizontal plane.

Rigid Frame
A rigid frame in structural engineering is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with
straight or curved members interconnected by mostly rigid connections which resist
movements induced at the joints of members. Its member can take bending moment, shear
and axial loads.
The two common assumptions as to the behavior of a building frame are (1) that its beams
are free to rotate at their connections or (2) that its members are so connected that the angles
they make with each other do not change under load. Frame works with connections of
intermediate stiffness will be intermediate between these two extremes. Frame works with
connections of intermediate stiffness are commonly called semirigid frames. The AISC
specifications recognize three basic frame types: Rigid Frame, Simple Frame, and Partially
Restrained Frame.
The AISC Steel Specification Commentary on Section B3 provides guidance for the
classification of a connection in terms of its rigidity. The secant stiffness of the connection Ks
is taken as an index property of connection stiffness.
Rigid frames are identified by the lack of pinned joints within the frame. The joints are rigid
and resist rotation. They may be supported by pins or fixed supports. They are typically
statically indeterminate.
Frames are useful to resist lateral loads.
,

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Behavior
1. The relation between the joints has to be maintained, but the whole joint can
rotate.
2. The amount of rotation and distribution of moment depends on the stiffness
(EI/L) of the members in the joint.
3. End restraints on columns reduce the effective length, allowing columns to be
more slender. Because of the rigid joints, deflections and moments in beams are
reduced as well.
4. Frames are sensitive to settlement because it induces strains and changes the stress
distribution.

Types
Gabled has a peak
Portal resembles a door. Multi-story, multiple bay portal frames are commonly used for
commercial and industrial construction. The floor behavior is similar to that of continuous
beams.
Staggered Truss Full story trusses are staggered through the frame bays, allowing larger
clear stories.

Staggered Truss

Gable frame

Steel Rigid frame

Steel Flanges of members are fully attached to the flanges of the other member. This can be
done with welding, or bolted plates.
Reinforced Concrete Joints are monolithic with continuous reinforcement for bending.
Shear is resisted with stirrups and ties

Braced Frames
Braced frames have beams and columns that are pin connected with bracing to resist lateral
loads.
Types of Bracing
knee-bracing
diagonal (including eccentric)
X
K or chevron
shear walls which resist lateral forces in the plane of the wall

Rigid Frame Analysis

Structural analysis methods such as the portal method (approximate), the method of virtual
work, Castiglianos theorem, the force method, the slope-displacement method, the stiffness
method, and matrix analysis, can be used to solve for internal forces and moments and
support reactions.
Shear and bending moment diagrams can be drawn for frame members by isolating the
member from a joint and drawing a free body diagram. The internal forces at the end will be
equal and opposite, just like for connections in pinned frames. Direction of the beam-like
member is usually drawn by looking from the inside of the frame.

Frame Design
The possible load combinations for frames with dead load, live load, wind load, etc. is critical
to the design. The maximum moments (positive and negative) may be found from different
combinations and at different locations. Lateral wind loads can significantly affect the
maximum moments

INFILLED FRAMES
It is a general practice to provide brick masonry infill walls within the columns and beam of
Reinforced concrete frame structures. Such composite structures formed by the combination
of a moment resisting plane frame and infill walls is termed as "infilled frames". Infill walls
provide durable and economical partitions having relatively excellent thermal and sound
insulation with high fire resistance. In the areas where the burnt clay bricks are easily
available, these infills are made in brick masonry and in other areas, hollow or solid concrete
blocks are used. Infill walls are usually provided for functional and architectural reasons and
they are normally considered as non-structural elements and their strength and stiffness
contributions are ignored in the analysis works despite significant advances in computer
technology and availability of modern computational resources. The reasons for ignoring
their presence may be due to the complication involved in analysis and also the uncertainty
about the non-integral action between infill and the frame. Thus, the analyses of structures are
being based on the frames

When subjected to gravity loads only, the infill walls only add their self weight. However, an
infill wall tends to interact with the frame when subjected to seismic forces. The performance of
structures can be greatly improved by the increase in strength arising from the non-structural
components; on the contrary, this increase in strength also accompanies an increase in initial

stiffness of the structure, which may consequently attract additional seismically induced lateral
inertia forces [1]. An infill wall also exhibits energy dissipation characteristics under earthquake
loading as the frame members compress the infills at some locations. The infill walls when
compressed carry a part of the load by providing strut action to the frame. As such, the infill walls
contribute as a surplus benefit during the times of earthquakes.
Generally, all parts of the frame may not include infills as they are provided as per the functional
and architectural needs. It has been observed from past earthquakes that the infills contribute in
the enhancement of overall lateral stiffness of the structure. Strong infills have often prevented
collapse of relatively flexible and weak reinforced concrete frames. Brick masonry, in cement
mortar, exhibits highly non-homogeneous behavior due to relatively weak shear strength of
mortar and sometimes due to weak compressive strength of bricks. The behavior of reinforced
concrete frames with brick masonry infills depend upon the composite action of the frame and the
infill. The structural response is quite complex as it involves an interaction of infill behavior,
reinforced concrete frames behavior and length of contact between infill and frame.
TYPES OF INFILL PROVISIONS
Infills are provided fully or with openings as per the needs for provisions of partitions or for
doors and windows. The four different general types of frames are shown in the figures below;
bare frame (Fig.1), fully infilled frame (Fig.2), infilled frame with opening (Fig.3) and partial
infilled frame (Fig.4).

PARTIALLY INFILLED FRAMES

In majority of hospitals, academic institutions and commercial complexes, partial infills are
provided to attain light within the rooms. It is observed that such walls on one hand
contribute in enhancing the lateral stiffness of the structure while on the other hand they play
ironic role with an adverse effect called "short column effect".
The term short column effect is defined as the effect caused to the full storey slender column
whose clear height is reduced by its part height contact with a relatively stiff non-structural

elements such as a masonry infill, which constrains its lateral deformation over the height of
contact. The column which gets its effective height reduced due to such partial infill walls is
termed captive column, or in general, the short column. The shear required to develop
flexural yield in the effectively shortened column is substantially higher than shear required
developing in full length column
CLASSIFICATION OF FRAMES
A frame in which sway is prevented is called a non-sway frame. However, there are
some frames, which may sway only by a small amount since the magnitude of sway in such
frame is small it will have only a negligible P- effect. Such frames are also classified as
non-sway frames. Therefore, to define the non-sway frame precisely, its lateral stiffness is
used as the criteria irrespective of whether it is braced or not. For such frames lateral stiffness
is provided by one of the following: