EE320 DC/AC Circuits

(Part 1)
Prepared by: Christy A. Caete, ECE
Topics:
Electric charge
Current, voltage, power, and energy
Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductances
I. Charge and Current
Electric Charge
The most basic quantity in an electric circuit
An electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C).
The charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.6021019 C
The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.6021019) =
6.241018 electrons. Thus realistic or laboratory values of charges are on the order of
pC, nC, or C.
According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral
multiples of the electronic charge e = 1.6021019 C
The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed,
only transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not
change.
Electric Current
Is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
The relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is:

where current is measured in amperes (A), and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time

and is

Types of Current:
Direct Current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
By convention the symbol I is used to represent such a constant current.
Alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i.
Example 1: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Solution: Each electron has 1.6021019 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have
1.6021019 C/electron 4,600 electrons = 7.3691016 C
Example 2: The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin4t mC. Calculate
the current at t = 0.5 s.
Solution:
(

At t = 0.5,

Example 3: Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1s and t = 2s if the
current passing the terminal is
(
) A.
Solution:

II. Voltage
Voltage
Voltage (potential difference or electromotive force, emf) is the energy required to move
a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
The voltage
between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work)
needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C), and

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb

The figure below shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular
block) connected to points a and b. The plus (+) and minus () signs are used to dene
reference direction or voltage polarity. The
can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point
a is at a potential of
volts higher than point b, or (2) the potential at point a with
respect to point b is
.

It follows logically that in general:

For example, in the following figure, we have two representations of the same voltage. In
figure (a), point a is +9V above point b; in figure (b), point b is 9 V above point a. We
may say that in figure (a), there is a 9-V voltage drop from a to b or equivalently a 9-V
voltage rise from b to a. In other words, a voltage drop from a to b is equivalent to a
voltage rise from b to a.

III. Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
The relationship of power and energy is:

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

From the equation above, it also follows that:

or

By passive sign convention, if the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or
absorbed by the element. If, on the other hand, the power has a sign, power is being
supplied by the element.

Power absorbed = Power supplied

For example, the element in both circuits below has an absorbing power of +12 W
because a positive current enters the positive terminal in both cases.

In the next figure, however, the element is supplying power of 12 W because a positive
current enters the negative terminal.

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason,
the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where:
1 Wh = 3,600 J

to time t is:

Example 4: An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to ow through a

light bulb. If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage
drop across the bulb.

Example 5: Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3 ms if the current entering its
positive terminal is
A
and the voltage is: (a)

, (b)

IV. Circuit Elements

Two types of elements in electric circuits:

An active element is capable of generating energy. Typical active elements include

generators, batteries, and operational ampliers.
A passive element is NOT capable of generating energy. Examples of passive elements
are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Two types of sources:

The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver
power to the circuit connected to them.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specied voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit variables. Physical sources such as
batteries and generators may be regarded as approximations to ideal voltage sources. The
figure below shows the symbols for independent voltage and current sources.

(c)

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current. Dependent sources are usually
designated by diamond-shaped symbols. Figure (a) below shows the dependent voltage
source, and figure (b) shows the dependent current source:

The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero; it is able to supply or absorb
any amount of current. The current through an ideal voltage source is completely
determined by the external circuit. When connected to an open circuit, there is zero
current and thus zero power. When connected to a load resistance, the current through the
source approaches infinity as the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Thus,
an ideal voltage source can supply unlimited power.
The internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite. An independent current
source with zero current is identical to an ideal open circuit. The voltage across an ideal
current source is completely determined by the circuit it is connected to. When connected
to a short circuit, there is zero voltage and thus zero power delivered. When connected to
a load resistance, the voltage across the source approaches infinity as the load resistance
approaches infinity (an open circuit). Thus, an ideal current source, if such a thing existed
in reality, could supply unlimited power and so would represent an unlimited source of
energy.
There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Example 6: Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element.

Solution: For p1, the 5-A current is out of the positive terminal (or into the negative
terminal); hence,
(
For

and

Supplied power

, the current ows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.
( )

Absorbed power

( )

Absorbed power

For , we should note that the voltage is 8V (positive at the top), the same as the voltage for
p3, since both the passive element and the dependent source are connected to the same
terminals. (Remember that voltage is always measured across an element in a circuit.) Since
the current ows out of the positive terminal,
(

Supplied power

We should observe that the 20-V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent current
source are supplying power to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are
absorbing power. Also,

The result simply means that power absorbed = power supplied, which obeys the law of
conservation of energy.

V. Capacitance

A capacitor consists of two metal electrodes which can be given equal and opposite
charges. If the electrodes have charges Q and Q, then there is an electric field between
them which originates on Q and terminates on Q. There is also a potential difference
between the electrodes which is proportional to Q. The capacitance of the configuration
is defined as

The capacitance is a measure of the capacity of the electrodes to hold charge for a given
potential difference.

The symbol of capacitance is shown below:

Combinations of Capacitors

Capacitors in parallel have the same electrical potential as the source. Thus, the charge
on the equivalent capacitor is the sum of the charges on C1 and C2.

For capacitors connected in series, the potential of the source is the sum of the potentials
across C1 and C2. This is a consequence of conservation of energy.

or

VI. Inductance

Inductance is the property of a conductor by which a change in current in the conductor

"induces" (creates) a voltage (electromotive force) in both the conductor itself (selfinductance) and in any nearby conductors (mutual inductance).

Symbol for inductance:

Inductance is measured in Henry (H).

The relationship between the self-inductance L of an electrical circuit (in henries),

voltage v, and current i is

Combinations of Inductors

Inductors connected in series are added normally

Example:

If inductors are connected in parallel, they add in reciprocal

Example:

VII.

Tips for Problem Solving

1. Carefully Dene the problem.

2. Present everything you know about the problem.
3. Establish a set of Alternative solutions and determine the one that promises the greatest
likelihood of success.
4. Attempt a problem solution.
5. Evaluate the solution and check for accuracy.
6. Has the problem been solved satisfactorily? If so, present the solution; if not, then return to
step 3 and continue through the process again.