Welding Sections

STUDENT COURSE NOTES PART (1)
Welding Principles Section 1 - 12

FLB Overseas Employment Agency Inc.
SECTION
Student Progress Organiser
Competency description
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Welding safety
Welding regulations
Welding terms & symbols
Heat treatment
Metal cutting & gouging
Elements in carbon steel
Preparing weld joints
Welding procedure
Weld testing
Elementary electricity
Arc conditions
Manual metal arc electrodes
Welding alloy steels
Welding non-ferrous alloys
Gas tungsten arc welding
Gas metal arc welding
Oxygen acetylene welding (fuel gas)
Submerged arc welding (automatic)
Competency testing
Date Started
Date
completed
Teachers
Signature
Contents
Introduction ______________________________________________________ 5
Student organiser___________________________________________________
Section 1
Welding safety _________________________________________ 6

Hazards ________________________________________________ 7
Hazardous locations ______________________________________ 8
Site inspection ___________________________________________ 8
Trade assistant __________________________________________ 8
Cleaning and purging containers_____________________________ 9
Fumes _________________________________________________ 9
First aid and emergency procedures _________________________ 10
Health effects of fumes and gases ____________________________11
Safety in confined spaces __________________________________ 14
Industrial gas cylinders_____________________________________ 15
Scaffolding ______________________________________________16
Skin and eye damage prevention ____________________________ 17
Protective clothing and equipment __________________________ 17
X-ray and gamma-ray radiation _______________________________19
Industrial injuries _________________________________________ 19
CPR chart _____________________________________________ 20
Review questions ________________________________________ 21
Section 2
Welding regulations ____________________________________ 25

Welding regulations________________________________________ 25
Certification of welding operators _____________________________ 25
The role of the statutory authority _____________________________ 26
Statutory authority inspection ________________________________ 26
Fire regulations for arc or flame cutting, welding and grinding ______ 27
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 _______________________ 27
Review questions _________________________________________ 28
Section 3
Welding terms and symbols ______________________________ 31

Welding terms and symbols _________________________________ 32
Types of welds ___________________________________________ 32
Parts of a weld ___________________________________________ 33
Parts of a weld preparation _________________________________ 36
Weld sizes ______________________________________________ 37
Weld positions ___________________________________________ 39
Welding symbols _________________________________________ 41
Review questions _________________________________________ 47
Section 4
Heat treatment _______________________________ ______

Lower critical temperature _____________________________
Effects of welding heat on carbon steels ___________________
Effects of heat on mechanical properties ___________________
Heat treatments ____ __________________________________
Heating methods _____________________________________
Temperature measuring devices _________________________
Review questions _____________________________________
50
51
51
52
52
54
55
56
Section 5
Metal cutting and gouging ____________________________ 59

Preparing metals for welding ____________________________ 60
Oxygen - fuel gas flame cutting __________________________ 60
Oxygen - fuel gas gouging ______________________________ 65
Machine flame cutting _________________________________ 68
Tracing techniques for machine flame cutting _______________ 72
Air arc gouging equipment ______________________________ 73
Air arc process _______________________________________ 74
Uses of the air arc process ______________________________ 77
Plasma arc cutting process _____________________________ 79
Basic plasma arc cutting equipment ______________________ 80
Gases for plasma arc cutting ____________________________ 81
Advantages and limitations of plasma arc cutting_____________ 82
Uses of plasma arc cutting ______________________________ 83
Hazards of plasma arc cutting ___________________________ 83
Mechanical cutting ____________________________________ 84
Review questions _____________________________________ 85
Section 6
Elements in carbon steel _____________________________ 88

Elements in carbon steel________________________________ 89
Carbon steel grouping __________________________________ 89
Influence of elements on the weldability of carbon steels _______ 91
Review questions -------------------------------------------------------------- 92
Section 7
Preparing weld joints ________________________________ 95

Edge preparation______________________________________ 96
Types of edge preparations _____________________________ 96
Backing bars and rings ________________________________ 100
Cleaning ___________________________________________ 101
Jigs and wedges _____________________________________ 102
Review questions ____________________________________ 103
Section 8
Welding procedure _________________________________ 106

Welding procedure ___________________________________ 107
Types of welding procedures ___________________________ 107
Welding procedure variables ____________________________ 109
Changes to a qualified welding procedure __________________ 111
Weld repair __________________________________________ 111
Review questions _____________________________________ 112
Section 9
Weld testing ______________________________________ 116

Weld testing ________________________________________ 117
Destructive testing ___________________________________ 117
Non-destructive testing (NDT) __________________________ 124
External weld faults ___________________________________ 127
Internal weld faults ___________________________________ 130
Review questions ____________________________________ 132
Section 10
Elementary electricity ______________________________ 135

Electrical terms _____________________________________ 136
AC sine wave curve _________________________________ 139
High frequency machines _____________________________ 140
High frequency safety ________________________________ 140
Constant current (drooper) welding machine ______________ 141
Constant potential (flat) welding machine
______________ 142
DC motor generators ________________________________ 143
AC transformers ____________________________________ 144
AC-DC rectifiers ____________________________________ 144
Inverters __________________________________________ 145
Other equipment ____________________________________ 145
Advantages and limitations of welding machines
________ 146
Review questions ________________________________ 147
Section 11
Arc conditions ____________________________________ 150

Variables _________________________________________ 151
Polarity ___________________________________________ 151
Arc blow __________________________________________ 152
Amperage ________________________________________ 153
Voltage __________________________________________ 153
Arc length _________________________________________ 153
Slag control ________________________________________ 153
Review questions ___________________________________ 155
Section 12
Manual metal arc electrodes ________________________ 158

Covered electrodes _________________________________ 159
Characteristics of electrodes __________________________ 159
Factors which affect electrode selection _________________ 159
Electrode classification ______________________________ 160
Fluxes ____________________________________________ 162
Functions of slag ___________________________________ 162
Functions of core wire _______________________________ 163
Storage, handling and conditioning electrodes ____________ 163
Review questions __________________________________ 165
Introduction
Student organiser
This chart provides you with an overall picture of the content of the whole module. There
will be two competency tests - the first after Section 12, the second after Section 18.
Section
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Section title
Welding safety
Welding regulations
Welding terms and symbols
Heat treatment
Metal cutting and gouging
Welding procedure
Weld testing
Arc conditions
Competency test 1
Welding alloy steels
Welding non-ferrous alloys
Gas tungsten arc welding
Gas metal arc welding
Oxyacetylene welding (fuel gas)
Submerged arc welding (automatic)
Competency test 2
Assessed
Suggested
hours
4.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
1.5
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.5
1.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
Section 1 - Welding safety
Section 1
Welding safety
Task
To understand the safety requirements and recognise the

potential hazards of welding. This section covers part of
learning outcome 1 of the National Module Descriptor.
Why
So you can work safely in a welding and fabrication

environment.
To pass
There will be a written competency test at the end of section

12 of this module. This will be a series of short answer and
multiple choice questions.
Hazards
There are many hazards associated with electric arc welding. This section outlines these
and recommends safety precautions. Occupational Health and Safety regulations cover
the working environment. Industrial accidents or injuries shouldn't happen if you follow
approved OH&S procedures at all times. The best protection for yourself and others is a
thorough knowledge of potential dangers so you can avoid them.
Remember workers contribute to a safe working environment. Don't take risks. Electric
shock
Electric arc welding uses high voltage equipment. You must take precautions against
electric shock. Aspects of welding which may be electrically hazardous are:
the primary circuit
high frequency units
welding cables
electrode holders
return cable connections and clamps
inappropriate protective footwear and clothing
wet conditions.
Avoid electric shock by:
wearing dry insulated boots and dry leather gloves
never changing electrodes with bare hands or wet gloves
never cooling electrode holders in water
working on a dry, insulated floor where possible
never holding the electrode and holder under your arm.
Electric shock causes burning and muscle contraction. Breathing and the heart may
stop, resulting in unconsciousness. The victim should be rescued as quickly as possible.
Turn off the power to the circuit first. When this isn't possible, clear the victim from the
electrical source using dry non-conducting material. Resuscitation, if necessary, should
be done by a qualified person.
Fire and explosion
There is always a danger of fire and/or explosion from flame cutting and welding.
Suitable fire extinguishers, such as sand, and other fire-fighting equipment must be
close by. Remove all flammable materials from the site and take particular care with:
sparks (cutting, welding, grinding)
electrode stubs
gas cylinders
gas hoses
electrical connections
dust
containers and piping containing flammable materials.
FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12
September 2009
Hazardous locations
Areas where there are highly flammable or explosive substances are hazardous locations.
Examples are:
dry cleaners
oil refineries
coal pulverising plants
flour mills
Site inspection
Site inspection is an important part of preparing to cut or weld in hazardous locations. No work
can begin without a permit. The location must be inspected by someone who is qualified to give
you a permit listing safe working practices for the particular site.
Work permit
A work permit from a responsible officer is always necessary for welding and cutting in areas
where there is danger of fire or explosion. The responsible officer must inspect and set up
procedures that properly protect against fire risks. Work permits are only valid for an eight hour
shift and a new permit has to be issued for subsequent shifts.
A work permit requires that:
all combustible materials are at least 10 metres from the work - where this is not practicable,
they must be kept damp or shielded against the gas flame, sparks, slag or falling hot metal by
sheet metal, fire resistant curtains or similar materials.
floor openings within 10 metres are covered or the floor below is protected
the area on the opposite side of a wall through which heat might pass is clear of combustibles
an assistant watches for sparks, slag or hot metal and takes action if any of these begin a fire
there are fire extinguishers in the area and the positions of hoses and hose reels
are noted.
During interruptions (lunch or tea breaks) or when the work is finished, the area must be
patrolled for one hour including surroundings and lower floors where smouldering fires may
start.
Trade assistant
All tradespersons welding in areas where a permit is needed must have an assistant who also
acts as an observer. The assistant should:
keep a lookout for any fires
keep the tradesperson under observation
know standard fire drill for that area
be able to use fire-fighting equipment
remain on site for at least one hour after the welding or cutting has finished.
September 2009
Cleaning and purging containers

Before cutting or welding a container which has held (or is suspected of having held)
flammable or toxic substances, you must have it inspected by a responsible person.
This person will issue a work permit and supervise the cleaning and preparation of the
container. When cleaning containers follow these broad guidelines:
mechanically remove all sludge and place in appropriate containers
flush to remove water soluble residue
clean with hot detergent solution
steam clean at low pressure
flush again with clean water
re-inspect before cutting or welding.
For containers which can't be cleaned as above:
fill the container with water to just below the work area
vent the unfilled area to the atmosphere
purge the unfilled space with a non-flammable gas such as C02
re-inspect before cutting or welding.
Observe all safety precautions. If you have to go inside a container, you must first have
it inspected and declared gas free. An entry permit must be obtained.
Fumes
Fumes generated from welding and cutting processes may be a serious hazard.
These fumes can come from:
the metal
the electrodes and electrode coatings
surface contaminants
surface coatings
oxidation of gases in the atmosphere.
Health effects of fumes
Whenever metal is welded it produces metal oxide fumes.rAlloys are an added
problem as they contain a variety of metals, for example stainless steels contain
manganese, nickel, cobalt and chromium. Some aluminium, copper and magnesium
alloys often have traces of beryllium. Some filler wires and special alloy steels contain
vanadium. The fumes generated from these alloys can be toxic.
Ventilation
Local exhaust ventilation is essential where you may be exposed to atmospheric
contaminants from welding in poorly ventilated and confined spaces. This is
particularly effective as it can be positioned close to the work to remove the
contaminants at their source and stops dangerous fumes spreading through the work
place. There must be a supply of fresh air to enclosed areas to replace the exhausted
air.
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Safe work practices can cut down atmospheric contaminants. You should:
remove rust inhibitors, paints, degreasers or other coatings on metals to be cut or
welded
separate degreasing from welding tasks
keep your head clear of welding fumes
never smoke in the work area.
When you need respiratory protection, use respirators which conform with
Australian Standard AS1716.
First aid and emergency procedures

If a person is overcome by welding fumes and/or gases, take the following action:
1. Move the patient to a warm uncontaminated atmosphere and loosen tight clothing at
the neck and waist.
2. Keep the patient resting.
3. If there is difficulty in breathing, oxygen can be given through suitable apparatus by a
trained operator. Do not try to do this if you're not qualified.
4. If breathing is weak or has stopped, start artificial respiration.
5. Seek medical advice urgently. It's important for the doctor to know which
contaminants have been present.
September 2009
FLBOEA- Student Workbook 1-12
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Information sheet
Health effects of fumes and gases
Metal/process
iron
manganese
Effect
metal fumes
metal fumes
nickel
cobalt
chromium
metal fumes
metal fumes
metal fumes
beryllium
metal fumes
vanadium
metal fumes
galvanised metal
releases zinc fumes during cutting and

welding
Possible health hazard

siderosis (lung scarring)
irritates lungs
high levels cause nervous disorders
irritant, suspected link with cancer
shortness of breath and coughing
corrosive to skin
dermatitis and asthma
suspected link with cancer
minute amounts can cause serious lung damage often fatal
symptoms of breathlessness may occur more than six
weeks after exposure
suspected carcinogen
highly irritant, affects eyes and throat
may also cause chemical pneumonia
metal fume fever (symptoms resemble influenza) note: metal
fume fever can also be caused by the fumes from copper,
magnesium and aluminium
Metal/process
plated metal
lead painted metal
painted plastic
coated parts
manual metal arc

process
copper coated
electrodes
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Effect
chromium or cadmium fumes from the
plating (galvanising and plating should
be removed from parts before welding)
very toxic
lead fumes

respiratory tract infection, bronchitis, chemical pneumonia or
lung oedema
a high concentration may be fatal
long term exposure may injure lungs and kidneys
builds up in the body causing damage to the blood,
gastrointestinal tract and nervous system
regular blood tests are recommended as lead is a cumulative
poison
can
be very irritant or even fatal
various hazardous products result from
breaking down plastics eg carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
cyanide, formaldehyde and phenol
toxic
nosebleeds
electrodes are coated with flux slag
formers containing various chemicals dermatitis and irritation of the eyes, throat, respiratory tract
and lungs
fluoride fumes
note: check the electrodes you're using
copper fumes
metal fume fever
13
Metal/process
flame cutting and
welding
Effect
carbon monoxide (also produced in arc
welding)
nitrogen oxides
gas shielded arc
all electric arc

processes
ozone may be produced by ultraviolet

light released in arc welding (especially
GMAW and GTAW) and with aluminium
and stainless steel
intense heat causes nitrogen and
oxygen to combine, forming oxides of
nitrogen
all welding and

cutting
degreasers - (parts
that have been
degreased in
chlorinated solvents
eg trichlorethylene)
gives off inert gases (argon, helium)

carbon dioxide
ozone

carbon monoxide:
headaches and mental confusion
high exposure causes unconsciousness and death nitrogen
oxide:
irritant that can be fatal
long term exposure causes bronchitis
suffocation if air in a confined space is displaced by inert
gases
carbon dioxide can cause suffocation
ozone irritates respiratory tract and lungs - effects may be
delayed and severe cases are fatal
ozone irritates respiratory tract and lungs - effects may be
delayed and severe cases are fatal
eye, nose, lung irritants

prolonged exposure over years leads to bronchitis
may cause fatal pulmonary oedema some hours after
exposure stops
solvents break down in contact with the respiratory tract irritation
serious lung damage which can be fatal
flame or arc and can form phosgene
effects may be delayed
note: do not weld near degreasers or if
you can smell them
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Safety in confined spaces

Remember any area with restricted space, such as a tank or a boiler, is a confined space
and you must have a permit to cut or weld there. A trade assistant must also observe the
workers at all times and help when needed.
Follow these safety procedures:
Have enough fresh air. The air should be continuously replaced by an exhaust ventilation
system. Remove fumes at their source to stop them reaching the operators and monitor
oxygen levels.
Be alert to the dangers of fire and explosion. Where possible keep the fuel gas plant
outside and have the assistant hand in the lighted torch as needed. This will prevent gas
leakages forming explosive mixtures. Do not use the oxygen supply for cleaning or
ventilation.
Guard against electric shock which is potentially more dangerous in confined spaces.
Duckboards and correct safety equipment are essential. Do not use high frequency current.
All lighting and electric hand tools should be 32 volts and double insulated.
Cylindrical work needs special care. Here rotators are

used to position the job.
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Industrial gas cylinders

Identification
There is a colour coding system for identifying the gas cylinders used in the fabrication
industry:
Gas cylinder
oxygen
nitrogen
carbon dioxide
acetylene
LPG
argon
hydrogen
Colour
black
dark admiralty grey
french grey
crimson
aluminium
peacock blue
signal red
With gas mixtures (such as argoshield), the colour of the cylinder body represents the
main gas and the colour of the cylinder shoulder identifies the additions.
Shoulder labels are also attached to cylinders to identify their contents. The
background colours of these labels are:
Type of gas
flammable gas
poisonous gas
oxidising agent
inert gas
Colour
red
white
yellow
green
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Shoulder label for a gas cylinder
Storage and handling

There are safety procedures for storing and handling gas cylinders:
store different types of gas cylinders separate from each other
do not store in hot conditions such as direct sunlight
keep upright
do not drop or handle roughly
do not use near furnaces or other heat sources
do not allow arcing, flames or sparks to be directed towards any cylinder
do not use oil or grease on oxygen cylinder valves, regulators or fittings
use a cylinder cradle when lifting cylinders with a crane
do not lift cylinders by their valves.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding should be erected by qualified riggers where the height is greater than three
metres. Unlicensed persons can put up scaffolding under three metres.
When cylinders are in position on the scaffold, secure them by chains in an upright position.
Secure welding leads and oxy-fuel gas hoses to the scaffolding when the cylinders or welding
machines are left below.
Tie all planks or platform materials with wire or wire rope not with sisal, cotton or synthetic
ropes which are flammable. To prevent accidental arcing and damage to wire ropes - don't
hang holders containing electrodes on them.
Rope off the area below the scaffold and put up warning signs for the protection of others.
There must be handrails on all scaffolding and kickboards on platforms above three metres to
stop tools, equipment etc, being inadvertently knocked off by those working on the scaffold.
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Display warning signs, eg DANGER MEN WORKING ABOVE, in appropriate places.

Anyone working near or below the scaffold should wear a hard hat.
Skin and eye damage prevention

There are risks from electric arcs, sparks and slag in the welding work
place. Electric arcs emit three types of radiation:
ultraviolet radiation
This can cause severe skin and eye damage. The skin damage is like sunburn and
unprotected parts of the body are affected in a very short time. Arc-eye or flash occurs
when the naked eye is exposed to the arc for even a very short period. In most cases
this painful condition is temporary, and only lasts about two days but it can easily be
prevented. Reflective surfaces can spread this radiation over a wider area.
infrared radiation
This produces intense heat and increases the dangers of ultraviolet radiation. This form
of radiation is also emitted during flame cutting.
visible light
The intensity of visible light in arc welding may cause temporary blindness. Damage
can be permanent if the radiation is of high intensity.
Sparks
Sparks from welding, flame cutting and grinding will burn and damage eyes and skin.
Eye damage from flame cutting or grinding is a common result of working without
protective equipment.
Slag
When welds are de-slagged, the hot brittle slag can easily burn and stick to unprotected
areas such as the face, the top of the head, hands or eyes causing considerable
damage. Colder slag is very hard and sharp and will cut or bruise unprotected eyes.
Protective clothing and equipment

Protective clothing should be worn at all times to protect the skin and eyes during
welding and cutting. Goggles, safety glasses, welding shields, gloves and boots should
all conform to the requirements of the various Australian Standards.
All clothing should be made, from industrial strength cotton and in good repair. Shirts
should be long-sleeved. Clothing that is made from nylon or other flammable material
or is torn or frayed must not be worn.
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Protective clothing and equipment includes:

SAA approved shield and lens
SAA approved goggles and lens
SAA approved safety glasses
SAA approved work boot or shoes
SAA approved ear muffs
leather gloves
industrial-strength-cotton full overalls or pants and long-sleeved shirt
leather spats
leather scull cap
leather jacket or apron
Suitable protective clothing
September 2009
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Xray and gamma-ray radiation
Some non-destructive weld testing involves radiography. This is done by trained

personnel who are responsible for seeing the area is safety-signposted. All other
persons must remain outside the designated area during testing. Exposure to
radiographic rays can cause long term damage and should be avoided at all times.
Industrial injuries
While good housekeeping and safe working practices prevent most industrial accidents,
injuries sometimes happen. Industrial injuries include:
burns (minor and major)
cuts
bone fractures
neck and spinal damage.
Many cuts and burns are minor and are treated with little loss of work time. However all
injuries, no matter how small, should be reported to the first aid officer to help with the
planning of future occupational health and safety procedures.
More serious injuries should be treated by qualified personnel. On-the-spot first aid
should not be a substitute for qualified assistance. The following steps to take in the
event of an accident are a guide only:
act quickly
switch off any electric circuits involved
do not touch burns or remove clothing from burnt areas
send for medical assistance
stay with the victim
do not move the victim if a back or neck injury is suspected.
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CPR chart (information sheet only - not

CPR - cardiac pulmonary resuscitation
EAR - expired air resuscitation
assessed)
September 2009
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Review questions
These questions will help you revise what you've learnt in Section 1. The answers are
on page 175.
Short answer
1.
List 4 sources of fumes from flame cutting or welding:

a ..................................................................................................................................
b ..................................................................................................................................
c...................................................................................................................................
d ..................................................................................................................................
2.
List 3 areas of concern when welding in a confined space:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c..................................................................................................................................
3.
How should gas cylinders be supported when they are lifted by a crane?
4. Why must electrodes be removed from electrode holders hung on scaffold staging
where there are wire ropes?
5. Name 3 rays emitted from an electric arc:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
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Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer and write the letter a, b, c or d in the box.
6. A precaution against fire or explosion in a hazardous location is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
no welding or cutting is permitted

high frequency equipment must not be used
there must first be an inspection of the area
the tradesperson must hold a current pressure welding certificate
7. The background colour of the identifying shoulder label on an oxygen cylinder is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
red
white
yellow
green
8. Confined spaces require:

a.
b.
c.
d.
degreasing before welding

adequate ventilation
workers to take salt tablets regularly
small diameter electrodes to be used
9. Welding lenses must be:

a.
b.
c.
d.
shade 13 minimum
SAA approved
made in Australia
green
10. The primary circuit, high frequency units and welding cables:
a.
b.
c.
d.
September 2009
are serviced by welding tradespersons

are safe to use in wet conditions
can be assumed to be free of all hazards
can all be electrically hazardous
23
True or false
Circle T if the statement is true, F if the statement is false.
11. Any container which has held flammable or toxic materials must be examined by a
responsible person before welding.
T F
12. All lead lighting in confined spaces must be 32 volts.
T
13. Oxygen cylinders are coloured peacock blue.
14. The letters EAR used in first aid stand for Expired Air Resuscitation.
15. Radiographic weld inspection presents no danger to the operator.
September 2009
Section 2 - Welding regulations
Section 2
24
Welding regulations
Task
To be aware of the various statutory bodies responsible for the

regulations in the welding and fabrication industry. This section
covers part of learning outcome 1 of the National Module
Descriptor.
Why
So you will be aware of your responsibilities under the statutory

regulations covering the welding and fabrication environment.
To pass
At the end of section 12 of this module you'll do a written

competency test on this topic. This will be a series of short
answer and multiple choice questions.
September 2009
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Welding regulations
Australian standards
Welding, like other manufacturing processes, is covered by many standards published
by the Standards Association of Australia (SAA). These are amended and/or revised
from time to time as new developments are introduced.
Specification codes or rules are binding and must be followed by all tradespersons.
Such information is a design and workmanship guide for the manufacturer and ensures
safe products of a standard quality which benefit both producer and purchaser.
Standards are compiled by committees formed by the SAA. They consist of
representatives from government, scientific departments, industry and educational
institutions (universities and colleges). There are standards to cover most things made
in Australia. In this module we are concerned with:
metals and consumables
welding
sound working practices
methods of testing
glossaries of terms
statutory requirements
safety standards covering:
protective equipment structures
machinery.
Certification of welding operators

Welding operators employed on important work must be able to prove sufficient skill and
experience. Practical and theoretical credentials are tested by a recognised authority. In
New South Wales the recognised authorities are the Welding Technology Institute of
Australia (WTIA) and the Workcover Authority of NSW (Pressure Vessels Section).
Australian Standard 1796 SAA Welder Certification specifies the following
requirements:
qualifications: experience and training necessary before taking the tests
scope of written examination: outline of syllabus
practical tests: weld types and positions, flame cutting and gouging.
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The role of the statutory authority

In NSW the Workcover Authority is responsible for accreditation of welders to AS
1796. There are Workcover Authority officers in regional offices across the state. Their
duties include:
maintaining the standard of boilers and pressure vessels in service by providing
rules and guidelines for inspection after installation, repair, alteration or re-rating.
providing guidelines for authorised inspection during fabrication and welding of
boilers and pressure vessels.
testing welders to AS1796 and registering workshops and equipment for fabricating
boiler or pressure vessels.
making sure only safe and reliable welded products are produced and
investigating pressure equipment failure and accidents.
making sure persons welding and cutting and the public are not exposed to any
undue danger or other conditions that would be harmful to their health.
ensuring imported pressure vessels comply with Australian regulations.
Statutory authority inspection

(Workcover Authority NSW)
When a boiler or pressure vessel is constructed or repaired, the fabricator must notify
the statutory authority. This statutory authority (depending on the class and type of
vessel) will usually ask for three inspections during manufacture.
Inspection before welding
drawings and designs, code requirements
operator qualifications
fabrication and testing plans
welding procedure
material and stamping
welding equipment and consumables
joint design and joint preparation method
Inspection during welding
conforming to welding procedure and fabrication plans
pre-heat and inter-pass temperature
filler metal and fluxes - control, storage and handling
qualification of operators for specific applications
inter-pass cleaning
visual or other non-destructive testing inspection methods
Inspection after welding
final inspection for conformity to drawing and code requirements
post weld cleaning and visual inspection
non-destructive testing to code requirements
post weld heat treatment
documentation of fabrication and testing results
September 2009
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Fire regulations for arc or flame cutting, welding and grinding

All work must follow the regulations set out in Australian Standard 1674 Cutting
and Welding Safety. Some of the important features of this code are:
Welding shop
Where practicable all work to be welded or cut should be moved to a workshop
designed for the purpose or to a safe area.
Welding shops should be screened off by non-flammable partitioning. The doorway
should be at least 10 metres from hazardous areas. Fire extinguishers should be
provided.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 (New South Wales)

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OH&S) was passed in 1983. This act of
parliament is binding on all employers and employees. The responsibility for safety
is now in the work place. The legislation sets minimum industry standards and
there are heavy fines for any breaches.
The OH&S Act makes it the employer's responsibility to create a safe work place,
including plant, systems handling, storage and transport.
The employee also has a responsibility to help keep the working environment safe
and healthy, to take reasonable care of the health and safety of others and to cooperate with employers in complying with the OH&S Act.
Health and safety committees
The OH&S Act makes provision for setting up occupational health and safety
committees in the work place with representatives from management, workers and
the union. All unsafe conditions in your work place should be reported to a
committee member if the hazard cannot be corrected immediately.
Penalties
Corporations, management and employees can all be fined for breaches of the Act.
September 2009
28
Review questions
on page 176.
Short answer
1.
What is the number of the Australian Standard covering cutting and welding safety?
2.
Name 4 areas of welding dealt with in Australian Standards:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c..................................................................................................................................
d .................................................................................................................................
3.
Describe the requirements of AS1796 (certification of welders), under the

following headings:
a. skill .....................................................................................................................
b. knowledge
.........................................................................................................
4.
Who, in New South Wales, is responsible for the accreditation of welders in

accordance with AS1796 Welding Certificates 1-9.
5.
Who is responsible for safety in the work place?
September 2009
29
Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer and write the letter a, b, c or d in the box. 6.
Dangerous situations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
are only management's concern

need only be repaired if it doesn't cost money
should be reported to the work place safety committee
should be ignored as they are not the responsibility of the workers
7. Inspection of a class 1 pressure vessel by the statutory authority is:

a.
b.
c.
d.
not generally required

done at all stages of construction
only needed after completion
not required unless weld failure occurs
8. Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 in NSW, work place
committees:
a. are nominated by management
b. make decisions on marketing and manufacturing standards
c. are restricted by the fact that machinery is their only area of
responsibility
d. have management, worker and union representation
9. One area of fabrication not covered by Australian Standards codes is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
costing procedure
safety
welding procedure
workmanship
10. Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act of NSW one area of
employee responsibility is to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
decide on transport procedures

change the workshop layout
inspect the electrical circuitry
be concerned for the health and safety of other workers
September 2009
30
True or false
Circle T if the statement is true, F if the statement is false
11. Safety is everyone's responsibility.
T
14. Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 employers are required to
provide a safe work place.
T
12. Cutting and welding safety is the responsibility of the safety committee
and is not covered by Australian Standards.
13. Once published Australian Standards are never revised.
15. Before constructing a pressure vessel, the fabricator must notify the
statutory authority.
T
September 2009
31
Section 3 - Welding terms and symbols
Section 3
Task
To identify welding symbols and understand common welding

terms. This section covers part of learning outcome 2 of the
National Module Descriptor.
Why
So you will be able to interpret welding symbols and understand

welding terms used in the welding and fabrication industry.
To pass
September 2009

32

There has to be a language of standardisation throughout the fabrication industry so
that people can understand each other. Failure to communicate effectively may lead to
production problems.
The Standards Association of Australia issues specialised words for use with all
welded structures. We can use this terminology anywhere in the country across all
engineering fields and be confident others will understand us. These common terms
help streamline safety, the legal aspects and quality control of production.
The welding terms and symbols can be found in two standards:
AS 2812 Welding, Brazing and Cutting Metals - Glossary of Terms
AS 1101 Graphical Symbols for General Engineering Part 3 - Symbols for
Welding.
Types of welds
Butt welds are welds where the weld metal is mostly confined to the thickness of the
parts being joined. The parts are in the same plane as each other or in different planes.
Fillet welds are triangular in shape and most of the weld metal is external to the parent
metal.
T fillet
Lap fillet
September 2009
Corner fillet
forming
33
Fillet
weld
Parts of a weld
Parent metal: the metal being welded together or surfaced.
Weld face: the visible surface of a completed weld.
Weld toe: the junction of the parent metal and the weld face.
September 2009
September 2009
34
35
Root: the innermost part of a weld directly opposite the weld face.
Reinforcement: the amount the weld face extends beyond the parent metal in a flat
butt weld or beyond a line joining the toes of a fillet weld.
September 2009
36
Throat thickness: the distance from the root of a weld to the face of the weld.
Heat affected zone (HAZ): the area adjacent to the metal melted by the heat of welding
which has become metallurgically changed.
Parts of a weld preparation

Apart from cleaning and squaring of edges, very little preparation is required for fillet
welds. Plate edge preparation terminology is therefore generally limited to the
preparation for butt welds.
Parts of a single V butt weld preparation
September 2009
37
Parts of a single bevel butt weld preparation
Weld sizes
Fillet welds
Fillet welds' sizes are determined by their leg lengths. To comply with weld size
requirements they must also have a throat thickness equal to 70% of this leg length.
For example, in sketch 1 of a mitre fillet, if the leg length (b) is 10mm, the throat
thickness (a) would be 7mm.
Sketch 1
September 2009
38
However, the two welds in sketch 2 below are effectively different sizes. Here the leg
lengths are the same, but because of the shapes of the weld faces, their throat
thicknesses are not.
Sketch 2
Butt welds
On full penetration butt welds, the depth of the weld is at least equal to the thickness of
the metal being joined.
On partial penetration welds the depth of the weld is stated on the specifications.
The height of reinforcement does not form part of a butt weld's size. This reinforcement
should not extend more than 4mm beyond either side of the edge preparation for a
10mm plate thickness.
Full penetration
butt weld
Partial penetration
butt weld
September 2009
39
Weld positions
G = grooved (butt) F =
fillet
1 = flat
2 = horizontal
3 - vertical
4 = overhead
5 = fixed position, pipe axis horizontal
Example 3F - vertical fillet
Vertical position
September 2009
40
Overhead position
Welded from beneath
Horizontal position
Welded from the side

Pipe in fixed position, axis horizontal
September 2009
41
Welding symbols
Working drawings must convey all the information needed to fabricate products. As
space is limited on drawings, a system of symbols has been devised to provide weld
joint information.
The side of the joint to be prepared, the type of joint preparation and the size and length
of weld runs can be clearly indicated by these symbols.
The symbol is an elbowed arrow with the type of weld shown as a stylised drawing of
the weld shape or edge preparation on the arrow's shaft. Further information, such as
the size of a fillet weld and the lengths of welds, can be easily added.
The following sketches show how symbols are used on drawings.
Symbol positioned below the arrow shaft
This symbol
indicates a fillet weld on the side of the joint the arrow is pointing
Symbol positioned above the arrow shaft
A fillet weld is required on the other side of the joint.
September 2009
42
towards. The small sketch on the right shows how the job would look after welding.
September 2009
43
Symbol positioned on both sides of the arrow shaft
A fillet weld is required on both sides of the joint.

Symbol indicating fillet weld size
This symbol &[/ indicates a fillet weld with 6mm leg length is required on the arrow side
of the joint.
Site weld symbol
September 2009
44
Weld all round symbol
General butt weld symbol
September 2009
45
Length of weld (intermittent welding)
The first number to the right of the basic

welding symbol indicates the length of the
fillet weld. The second number indicates the
centre to centre dimension of the welded
sections for intermittent welding. The sketch
on the right shows how this would look on a
completed joint.
Common butt weld symbols
September 2009
46
Less common basic and supplementary symbols
September 2009
47
Review questions
on page 176.
Short answers
1.
Define:
a. a butt weld
b. a fillet weld
2.
Why do we need Australian Standards for welding terms?
3.
For mitre fillet welds, what percentage of the leg length must the throat thickness
be?
4.
What determines the size of a full penetration butt weld?
September 2009
48
5. List the 4 requirements indicated by the welding symbol in the sketch below:
a..................................................................................................................................
b..................................................................................................................................
c ..................................................................................................................................
d..................................................................................................................................
Multiple choice questions

The above symbol indicates:

a.
b.
c.
d.
square, butt joint

surfacing
plug or slot weld
flush contour required
7. The distance from the root of a weld to the toe of the weld is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.
reinforcement
leg length
weld face
throat thickness
September 2009
49
8. The toe of a weld is:

a.
b.
c.
d.
the visible surface of a completed weld

the junction of the parent metal and the weld face
the innermost part of the weld opposite the face
the distance from the root of the weld to the face of the weld.
9. Graphical Symbols for General Engineering Part 3 - Symbols for Welding

is Australian Standard:
a.
b.
c.
d.
AS1101
AS1210
AS1796
AS2812
10. Reinforcement of a butt weld on 10mm thick plate should not extend beyond the
edge preparation by more than:
a.
b.
c.
d.
1mm
2mm
3mm
4mm
True or false
11. The metal being welded is called the parent metal.
12. A single bevel butt weld preparation and a single V

butt weld preparation are the same.
13. The basic symbol for a weld on the arrow side is

placed above the arrow shaft.
14. A 20mm fillet weld has a 14mm throat thickness.
15. A lap weld is a type of butt joint.
September 2009
Section 4 - Heat treatment
50
Section 4
Heat treatment
Task
To gain a basic knowledge of the heat treatment procedures

used in the fabrication industry. This section covers learning
outcome 3 of the National Module Descriptor.
Why To
So you'll be able to use this knowledge in the fabrication

industry.
pass

September 2009
51
Lower critical temperature

Carbon steel may be heated to 723C without causing metallurgical structure changes.
This temperature is known as the lower critical temperature. Above 723C changes to
the steel's structure begin which may remain after it has cooled. The amount of change
for a given type of steel will depend on the temperature it's heated to, the length of time
it is held at this temperature and the subsequent cooling rate of the steel.
When carbon steel is heated during welding, the heat is often localised. Only a small
area where the welding is taking place is heated to a high temperature. The metal
surrounding the weld area varies in temperature depending on how far from the weld it
is. This uneven temperature in the heat affected zone (HAZ) surrounding the weld metal
causes variation in mechanical properties and can produce unpredictable weld failure.
This can be dangerous and costly.
Heat treatments before and/or after welding help overcome the variation in weld quality.
Heat treatment temperatures must be accurately controlled. Most workshop treatments
for welding purposes - stress relieving, pre-weld and interrun heating - are done below
the lower critical temperature. Specially trained technicians usually take the
responsibility for heat treatments above this temperature - normalising and annealing
are rarely done by fabricators.
Effects of welding heat on carbon steels Grain

size
Like all metals, carbon steel has a crystal structure. When the surface of the steel is
polished and etched with acid, a collection of these crystals appear as flat, two
dimensional shapes called grains. Steel has a fairly even grain size.
If we heat carbon steel to above the lower critical temperature and hold it at this
temperature for some time, a larger grain structure will form. The size of the grains will
depend on how hot it gets and how long it's heated. Any marked increase in grain size
will affect the steel's mechanical properties.
Residual stress
Because of the high localised heat input of the welding process, the grain sizes are
changed in the weld zone. Because the surrounding parent metal restricts free
expansion and contraction during the heating and cooling cycle, stresses are locked into
the local weld area. This stress build-up is called residual stress.
Residual stress can also be caused by cold working material such as bending or rolling
carbon steel plate. This manufacturing process will distort the grain and introduce local
stresses. Critical work such as class 1 boilers or pressure vessels require a stress
relieving heat treatment of the structure.
September 2009
52
Hardness
Some carbon steels can be hardened by heating and quenching. The degree of
hardening depends on:
the quantity of carbon in the steel
the heating temperature
the speed of cooling (quenching).
When the steel is heated above 723C, the carbon in the iron begins to dissolve.
Quenching causes this to form a hard brittle structure. Low carbon steel cannot be
appreciably hardened in this way as there isn't enough carbon to form the harder
structure. Higher carbon and low alloy steels can easily be hardened by heating and
quenching.
Thicker metals have a quenching effect on the heat affected zone of a weld and
hardening of this area is likely in steels containing sufficient carbon.
Effects of heat on mechanical properties

Changes to the grain structure and hardness of steels affect their ductility, fatigue
strength and resistance to impact. Deformed grain structures increase the residual
stresses in steels, reducing their fatigue strength, impact resistance and ductility.
As steels become harder they lose their ductility. This makes them more likely to fail
from sudden impact loads or bending stresses.
Since most of the hardening is in the heat affected zone, underbead cracking is
probable. This is the result of dissolved hydrogen gas escaping from the rapidly cooling
weld which may also be more brittle due to hardening.
Changes to the grain structure also reduce the metal's strength. A coarse, (large), grain
structure is more likely to fracture when stressed than a fine (small) grain structure.
Heat treatments
Heat treatment of boilers, pressure vessels, pipes and highly stressed structures is part
of the welding procedure.
The types of heat treatment are:
pre-weld, interrun and post weld heating
stress relieving
normalising
annealing.
September 1991
53
Pre-weld, interrun and post weld heating

Pre-heating prevents rapid loss of heat from the welding area into the colder parent
metal. The prime reason for pre-heating is to distribute the heat evenly and slow the
cooling rate of the weld.
Hardenable types of carbon steel, low alloy steels and heavy sections of low carbon
steel are pre-heated before welding to prevent cracking.
If the sections are thick or the weld joint is long, interrun heating is used to maintain the
pre-heat temperature.
When a joint is finished, post weld heating is sometimes required for hardenable steels
that are highly restrained. This ensures uniform cooling of the welded joint. It requires
heating in the range of 30C to 400C depending on:
the composition of the parent metal
the thickness of the parts being joined
the heat input of the welding process.
Stress relieving
As previously stated, restricted expansion and contraction during welding causes
distortion of the grain structure and produces built-in stress. Stress relieving is a post
weld heat treatment to relieve these stresses. It involves reheating the metal to just
below the lower critical temperature and holding at this temperature for a specified time
to allow the deformed grain structure to release any built-in stresses. This is then
followed by slow cooling.
The temperature range for stress relieving carbon steel is 590C to 670C.
Normalising
Normalising is used to refine grain structure. Heating the metal above the critical
temperature range, holding this temperature to allow for even heating, then cooling
slowly in still air gives a more uniform and finer grain structure which improves the
ductility and strength of the metal. Normalising is also a stress relieving process.
The temperature range for normalising carbon steel is 820C to 980C.
Annealing
Annealing is similar to normalising but the very slow cooling must be done in a furnace.
Annealing produces a softer metal structure than normalising and is usually done so
that there can be further cold working, such as forming and machining.
The temperature range for annealing carbon steel is 820C to 925C.
September 2009
54
This graph shows the various heat treatment ranges for carbon steel in relation to the
lower critical temperature.
Heat treatment temperature
ranges for carbon steels
Heating methods
Furnaces
All heat treatments can be done in furnaces which provide excellent temperature and
cooling rate control and can be used to produce any desired structure within the metal.
Furnaces are electric, gas or oil-fired and the only limitation on their use is the size of
the structure being heat treated. They are essential for full annealing of carbon steel
because the metal can't be successfully cooled in still air.
September 1991
55
Heating torches
Specially designed heating torches using oxygen-acetylene or oxygen-LPG gas
mixtures are available to rapidly heat fabrications before welding.
Heating rings
These are an adaption of the heating torch but are specially shaped for efficiently
heating pipe joints.
Thermal blankets
Thermal blankets are used on pipes and other configurations to maintain pre-heat
temperature. These blankets insulate a flexible electric heating coil in a similar way to a
domestic electric blanket but provide a much higher temperature.
Temperature measuring devices

Temperature-indicating crayons
Temperature needs to be measured just before welding. Temperature-indicating
crayons can be used for most pre-weld heating. They come in a broad range of
temperatures from as low as 50C. These crayons make a mark on the metal which
appears to change colour at the designated temperature. In effect, the mark made by
the crayon melts.
After heating the weld area, the job needs to be left for a short time to allow for a more
uniform heat distribution before the temperature is measured. A range of crayons may
be needed to accurately determine the temperature of the metal. Further heating or heat
loss may be needed before the desired temperature is reached.
To prevent contamination, marks from these crayons should not be made on the weld
joint surfaces.
Contact pyrometers (thermocouples)
When stress relieving or normalising, it's not advisable to heat for too long above the
required temperature. Contact pyrometers are instant temperature measuring devices. A
probe is placed on the surface of the heated metal and the temperature is read from a
dial that is attached to the device.
September 2009
56
Review questions
on page 177.
Short answer
1.
What is the lower critical temperature for low carbon steel?
2.
When carbon steel is heated above the lower critical temperature, there are
changes to the steel's structure. List three factors which will influence the degree of
change which might take place:
a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c..................................................................................................................................
3.
What effect can a high temperature have on the grain structure of steel?
4.
What is the temperature range for normalising low carbon steel?
5.
Why is low carbon steel stressed relieved?
September 2009
57
Multiple choice
Stress relieving:
a.
b.
c.
d.
is done to refine the grain structure

requires heating in the range of 590C to 670C
is carried out above the lower critical temperature range
is pre weld heat treatment
7. Pipe joints are often pre-heated by using:

a.
b.
c.
d.
furnaces
heating rings
pyrometers
temperatures above the lower critical range
8. For a hardenable steel to be hardened it must:

a.
b.
c.
d.
have a very low carbon content

be cooled slowly
have its chemical composition altered
be rapidly cooled from a high temperature
9. Low carbon steel cannot be appreciably hardened because:

a.
b.
c.
d.
it conducts heat too rapidly

its melting point is too low
it does not contain enough carbon
no heat affected zone can form
10. Pre-weld heat treatment might be done:

a.
b.
c.
d.
to prevent heat loss in the weld area

to harden the steel
to reduce the ductility of the steel
to enable thinner steel sections to be used
September 2009
58
True or false
11. Stress relieving is done above the lower critical temperature.
12. Furnaces are essential for full annealing.
13. Marks from temperature indicating crayons should not be made on

the weld joint surface.
14. Grain growth will occur below the critical temperature.
T
T
15. Stress relieving and normalising are usually done by specially

trained heat treatment staff.
September 2009
Section 5 - Metal cutting and gouging
Section
59
Metal cutting and gouging
Task
To understand the uses of flame, arc and mechanical cutting in

the fabrication industry. This section covers learning outcome 4 of
the National Module Descriptor.
Why To
So you will know how flame, arc and mechanical flame cutting and
gouging processes are used in the fabrication industry.
pass
At the end of section 12 of this module you will do a written

competency test on this topic. This will be a series of short answer
and multiple choice questions.
September 2009
60
Preparing metals for welding

There are several cutting processes and machines available for preparing metals and
the fabricator must select the most suitable and economical method. Not all methods
produce acceptable results without further work. Some mechanical means of edge
preparation leave small surface tears which have to be removed by grinding. Flame
cutting is the commonest method of edge preparation and if done well only needs wire
brushing afterwards in most cases.
Oxygen-fuel gas flame cutting

When iron is heated to 815C in an oxygen rich environment, it will spontaneously
oxidise (burn). This reaction is the basis of the flame cutting method for carbon steel.
Using a specially designed cutting torch, a small portion of the steel is heated to 815C.
This temperature, at which iron will burn, is known as the ignition temperature. Once
this small part is heated, a narrow high pressure stream of oxygen is directed onto the
heated surface causing it to oxidise rapidly. A lot of heat is generated when the iron
oxidises which quickly heats and oxidises the metal directly beneath until the metal in
the pathway of the oxygen stream is completely severed.
It's important to note that it's the iron oxide which melts during cutting and not the metal.
The pre-heat flame needs only to heat the metal to ignition temperature (815C), not to
its melting point (1450C). Over pre-heating is common and produces poor quality cuts.
Flame cutting
September 2009
61
Suitable fuel gases

Gases suitable for pre-heating the metal during cutting are:
acetylene
coal gas
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
hydrogen
Acetylene and LPG are the most commonly used because they are readily available
and are suitable for other heating operations.
Hydrogen is used for underwater cutting because it is safer than acetylene at depths
greater than three metres.
Although coal gas is not commonly used in Australia for cutting, it is a suitable preheat
fuel gas.
Cutting equipment
The cutting equipment must match the fuel gases.
LPG regulators have a different pressure/flow ratio from acetylene regulators and are
not interchangeable.
Low pressure gases, such as coal gas, require a low pressure torch and mixer.
Each gas requires a different cutting nozzle. Nozzles are identified by a type number
and a size.
The first part of the type number indicates the form of nozzle connection.
Type 30 series are screw-in nozzles. Type 40 series are tapered-seat
nozzles.
September 2009
62
The second part of the type number indicates the type of fuel gas for use with the
nozzle:
1. acetylene eg 31, 41
2. low pressure acetylene
3. coal gas
4. liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
5. hydrogen
Below the type number on the nozzle is the nozzle size. This is expressed as a number
which is ten times the central orifice diameter in millimetres. That is, a size 15 nozzle will
have a central orifice of 1.5mm.
The letters HS after the size number indicate that the nozzle is a high speed cutting type
and is designed to be used with mechanised cutting techniques.
Recommended flame cutting operating data
Plate
Nozzle
thickness size
mm
6
8
12
12
20
12
25
15
40
50
75
15
100
20
20
20
125
150
15
15
Operating data
Cleaning drill size Pressure kPa
Cutting Pre-heat Oxygen Acetylene
8
12
12
15
15
15
15
20
20
24
5x6
6x7
6x7
6x8
6x8
6x8
6x8
6 x 10
6 x 10
6x11
200
200
250
220
350
400
450
400
450
450
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Cutting Consumption
speed
Acetylene Oxygen
mm/min L/mln
LVmin
450
3.5
17.5
380
4
38
340
4.5
42
320
6
56
270
7
75
85
240
7.5
95
180
8
9
150
134
150
10
155
130
11
211
Note: Acetylene nozzles can't be used with LPG. LPG nozzles have a recessed face to
help keep the flame at the nozzle tip and make it easier to light and keep burning.
September 2009
63
The quality of the cut will be influenced by:

cutting speed
nozzle size and condition
condition of plate
distance of nozzle from plate
material composition
gas pressure.
Effects of variations in flame cutting procedures
September 2009
64
Cutting attachments
Roller guide attachment for aiding hand held straight line cutting.
Circle cutting guide attachment - a roller guide attachment can be adapted to allow a
radius arm to be used on one side as shown in the sketch below.
September 2009
65
Angle bar guide - a suitable size piece of equal leg angle bar can be used to guide
straight line cutting at 90 and at 45 to the plate.
Hand held cutting should be limited to jobs where mechanised methods of flame cutting
are not practical.
Oxygen-fuel gas gouging

This process relies on the same principles of oxidation as cutting but with a different
nozzle design. This nozzle has a very large central orifice which allows a large area of
pre-heated surface metal to be oxidised. This makes a shallow groove without piercing
or severing the plate.
September 2009
66
Gouging nozzles may be straight or bent and must also be selected to suit the fuel gas
being used.
Flame gouging nozzle
Angle of nozzle to
surface of work
September 2009
67
The width and depth of a flame gouged groove depends on:

oxygen pressure
nozzle size
angle of nozzle to work.
Deep grooves may require more than one pass.
Gas pressures for gouging
G S - Gouging straight
G B - Gouging bent
Uses
Flame gouging is used for:
edge preparations for butt welds
backgouging welds to prepare for backing runs
weld defect removal.
September 2009
68
Machine flame cutting

Machine guided flame cutting eliminates the variations and irregularities of hand held
flame cutting. All the variables such as cutting speed, nozzle height and accuracy of
shape are easily controlled with these guiding devices.
Machine flame cutting:
produces better quality cuts
improves cutting speeds
ensures accuracy
provides consistency in size and shape There are
several machines for flame cutting. Straight line
tractor
Straight line cutting machines are electrically driven by a variable speed motor which is
mounted on a portable track. The speed is constant when set and produces high quality
cuts.
Uses
cutting plate to size (straight line cutting)
preparing plate edges for butt welds eg bevels.
Advantages
lightweight and portable
relatively inexpensive
reduces plate handling - plates can be cut to size outside the workshop
a circle cutting attachment can be fitted to cut parts over 400mm radius.
Limitations
can only cut regular shapes - straight lines and radial arcs.
September 2009
69
Radial arm cutting machines

Radial arm cutting machines have a hinged radial arm attached to a vertically positioned
column. They are driven by a variable speed motor and the cutting head is guided by a
magnetised roller around the edge of a steel template.
The magnetic tracing roller is mounted directly above the cutting head, with its centre in
line with the centre of the oxygen cutting orifice. The movement of the radial arm is
contained within the length of its swinging arm.
Uses
small production runs.
Limitations
the finished size of parts are limited to the length of the machine's swinging arm
cannot cut bevels or pipes - the cutting head must remain vertical
most machines are not portable.
September 2009
70
Pipe cutting machines

There are a number of pipe cutting machines commercially available. The machine shown
below is a portable one that is motor driven at a uniform speed around the pipe. These
machines are ideally suited for cutting fixed pipe structures and site work.
Stationary machines are often fixed to the factory floor and the pipes are rotated
at a constant speed beneath a fixed cutting head as shown below.
Uses
preparing pipes for welding
cutting pipes to length
some machines can cut branch openings.
Limitations
suitable for circular sections only
most machines can only handle a limited range of pipe diameters.
September 2009
71
Cross carriage cutting machines

Cross carriage cutting machines are widely used as they are ideal for cutting complex
shapes. They have more technically advanced guidance systems and are able to
produce finished work that is more accurate and superior to other types of machines.
The machine has a rigid beam carrying the cutting heads fixed to a carriage which
moves along a set of rails. The transverse movement of the beam means the machine
can trace and cut any required shape. Guidance is usually photoelectric or
computerised.
Uses
accurate cutting of complex shapes
cutting various thicknesses - the machine is ideal for this
medium to mass production work
producing identical shapes for repetition work
plate edge preparation and straight line cutting on some plates.
Limitations
length of beam will limit size of job
high cost
not suitable for cutting pipes
not portable.
September 2009
72
Tracing techniques for machine flame cutting

Magnetic tracing
This system is used on radial arm cutting machines and on some cross carriage
machines. A steel template is needed to reproduce the required shape. This is a thin
steel reproduction of the shape, reduced in size to allow for the radius of the magnetic
roller less half the width of the cut (kerf).
Magnetic template showing
allowances required
Photoelectric/optical tracing
This form of tracing involves accurately drawing the shape to be cut on good clean white
paper with a black ink pen. Using a photoelectric scanning head, a light spot is beamed
onto the drawing to pick up and follow either the inside or outside of the black line.
September 2009
FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-1Z
73
Computerised tracing
The most up-to-date equipment often uses some form of computerised guidance system
which produces a more accurate line of cut. Programming the machine requires special
training and knowledge.
Like photoelectric tracing, computerised tracing is ideally suited to mass producing
identically shaped profiles.
Air arc gouging equipment

The process is used for both cutting (demolition type work) and gouging. An electric arc
replaces the heating flame.
Power source
DC current is supplied from a welding generator or transformer/rectifier which must have
an adequate power rating to cope with the maximum current required during cutting or
gouging. The source must also be capable of supplying continuous maximum power
(100% duty cycle rating). AC equipment can also be used with suitable electrodes.
Air supply
Compressed air with pressure between 500 and 700kPa feeds the cutting torch
(electrode holder). Correct air pressure is important. Keep air-lines dry and free of water,
condensation and oil for clean, slag-free surfaces.
Electrode holder
A holder positions the electrode and directs a stream of compressed air to the area being
cut or gouged.
The diagram shows a holder with gripping jaws that can be swivelled so the electrode is
aligned with or angled to the handle. A number of air jets are positioned so that streams
of compressed air are directed to the arc end of the electrode.
September 2009
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Electrodes
Electrodes for this process are made of a special mixture of carbon and graphite and
are usually copper coated. Electrodes provide the heat source for melting the base
material.
Plant layout of the equipment
required for air arc cutting and
gouging
Air arc process

Principle of operation
Place the electrode in the holder with approximately 75 to 150mm projecting and the
twin air jets pointing towards the arc end of the electrode.
Draw an arc between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece.
Melt the surface of the metal with the arc and direct the compressed air stream onto
the molten surface to remove it. The angle of the electrode can be varied to suit
cutting or gouging.
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75
Air arc cutting

With the air fully on, point the electrode downwards at an angle of between 40-50.
Lower the electrode holder until the electrode striking end is about 25mm away from the
edge of the work.
Strike the arc by touching the end lightly on the edge of the intended line of cut.
Do not withdraw the electrode (as in manual metal arc welding) because metal is
being removed, not deposited.
Maintain a short arc by moving the electrode end forward along the line of cut.
Adjust the angle of the electrode to between 40 - 60 to make sure of a clear cut
through the material.
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Air arc gouging

With the air fully on, point the electrode downwards at an angle of between 30-40 to the
work surface.
Lightly strike the tip of the electrode on the surface to establish an arc.
Once a gouging action starts, reduce the electrode angle to 20 - 30 and move forwards.
Maintain a short arc and progressively move the tip of the electrode forward along the line
of the groove fast enough to keep up with the removal of metal.
Maintain a constant electrode angle and travel speed to obtain a gouge even in width and
depth.
Types of electrodes
Basically there are two types of electrodes available. DC
cutting and gouging electrodes (+)
These are by far the most popular. They are made from a blended mixture of carbon and
graphite and copper coated to prevent tapering which ensures a regular width and shape to
a cut or gouge. DC electrodes are connected to the positive pole. For manual cutting and
gouging operations electrodes are available in the following sizes:
Size
6.5mm
8.0mm
9.5mm
September 2009
Recommended amperage
200 - 250
250 - 350
350 - 450
77
AC cutting and gouging electrodes

Carbon electrodes are available but are not as widely used as DC electrodes
because they cost more and burn away much faster. AC electrodes are also
available in the following sizes:
Size
6.5mm
8.0mm
9.5mm
Recommended amperage
250 - 300
300 - 450
350 - 500
Uses of the air arc process

Preparing edges for welding
Back gouging welds to deposit sealing run
Removing defective welds
Cutting and shaping sections
September 2009
September 2009
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79
Plasma arc cutting process

The plasma arc cutting process is relatively new. It's been used in Australia for over
twenty years by the metal fabrication and welding industry as a commercial means of
cutting both ferrous and non-ferrous materials. It has introduced a whole new concept
in the technology for cutting. The process is widely accepted and used in many
different manufacturing areas.
Plasma
The term plasma describes the formation of electrically ionised gas. When gases are
passed through an electric arc, they conduct electricity to form a stream of highly
charged gas particles. This action produces the high degree of heat energy needed for
cutting operations.
A pilot arc (high frequency spark) draws an arc between a centrally positioned tungsten
electrode and the workpiece. This forces a high velocity plasma-forming gas through a
small nozzle orifice. As it passes through the current, the gases become ionised by
conducting electricity from the arc. A high energy jet-like stream of gases becomes
concentrated on a small area of the workpiece. The intense heat generated melts the
metal which is blown away from the line of cut. The process produces high quality cuts
and extremely high cutting speeds.
Plasma arc cutting
September 2009
80
Basic plasma arc cutting equipment Power

source
The most common power source is the transformer/rectifier which is designed to convert
AC current input to DC output. The control unit ol the power source is equipped with a
variable amperage control and a pilot arc superimposed (high frequency) to start the
cutting operation.
Torches
There are plasma torches for mechanised or manual use. They have a number of parts:
cup, constricted nozzle, collet, insulator, electrode, cap and O-rings to keep them
airtight. The current carrying capacity determines whether torches are gas or watercooled. Their main function is to concentrate cutting on the workpiece.
Tungsten electrodes
The electrodes for cutting are normally thoriated tungsten which have been specially
designed to operate on DC negative (-) polarity. The tungsten electrode is in the centre
of the cutting torch and establishes and maintains a constant arc with the workpiece.
Gas supplies
Plasma cutting needs a constant gas supply. The type of gas or gas combination
depends on the type and design of unit used. Some units operate quite efficiently with
compressed air as the cutting medium while others require a combination of different
gases for cutting and secondary shielding. The prime purpose of a gas supply in either
case is to produce a plasma-forming cutting medium. Types of gases and combinations
are described in more detail later in this section.
Regulators
In all cutting and welding operations, regulators reduce high cylinder gas pressure to
adjustable working pressure. The regulator for plasma cutting depends on the gas used.
September 2009
81
Plasma arc cutting unit
Gases for plasma arc cutting

Gases for plasma arc cutting depend on the type and design of the unit, the material
and the thickness and finish required.
Low powered units, for cutting thin sections, often use compressed air as a plasma
cutting gas. High powered units for fast mechanised cutting operations, use a range of
inert or reactive gas combinations. One gas forms the plasma while the other acts as a
secondary shielding gas to protect the arc and the surrounding work area.
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The following gases are used for both plasma and secondary shielding purposes:
Gas
nitrogen
carbon dioxide
argon hydrogen
compressed air
Use
often used as a plasma forming gas
(readily available, economical)
often used as a secondary shielding gas
(economical)
can be used for both plasma or secondary shielding
(slightly more expensive than most other gases)
mostly used as a plasma gas but can also be used as a
secondary shielding gas (very cheap)
Note
Many of these gases can be used in various combinations with each other, as well as
for plasma cutting or as a secondary shielding gas. Before cutting, seek advice on the
gas to use from the manufacturer of the unit.
Advantages and limitations of plasma arc cutting

Advantages
Range of materials
The traditional oxy-fuel cutting process is limited to cutting iron and steel. The plasma
arc process can cut a wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous materials:
carbon steels
low alloy steels
stainless steels
cast iron
aluminium
copper/brass
nickel alloys
titanium
Cutting speeds
The plasma process has higher cutting speeds than the oxy-fuel gas process.
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83
Concentrated arc
The process produces a concentrated arc. This reduces the amount of heat absorbed
and lessens the degree of distortion and the metallurgical effect on the material being
cut.
Limitations
Equipment cost
The capital cost of high powered plasma units is much more than oxy-fuel gas
equipment. Although lower powered units are available at reduced costs, full use of the
equipment is necessary to offset the initial outlay.
Taper cut finish
The plasma process doesn't produce a square cut because of the swirling gas. One side
is square and the other often has a few degrees taper on it. In many instances grinding
or machining is necessary.
Uses of plasma arc cutting

Plasma arc cutting can be used on all metals in much the same way as oxy-fuel gas
cutting is used on steel. The process is used manually and mechanically to:
profile cut materials to shape
bevel plate edges ready for welding
pierce holes and slots
stack cut
cut out of position (overhead, vertical etc.).
Hazards of plasma arc cutting

Like all cutting and welding processes, health and safety factors must be observed.
Some of the hazards are:
Noise
The process is very noisy and sound levels
are high enough to damage the hearing of
the operator and others working nearby. Ear
muffs or properly fitted earplugs should be
worn.
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84
Fumes
The intensity and heat of the arc
produces fumes which must not be
inhaled by the operator or those
working in the area. A local exhaust
ventilation system positioned as close
as possible to the source of fumes is
an excellent fume control system.
Arc radiation
Ultraviolet and infrared rays are given off from the plasma arc cutting process. The
intensity of these rays depends largely on the capacity of the power source. The
operator must always wear full protective clothing as well as an approved helmet or
goggles to protect the face and eyes.
Mechanical cutting
Many machines are available to cut and shape metal for welding. Most of these are
suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Guillotines
Guillotines are used to make straight cuts in metal. Most guillotines will cut low carbon
steel up to 4mm thick. If the metal is harder (stainless steel) this thickness is reduced. A
badly adjusted machine will leave a sharp edge on the bottom of the cut which has to be
removed by grinding. Higher capacity machines are used extensively in industry.
Rotary shears
Rotary shears are sometimes used for edge preparations on low carbon steel. The edge
must be dressed by grinding as irregularities can lead to weld failure.
Nibblers
Nibblers are used to cut out shapes from metals normally under 3mm thick. Machining
Machining is used to produce U joint edges on plate. These preparations are excellent
but expensive to produce.
Grinding
Defects from mechanical or flame cutting can be removed by grinding before welding.
September 2009
85
Review questions
These questions will help you revise what you've learnt in section 5. The answers are
on page 178.
Short answers
1. Describe the reaction when oxygen comes in contact with steel heated to 815C.
2. How does flame gouging differ from flame cutting?
3.
Why would machine flame cutting be preferred to hand flame cutting?

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
4.
List 3 uses of arc air gouging:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
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86
5. List 7 metals you can cut with plasma arc:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d .................................................................................................................................
e .................................................................................................................................
f ..................................................................................................................................
g .................................................................................................................................
Multiple choice
The ignition temperature of steel for oxy fuel gas cutting is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
518
815
830
850
7. The depth of a flame gouged groove depends on:

a.
b.
c.
d.
carbon content
fuel gas
angle of nozzle to work
position of plate
8. Flame gouging is used for:

a.
b.
c.
d.
September 2009
edge preparations
pre-heating
cutting non-ferrous alloys
removing surface coatings
87
9. Pipe cutting machines can be used for:

a.
b.
c.
d.
thread cutting
backgouging welds
cutting branch openings
pipe bending
10. Plasma-arc cutting:

a.
b.
c.
d.
can only be done in the flat position

uses a highly flammable gas
is extremely quiet
can be used on non-ferrous metals
True and false questions

Circle the T if the statement is true, F if the statement is false.
11. When a change of fuel gas is made a change of tip is required.
T
12. Radial arm cutting machines use aluminium templates as a guiding system.
13. Computerised tracing systems for cross-carriage cutting machines are

extremely accurate.
14. Air arc gouging uses a consumable copper coated carbon electrode.
15. Plasma arc cutting uses tungsten electrodes.
September 2009
88
Section 6 - Elements in carbon steel
Section 6
Task
To understand the effects of alloying elements on the

weldability of carbon steels. This section covers part of learning
outcome 5 of the National Module Descriptor.
Why To
So you will appreciate the effects the elements have on the

weldability of carbon steels.
pass

September 2009
89

Pure iron is soft and ductile and has very few uses. To give it commercial value the
metal's properties must be improved by adding other elements. However some
elements from the smelting process adversely affect the metal and need controlling.
Steel is iron with the addition of improving elements. Carbon steel is the most used
metal in the fabrication industry. Because the alloying elements in steel can vary in
quantity, the properties of the various carbon steels will also vary. Weldability (the ease
with which a metal can be welded) can be greatly altered by these alloying elements.
The elements in carbon steels are:
iron (Fe)
carbon (C)
manganese (Mn)
silicon (Si).
The impurities which may be present are:
sulphur (S)
phosphorous (P)
oxygen (O)
nitrogen (N)
hydrogen (H).
Carbon steel grouping

For most general purposes carbon steel is grouped according to the amount of carbon it
contains.
Low carbon steels
Low carbon steels contain 0.1% to 0.3% carbon and are most used in general
fabrication. This very small addition of carbon to the iron improves its strength
dramatically. Most low carbon structural steels will contain around 0.25% carbon. These
steels are readily welded unless other there are factors such as low temperatures, high
restraint, or thick sections to be considered.
A typical analysis for a low carbon steel (AS1204 - 250 structural steel - ordinary
weldable grade) would be:
carbon
0.25%
manganese
1.0%
0.4%
silicon
phosphorous
0.04%
sulphur
0.04%
iron
remainder.
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90
Medium carbon steels

Medium carbon steels with a carbon content from just over 0.3% to 0.5% have higher
strength and lower ductility. They can be difficult to weld.
The weldability of this group is influenced by the:
carbon content
thickness of the sections
rigidity of the structure
heat input of the welding process
ambient (room) temperature.
A typical welding procedure for both low and medium carbon steels might include:
pre-heat
hydrogen controlled electrodes
post weld heat treatment.
Note: Welding procedures are covered in detail in section 8 and electrodes in section 12.
A typical analysis for a medium carbon steel would be:
carbon
0.45%
0.75%
manganese
0.3%
silicon
0.05% (maximum)
phosphorous
0.05% (maximum)
sulphur
remainder.
iron
High carbon steels
The higher carbon content, more than 0.5%, makes these steels more brittle and
expansion and contraction stresses can cause cracking in the heat affected zone.
These steels are not regularly welded and a proven procedure must be used to avoid
weld failure.
A typical chemical analysis of a high carbon steel (AS1085 - steel rail) is:
0.72%
carbon
0.8%
manganese
silicon
0.5%
phosphorous
0.04%
0.05% (maximum)
sulphur
remainder.
iron
September 2009
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Influence of elements on the weldability of carbon steels

Carbon
reduces ductility (increases brittleness)
increases tensile strength
lowers the melting point
increases hardness
increases hardenability
reduces weldability.
The carbon content of steel has the greatest effect on its weldability. Hardness,
brittleness and hardenability all increase with increased carbon and make the steel
more difficult to weld. The harder the steel, the harder it gets when heated and rapidly
cooled, increasing the chance of cracking in the heat affected zone.
Manganese
increases hardness
promotes a finer grain structure
acts as a deoxidiser
prevents sulphur from causing hot cracking during welding (see sulphur). Silicon
increases strength and toughness
acts as a deoxidiser.
Sulphur
If not controlled, sulphur will combine with iron during welding and form iron sulphides.
Hot iron sulphides are brittle and welds on metals with higher than normal sulphur
content are prone to cracking. This is called hot shortness. Manganese in steel
overcomes this condition. Sulphur is an impurity in structural steels and is preferably
kept below 0.05%. However, some free-machining steels with higher percentages of
sulphur are often welded.
Phosphorous
Phosporous is an impurity kept below 0.05% in most carbon steels. It causes cracking
at normal temperatures (cold shortness).
Oxygen and nitrogen
These form oxides and nitrides which reduce the weld strength. Shielding from the
surrounding air is essential.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen may be produced during welding and absorbed into the heated steel. As the
steel cools, the hydrogen's attempts to escape cause cracking to the heat affected
zone. Hydrogen in harder steels is a main cause of underbead cracking called
hydrogen embrittlement. Precautions must be taken to prevent this when welding
medium carbon steels.
September 2009
92
Review questions
These questions will help you revise what you've learnt in section 6. The answers are on
page 179.
Short answers
1.
List the element composition of a low carbon steel:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d ............................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................................
f..................................................................................................................................
2.
List the element composition of a medium carbon steel:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c.................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................................
f .................................................................................................................................
3.
List the element composition of a high carbon steel:

a ................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d .................................................................................................................................
e .................................................................................................................................
f ..................................................................................................................................
September 2009
93
4.
Describe the effects of increased carbon in steel:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d .................................................................................................................................
e .................................................................................................................................
f ..................................................................................................................................
5.
What effect does hydrogen have on steel during welding?
Multiple choice
Which of the following cause hot shortness to steel during welding:
a.
b.
c.
d.
hydrogen
carbon
sulphur
phosphorous
7. Manganese in steel:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
decreases hardness
promotes large grain structure
acts as an oxidiser
prevents hot shortness
Which of the following elements will have the greatest effect on

weldability?
a.
b.
c.
d.
manganese
chromium
silicon
carbon
September 2009
94
9. Which of the following is an impurity in steel?

a.
b.
c.
d.
sulphur
manganese
silicon
carbon
10. When are low carbon steels considered difficult to weld?

a. in thin sections
b. at low temperatures
c. when they are not restrained
True or false questions

Circle T if the statement is true, F if it is false.
11. The amount of carbon in steel will have the greatest effect on its weldability.
T
12. High carbon steel is readily weldable.
13. Sulphur causes cold shortness.
14. Hydrogen is a cause of underbead cracking.
15. Medium carbon steels contain between 0.3% to 0.5% carbon.
September 1991
95
Section 7 - Preparing weld joints
Section
Task
To understand the theory of plate preparation and setting up

weldments in the fabrication industry. This section covers part of
Why To
So you will know how to prepare and set up for welding in the
fabrication industry.
Pass

September 2009
96
Section 7 - Preparing weid joints
Edge preparation
The choice of material and its thickness for a metal fabrication must meet the intended
service requirements. Material strength is always taken into account and for critical
work welded joints must be at least as strong as unwelded sections. To ensure this,
extensive preparation to the parts may be needed.
As material thicknesses increase, full penetration welds are not always possible unless
there is full access to the joint Plate edge preparation provides this access and is a
normal part of most welding processes on metal over 5mm thick.
Reasons for edge preparation
prevents inclusions (pre-weld cleaning)
allows full penetration welds
allows complete joint fusion
helps control distortion
allows the sectional shape of components to be retained without loss of strength eg a
full penetration butt weld, ground flush.
The type of edge preparation is influenced by:
metal thickness
welding process
joint access
code requirements.
Types of edge preparations

Close butt joint
For materials under 3mm thick - may be welded from one or both sides.
Open butt joint
For materials up to 5mm thick - the size of the gap between the plates depends on the
welding process but generally it will not be less than half the material's thickness.
September 2009
97
For metal over 15mm thick. Less filler metal is required than for a single V preparation
on the same thickness. Distortion is more easily controlled because the joint is welded
from both sides.
Used as an alternative to the single V preparation. Distortion from weld metal

contraction is reduced because less filler metal is used.
September 2009
98
Double U butt joint
U preparations give excellent results but are expensive to prepare. Flame gouging can
be used on carbon steel, but U joints are usually machined.
Uneven sections butt joint
This joint prevents a stress point where sections of different thicknesses are welded
together. The taper above the area to be welded on the thicker section needs to be
three times as long as the difference between the two thicknesses.
Bevel butt joint
Used where both parts of the joint can't be prepared.
September 2009
99
J butt joint
These are used as alternatives to bevel joints as less welding is required, but like U
joints they are expensive to prepare.
Plug weld
Used to join two flat surfaces. The diameter of the holes must be at least 2.5 times the
metal thickness but not less than 20mm.
September 2009
100
Slot weld
An alternative to plug welds. The width of the slot must be 2.5 times the plate thickness
but no less than 20mm and its length must run in line with any stresses. The ends of
the slot must be semi-circular.
Backing bars and rings

Permanent backing strips
These are used on the root side of a joint to support the weld metal and prevent
contamination of the weld. Because these strips become part of the job they must have
the same weldability as the parent metal.
September 2009
101
Removable backing bars
Temporary backing bars are used to support the weld metal and prevent contamination.
They do not become part of the joint and are often made of copper.
Backing rings
These are designed for use with butt welds on pipe and are supplied to suit the pipe's
inside diameter. They fit snugly in the root gap of a pipe joint and are fused during the
root pass. The pipe can be filled with an inert gas to ensure a sound weld.
Below is a cross section of a pipe joint with the backing ring in place.
Cleaning
Pre-weld Cleaning
Before any welding is done, all paint, oil, grease, rust and metal coatings must be removed
from the weld area. Failure to do this may cause porosity and inclusions and generate
dangerous fumes. Clean the area with an acceptable solvent for organic material or by wire
brushing, filing or grinding for other substances.
September 2009
102
Post weld cleaning

All spatter, slag and spent flux must be removed after welding. This prepares for better
visual examination and prevents corrosion from unused flux or damp slag. Some metals,
such as austenitic stainless steel, may require acid treatment and complete polishing to
ensure the job doesn't deteriorate in a corrosive environment.
Jigs and wedges

Jigs
When several identical structures are to be fabricated, jigs will speed up assembly. They
allow parts to be aligned without measuring and help minimise distortion. Jigs can also
be used to assemble the parts of a larger structure before these substructures are
joined.
Wedges
Wedges are used on a variety of fabrications to align butt joints accurately in plate
before tacking and welding.
September 2009
103
Review questions
on page 180.
Short answers
1.
List the reasons for preparing edges for welding:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c ................................................................................................................................
d................................................................................................................................
e.................................................................................................................................
2.
What determines the type of edge preparation?

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
3.
Why is it necessary to clean the surface of metals before welding?

a................................................................................................................................
b ...............................................................................................................................
4.
When butt welding a thin section to a thick section, what steps are taken to
prevent a stress build-up in service?
September 2009
104
5. Describe why permanent backing strips are used:
Multiple choice
6. Close butt joints are used:
a.
because they are easy to set up
where faster welding speeds are required
b.
on components where penetration is not required
c.
for materials under 3mm
d.
7. The alternative preparation to a single V is:
open square butt
a.
single bevel butt joint
b.
c.
single U butt joint
single J butt joint
d.
8. Pre-weld cleaning is done to:
a.
increase welding speeds
b.
eliminate post weld heating
c.
reduce the angle of edge preparation
d.
prevent weld contamination
9. A double V butt joint is used instead of a single V butt joint because:
it's quicker to prepare
a.
distortion is more easily controlled
b.
no heat treatment is required
c.
less post weld cleaning is required
d.
10. The angle of the prepared part of a single bevel butt joint is:
30
a.
b.
45
60
c.
70
d.
September 2009
105
True and false

Circle T if the statement is true, F if it is false.
11. Backing rings are used for pipe welding to allow for full fusion of the root.
T
12. Plug welds are sometimes used instead of full penetration butt welds.
13. Bevel butt joints are used where both parts of the joint cannot be prepared.
14. A double U preparation is more expensive to prepare than a double V.
15. For manual metal arc welding open butt joints are used up to 15mm in
thickness.
September 2009
106
Section 8
Section 8 - Welding procedure
Welding procedure
Task
To interpret welding procedure for the welding and fabrication

industry. This section covers part of learning outcome 5 of the
Why
So you will be able to follow a welding procedure in industry.
To pass

September 2009
107
Welding procedure
What is a welding procedure?
A welding procedure lists the variables for welding components to an acceptable standard.
This includes specifications for materials and an outline of the process. The essential
elements of welding joints must be described in sufficient detail for repeated reproduction
and to communicate the welding supervisor's intentions.
Proving a welding procedure before circulation
A proposed welding procedure must be proved, either by using an approved procedure or by
procedure qualification test. In cases where the welding is not covered by a standard,
information confirming the weld's dependability can be gained from its in-service track
record.
Steps for proving a welding procedure:
1. Prepare and weld a suitable test sample.
2. Test the weld sample by non-destructive and destructive testing.
3. Evaluate weld performance.
4. Consider possible changes to the initial welding procedure.
5. Get approval from the statutory body.
6. Record the accepted procedure which now becomes the qualified
procedure or master procedure.
Recording the qualified welding procedure
If all requirements are satisfactorily met, the procedure is recorded. It is certified to be
accurate and to meet the specific requirements of a particular code, standard or customer's
purchase specifications. The qualified welding procedure should not be altered. If new
information has to be added later, it should be done in the form of a supplement. Records
should not be changed by revision.
Types of welding procedures

General welding procedure
General welding procedure describes common welding processes and has nonspecific
details with a greater range in welding variables. This type of welding procedure tends to
cover welding on the whole job rather than a given joint.
Specific welding procedure
This is a narrow, more definitive type and is frequently used by fabricators for control of
repetitive in-plant welding. It is also used where the weld quality has to comply with a
standard requiring specific metallurgical, chemical or mechanical properties. The specific
welding procedure is generally part of the tendering process.
Welding procedures must be recorded for reference.
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Welding procedure sheet for gas metal arc welding
September 2009
109
Welding procedure variables

Typical items included in a welding procedure are listed below. They do not necessarily
apply to every process or welding application.
Material specification
Information is required to identify the material:
standard or code eg AS1204 - low carbon steel
alloy group/series eg aluminium alloy 5056
chemical composition eg carbon equivalent
approvals eg Lloyds - statutory body identification and stamping.
Process
States the welding process to be used and clearly defines manual or automatic.
Filler metal and flux
Details of the following are required:
chemical composition
classification - Australian or overseas type
size of filler rod
manufacturer's batch number
storage and conditioning - hydrogen controlled consumables must be conditioned at
higher than room temperature so they are free from moisture
shielding gases - composition, gas flow rates purging or gas backing.
Current and range
This should include type of current and polarity:
AC
alternating current
ACHF alternating current with high frequency
DC- direct current - negative polarity
DC+ direct current - positive polarity
DCHF direct current with start or continuous high frequency
Pulse mode selection for either current.
Arc voltage
A range is listed depending on the application or machine. Accurate voltages are
required for critical work.
Travel speed
Stated in millimetres per minute - overseas machines are set at inches per minute.
Because travel speed is one of the most important variables, it must be set accurately
on the following:
boom positioners
welding tractors
rotators.
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Joint design and tolerances

Includes the following:
joint angles
root gap
root face
weld sequence
sketch of joint with all dimensions.
Joint and surface preparation
Methods of preparing metals for welding:
flame cutting
flame gouging
air arc gouging
plasma arc cutting
plasma arc gouging
machining
grinding.
Surface cleaning
Methods for cleaning and removing surface oxides:
wire brushing
mechanical wire brushing
cleaning solvents - acetone
acid cleaning
Tack welds
Tack welds can affect weld metal soundness and the following should be included:
tack weld size - length
location
cleaning
filler metal for tack weld
process for tack welds.
Weld positions
See section 3 page 42.
Welding details and technique
Information from the initial qualifying procedure or job experience should include:
first run technique, electrode size, cleaning method
arrangement and location of other weld passes
weaving techniques
stop and start techniques
second side preparation and welding
electrode stickout
distortion control.
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Pre-heat and inter-pass heating

Refer to steel maker's recommendation or approved technical literature for heating
instructions, especially for crack-sensitive materials.
Post heat treatment
Stress relieving and normalising must be specified. All temperatures and heating times
should be recorded.
Testing
Non-destructive and destructive testing of the weld, if required, is usually done by a
contractor to the appropriate code or standard.
Recording
If detailed records of the joint are required as part of a fabrication contract, they must be
included in the welding procedure.
Changes to a qualified welding procedure

If a fabricator has qualified a welding procedure and wants at some late date to make a
change, it is necessary to notify the governing statutory body who may insist on
additional weld tests.
Changes to one of the following generally requires re-qualification:
parent metal
welding process
welding consumable
welding variable
heat treatment
welding position.
Operator performance
The relevant certificate pre-qualifies the welder. Once qualified to AS1796 Certification
of Welders, you do not have to be tested every time you fabricate a new item such as a
boiler or pressure vessel.
Weld repair
Take the following steps when a weld repair is needed:
1. Notify the customer, inspecting or statutory authority who must authorise the repair.
2. Remove the defective section by chipping, machining, arc or flame gouging. Clean
the weld joint.
3. Repair the weld using the same process as the initial procedure unless an
alternative process is approved.
4. Weld repairs must be done before post weld heat treatments.
5. All weld repairs must be recorded.
NF17 - Student Workbook 1-12
September 2009
112
Review questions
These questions will help you revise what you've learnt in section 8. The answers are on
page 181.
Short answers
1. What is a welding procedure?
2.
List the 6 steps for proving a welding procedure:

a ..............................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c...............................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
e .................................................................................. ; ..........................................
f ...............................................................................................................................
3.
List 6 changes that would require a re-qualification of the welding procedure?

a ..............................................................................................................................
b ..............................................................................................................................
c ..............................................................................................................................
d ..............................................................................................................................
e ..............................................................................................................................
f ...............................................................................................................................
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4.
List the types of welding procedure:

a ................................................................................................................................
b .............................................................................................................................. ;
5.
List 10 items that should be included on any welding procedure:

a .................................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c .................................................................................................................................
d .................................................................................................................................
e .................................................................................................................................
f ..................................................................................................................................
g .................................................................................................................................
h .................................................................................................................................
i ..................................................................................................................................
j .............................................................................................................
Multiple choice
Welding
procedures are used because:

a.
b.
c.
d.
they replace statutory authorities

there is no need for weld testing
variables must be documented
less welding supervision is required
September 2009
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7. The welding procedure should state the following:

a.
b.
c.
d.
cost of consumables
capacity of cranes
workshop safety
electrode classification
8. Details of pre-heat temperatures for crack-sensitive steel are required on a

welding procedure sheet to make sure heating is:
9. Welding procedures:
a.
b.
c.
d.
must be recorded
are used to test welders
do not describe edge preparations
monitor welding staff's health
10. Changes to one of the following generally requires re-qualification of a welding

procedure:
a.
b.
c.
d.
distortion control method

direction of welding
welding consumables
weather conditions
True or false
11. Welding procedures are used to document variables so that welds can be
produced to an acceptable standard.
T
12. Welding procedures are not required to be recorded.
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115
13. Welding procedures can be used in place of codes or standards.

T
14. Changing the type of filler wire, does not require a welding procedure requalification.
15. For the joint details in a welding procedure it is necessary to have a sketch
of the joint with all the dimensions.
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Section 9 - Weld testing
Section 9
Weld testing
Task
To identify various weld defects and know which test will best
reveal them. This section is part of learning outcome 5 of the
Why To
So you will know which weld test is used to find different defects.
pass

September 2009
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Weld testing
Weld failures on boilers and pressure vessels can do serious damage and may cause
injury and death. Regulations covering weld testing to ensure quality are strictly
enforced on all welded structures in the pressure vessel and much of the building
industry. This inspection and testing forms part of the welding procedure and can be
divided into:
destructive testing
non-destructive testing (NDT)
Destructive testing
In destructive tests the welds are broken or deformed, so these tests can't be done on
the finished work. Test plates of the same quality and thickness as the job under
construction are used for these tests. These plates may be attached to a pressure
vessel in line with its longitudinal joints and completed as part of the job. After welding
they are removed and prepared for testing.
The following sketch shows how these plates are attached to a vessel's shell.
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Below is a test plate showing a range of tests (refer AS1210).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
all weld metal tensile test specimen

macro test specimen
transverse tensile test specimen
face bend test specimen
root bend test specimen
impact test specimens
longitudinal bend test specimen
8. nick break test specimen
The numbered test pieces cut from this plate are required for the following tests.
Transverse tensile test
This specimen is prepared and used to test the tensile strength of the joint by
tension forces applied at 90 to the line of the weld. Removal of surface
irregularities and shaping of the narrow section is done by machining.
Transverse tensile test specimen
W = 32mm min for plates up to 25mm thick
September 2009
119
Face bend and root bend tests

Bend tests give an excellent indication of the ductility of a weld. Because a great deal of
stretching and stress is placed on the weld area during these tests, they also show lack
of fusion.
Face bend test
During bending the face of the weld is in tension.
Face bend test specimen after bending

through 180. In a root bend test, the root
of the weld is in tension.
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120
Nick break
The specimen is broken to examine the internal quality of the weld.
Nick break test specimen
Filiet break
The internal quality of fillet welds is visually inspected after fillet weld test plates have
been forcibly broken apart by a press or hammer blows.
Fillet break test
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121
Impact test
This is a test to determine the metal's resistance to sudden impact load. The
specimen is prepared to make sure it will break on impact. The amount of force
required to do this is recorded.
Two testing machines which give their names to the tests are in common use:
Izod test
Charpy test
The specimens must be prepared to suit the machine being used.
Diagram of an Izod testing

machine's action during
September 2009
122
Izod test specimen
September 2009
123
Macro test
A cross section of the weld is polished
and etched with acid to reveal:
grain size and shape
weld sequence
heat affected zone
weld penetration
internal defects.
All weld metal tensile test

This test piece is prepared from the weld metal on a class 1 test plate. It is used to
determine the tensile strength of the weld metal, the amount of stretching, and the
reduction in the sectional area before fracture (ductility). The following sketches show
the location of the test piece and how it appears before and after testing.
All weld metal tensile test
September 2009
124
Non-destructive testing (NDT)

NDT plays a very large part in inspecting and testing welded structures. Specially
trained personnel are used to inspect pressure vessel weld quality. Common methods
of NDT and inspection of welds include:
visual inspection
liquid penetrant testing
magnetic particle testing
ultrasonic testing
radiographic examination
Visual inspection
Many external weld faults are found by visual inspection. It is the commonest way of
inspecting a welded structure and is done during all stages of the operation from edge
preparation to the final cleaning or dressing of the weld.
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125
Liquid penetrant testing

Surface porosity and cracks are easily detected by this common workshop test. The
weld surface is cleaned then sprayed with a coloured penetrant. After a specified time all
traces of this dye are removed from the weld. If there are any openings or cracks the
coloured dye penetrates and remains hidden from view. A white developer is then
sprayed on. The dye bleeds out into the porous white developer and stains it indicating
the location of faults.
September 2009
126
Magnetic particle testing

This test can only be used on magnetic material. It's designed to reveal surface defects
but will also detect defects close to the surface.
Liquids containing very fine iron filings or dry iron filings (dry method) are sprayed or
brushed onto the area being tested. An electric current is then passed through which
creates a magnetic field. If there are fractures, new magnetic poles are created and
these are shown up by the iron filings which tend to gather around them.
Ultrasonic testing
High frequency sound waves are generated and passed through the weld. After
passing through the full thickness of the material they return to the surface where they
are displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope.
The sound waves will return to the surface as soon as they come in contact with a
discontinuity. This takes less time than waves passing through the full thickness.
This is a specialised testing method for which you need training.
Ultrasonic pulsed
echo testing
September 2009
127
Radiographic examination
There are two sources of radiation used for radiographic examination. Most workshop
testing uses high voltage x-ray machines, while gamma ray isotopes are used on site
locations. Both processes involve passing radiation through the welded joints onto an
unexposed film. You need special training to operate the equipment and interpret the
results.
Less dense areas such as slag or porosity will show on the negative as a more exposed
area because radiation passes through these faults more easily than through solid
metal. The process provides a permanent record of the joint which can be filed away as
proof of weld soundness at the time of construction. Radiography makes other tests
such as nick breaks unnecessary. Most internal defects except some forms of
laminations are clearly detected by this type of examination.
External weld faults

Undercut
Undercut is a groove or channel in the parent metal along the toe of the weld. Undercut
is considered to be a major problem because it reduces the thickness of the parent
material. It also presents a notch effect (weak point) which can cause failure of the part
when subject to a loading in service.
September 2009
128
Overroll
Overroll is an overflow of molten weld metal on the surface of a portion of unmelted

parent material. Like undercut, overroll produces a notch effect at the toe of a weld.
Misalignment
Misalignment is the result of poor set-up (having one plate higher than the other),
insufficient tacking or distortion.
Excessive root penetration
Excessive root penetration is weld metal protruding through the root of the joint. This
fault can produce stress concentration. On pipe joints, excessive root penetration can
severely interrupt the flow of gas or liquid.
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129
Incomplete root penetration
Incomplete root penetration is the failure of the weld metal to fill the root of the joint. It
can be classified as an internal or external weld fault Where joints are designed as full
penetration welds, incomplete penetration weakens the joint and may cause failure in
service.
Over and undersized welds
The size, shape and general profile of welds influence the strength of the joint. Both
fillet and butt welded joints are designed for carrying loads while in service. An
undersized weld may fail in service because it is too small for the load it is to carry.
With oversized welds, too much weld metal is deposited. This reduces joint flexibility
and also increases production costs.
Fillet weld sizes must suit the parent metal thickness.
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130
Internal weld faults

Lack of fusion
Lack of fusion is failure of the weld metal to fuse with the parent metal. In a multi-run
weld, there can be lack of fusion between passes of the weld.
Porosity
Porosity is a group of small round holes caused by trapped gas in the weld. This gas
takes the place of sound metal. Porosity may occur as clusters, chains or individual gas
holes. (Surface porosity can also be an external weld fault).
Inclusions
Inclusions are non-metallic material trapped in the weld metal which can be internal or
external. Weld inclusions vary from manual metal arc weld slag deposits to gas
tungsten arc weld electrode pieces. Inclusions reduce the strength of the welded joint.
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Cracking can occur in or around the weld area. It's important to identify the type of crack
in order to eliminate its possible cause. Cracks are difficult to detect unless specialised
equipment is used to inspect the structure. If not detected, cracks will increase in size
during service and could cause the structure to fail.
Lamination
Laminations are manufacturing faults in the parent metal. They are long discontinuities
usually caused by rolling ingot blowholes or shrinkage cavities in the finished rolled steel
product.
September 2009
132
Review questions
on page 182.
Short answers
1.
Describe why weld testing is necessary:
2.
List 5 destructive weld tests:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c ................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................................
3.
List 5 non-destructive tests:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c ................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................................
4.
Describe why a bend test is used:
September 2009
133
5. Describe why a nick break test is used.
Multiple choice
Dye penetrant testing is a method used to detect:
a.
b.
c.
d.
internal weld faults

misalignment
external weld faults
lack of penetration
7. Magnetic particle testing is used to locate:

a.
b.
c.
d.
misalignment
oversized welds
surface cracks
heavy spatter
8. Beside x-rays what other rays are suitable for radiographic testing?
a.
b.
c.
d.
beta rays
cosmic rays
gamma rays
ultraviolet rays
9. Name the external weld fault which would be most likely to cause cracking if the
weld area was subjected to bending stresses?
a.
b.
c.
d.
porosity
undercut
spatter
misalignment
September 2009
134
10. Which of the following is considered to be a critical weld defect in a welded

component?
a.
b.
c.
d.
heavy spatter
underbead cracking
concave weld face
transverse distortion
True or false
11. Laminations are faults which occur within the parent metal during
manufacture.
T
12. Porosity is caused by trapped slag in the weld.
13. The size, shape and profile of the weld has no significant influence upon
the strength of the weld.
14. An impact test is used to determine a weld's tensile strength.
15. A nick break will show internal defects.
September 2009
135
Section 10 - Elementary electricity
Section 10
Task
To understand elementary electricity as it applies to welding.

This section covers part of learning outcome 1 of the National
Module Descriptor.
Why
So you will be able to relate the behaviour of electrical circuits

to welding circuits.
To pass

September 2009
136
Electrical terms
An arc welding operator should have at least an elementary knowledge of electricity and
should understand the electrical requirements of the various arc welding processes. The
electrical terms in common use in the welding industry are:
Amperage (Symbol I)
Current is a rate of electron flow. It is measured by the amount of electricity that flows
through a conductor in a second. The term amperage describes the amount of current
that flows in a circuit.
Voltage (Symbol V or E)
Voltage is the force (pressure) that causes a current to flow. A volt is a unit of electrical
pressure.
Resistance (Symbol Q )
Resistance is the restriction to current flow in an electrical circuit. Every component in
the circuit, including the conductor, has some resistance to current flow. The unit of
resistance is the ohm.
Open circuit voltage (OCV)
Open circuit voltage is the potential available when the machine is turned on but no
welding is taking place. The OCV is measured with a voltmeter at the output terminals of
the welding machine before the arc is struck.
Examples of open circuit voltages
AC welding machines
50-80 OCV (80 maximum OCV for NSW) DC
welding machines 60-115 OCV (115 maximum OCV for NSW) GMA
welding machines 11-15 volts DC
Some types of AC and DC manual metal arc welding machines have variable OCV
ranges which allow better arc striking capacity for the following types of electrodes:
small diameter electrodes which are hard to strike because of the small cross
sectional area of the corewire require a high OCV and low amperage
special electrodes, such as hydrogen controlled, which have basic fluxes
and are hard to strike require a high OCV between 70-80 volts to maintain the arc
large electrodes with larger cross sectional areas require less OCV but high
amperage.
September 2009
137
Arc voltage
Arc voltage is measured at the output terminals while the machine is under welding load.
Arc voltage is the total voltage load affecting the welding machine and includes the
voltage through the welding cables, work clamps and variations in arc length.
Alternating current
When the electrons reverse their direction at regular intervals, they cause an alternating
current.
ms = millisecond
I current in amperes
The current acts for the same length o f time for both the positive ( + ) and negative (-) parts o f the cycle (10ms)
ie the time distribution is 50/50.
Direct current
When the electrons move in the same direction at all times, they cause a direct current.
In a direct current machine the electrons flow constantly from the terminal marked (negative) to the terminal marked + (positive).
September 2009
138
Square wave alternating current

Square wave alternating current is generally used for high quality gas tungsten arc
welding. Square wave alternating current:
provides a narrow arc cone and excellent penetration
permits higher amperage for a given tungsten electrode size without splitting
gives a smooth and uniform bead shape
has very fast arc starting
has excellent crater fill features.
This representation o f the sine wave shows how the operator can adjust the wave pattern to suit various
applications.
September 2009
Section 10- Elementary electricity
139
AC sine wave curve
This representation of an AC sine wave shows what happens during manual metal arc
welding.
Note There are chemical additions in the flux of electrodes which maintain the arc as the
current passes through zero using alternating current.
September 2009
140
High frequency machines

Alternating current welding machines work well when using fluxed electrodes requiring a
current of about 80 amps or more, but when current values are lowered for use with
smaller electrodes, the striking of the arc becomes difficult. To overcome this problem, a
high frequency low voltage current can be superimposed on the normal welding current.
This system doesn't change the heat input of the process but provides stable and
continuous arc conditions.
High frequency is used for:
welding with small diameter electrodes
gas tungsten arc welding with AC
in start mode for gas tungsten arc welding with DC.
High frequency safety

You must protect your own and your co-workers' eyes especially when striking an
arc. An arc will start without the electrode striking the work within 6mm of the plate.
Make sure the high frequency unit is protected from the weather or moisture,
otherwise you run the risk of fatal electric shock.
Keep the electrode lead clear of metal surfaces because the pilot arc discharges and
causes the rubber insulation to break down.
Securely fasten the work clamp to the work. Failure to do this will result in the welding
current returning to the welding machine and causing damage to both the machine
and the primary wiring.
September 2009
141
Constant current (drooper) welding machine

All manual metal arc welding machines of the conventional constant current type have a
drooping volt amp characteristic curve. This volt-amp curve has a steep negative angle
between the open circuit and the maximum short circuit current . point.
Drooping characteristic of constant current power supply

Manual metal arc welding power source
current
The welding voltage drops below the open circuit voltage after the arc is struck.
September 2009
142
Constant potential (flat) welding machine

All gas metal arc welding machines have a relatively flat volt-amp output curve.
These machines have a lower OCV than the ones for manual metal arc welding.
Constant potential welding machines are essential for such modes of transfer as
short arc, globular and spray.
Output
of
constant
potential
machine Gas metal arc welding
September 2009
143
DC motor generators
There are two types of DC
motor generators:
415V mains supply
connected to an electric
motor which drives a
generator producing
suitable welding current
petrol or diesel engines
driving a generator
producing welding
current.
Electric DC generator
September 2009
144
AC transformers
The transformer is an electrical device
with no moving parts that allows 240V or
415V alternating current mains supply to
have its voltage changed to a value more
appropriate for welding.
AC-DC rectifiers
A welding rectifier is a static unit which
transforms AC to DC. It consists
principally of a transformer and a rectifier
bridge. The transformer is connected to
the mains supply and the rectifier bridge,
which consists of silicon diodes,
transforms the AC current to DC.
September 2009
145
Inverters
The inverter is a new
technology power
source that provides
high efficiency output in
a smaller size welding
machine with energy
conservation
advantages.
These DC power
sources are multiprocess and are
capable of manual
metal arc welding, gas
metal arc welding, gas
tungsten arc welding
(DC) and carbon arc
gouging.
Other equipment
Machine terminals
All faces in the joint between the welding machine and welding leads must be metal to
metal with a bolted or bayonet connection. A badly made joint at this point causes loss
of voltage and overheating from resistance and will eventually break down. Overheated
terminals can interfere with the machine's efficiency and destroy the insulation within the
machine.
Cable joiners
Like the terminal joints, these should be metal to metal, fully insulated, bayonet fittings.
Cables
Cables should be fully insulated and their size should be capable of carrying the
required current. They should not be coiled when you are using them. Coiling can cause
overheating and a loss of current due to magnetic inductance.
Work clamps
Work clamps are rated on their current carrying capacity and should make a metal to
metal connection.
September 2009
146
Advantages and limitations of welding machines

Scope
Portability
AC transformer
stationary
Efficiency
Polarity
Initial cost
70-90 electrically efficient

no polarity
cheaper plant
Maintenance
low cost
240V capability
415V capability
All types of MMA
electrodes can be used
MMAW capability
GMAW capability
GTAW capability
yes
yes
no
revolving and wearing parts

higher cost
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes with the addition of high

frequency - aluminium and
magnesium
415V large
no
yes, but only steels, copper

and nickel
yes with the addition of high

yes, but only steels, copper
frequency - all commercial metals and nickel
large
remote control
large
yes all
small
yes all
limited
excellent
excellent
excellent
Physical size
Accessories
Pulse Remote
Foot control
Arc length and arc
conditions
DC generator
portable - can be used on any
site
choice of polarity
expensive motor and generator
AC-DC rectifier
stationary
Inverter
portable but restricted to mains
power point
choice of polarity
choice of polarity
expensive transformer and rectifier expensive small transformer
and electronic inverter
general cost low
low cost
diode replacement expensive
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
DC rectifier used - yes
yes
yes
September 2009
147
Review questions
on page 183.
Short answers
1.
Define the term voltage:
2.
Define the term amperage:
3.
Define the term open circuit voltage (OCV):
4.
Why do all welding machine terminals have to have tight metal to metal
connections?
5.
How is direct current generated?
September 2009
148
Multiple choice
6.
Which of the following types of welding machines does not have a choice of
polarity?
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
Which of the following types of welding machine can be used on locations without
on site power?
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
rectifier
inverter
transformer
generator
Welding work clamps are rated by:

a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
rectifier
inverter
transformer
generator
size of clamp opening

voltage range
size of welding cable
current carrying capacity
A high frequency unit is attached to a welding machine for the following

reason:
a.
b.
c.
d.
faster weld deposits

the arc is struck without touching the work
to prevent undercut
to chance AC to DC
10. An alternating current sine wave form has a:

a.
b.
c.
d.
positive half cycle and a negative half cycle

positive cycle only
negative cycle only
flat characteristic
September 2009
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True or false
11. All welding machines have the same OCV.
T
12. The maximum open circuit voltage for AC welding machines in NSW is 80V.
13. The maximum open circuit voltage for DC welding machines in NSW is 80V.
14. Voltage is the unit of pressure in an electrical circuit.
15. DC inverter type welding machines can be used for manual metal arc welding,
gas tungsten arc welding and gas metal arc welding.
T
September 2009
Section 11 - Arc conditions
Section 11
150
Arc conditions
Task
To understand the effect of arc conditions on weld quality. This

section covers part of learning outcome 1 of the National Module
Descriptor.
Why
So you will be able to determine how weld quality is affected by

arc conditions.
To pass

September 2009
151
Variables
With electric arc welding the variables depend on the process selected. In this section we
compare the effects of changes to the variables on the weld quality and the stability of the arc
using the manual metal arc welding process.
Polarity
When using direct current, two-thirds of the heat is generated at the positive side of the
circuit. This means that when the polarity is changed the distribution of heat also changes.
Electrode negative (- DCEN)
When most of the heat needs to be in the job, electrode negative (straight polarity) is used.
This will, in many cases, reduce spatter levels and ensure a more stable arc.
The current travels from the electrode to the work. Two-thirds of the total heat produced is
released at the work and one-third is released at the electrode. Such concentration of heat at
the work produces deeper weld penetration. For electrode (-) the electrode is connected to
the negative terminal on the welding machine. Electrode negative is used for most general
purpose electrodes (see sketch on the next page).
Electrode positive (+ DCEP)
When most of the heat needs to be in the electrode, for some flux types, electrode positive
(reverse polarity) is used. This will help to maintain a continuous arc with some types of flux
covered electrodes.
The current travels from the work to the electrode. Two-thirds of the total heat is released at
the electrode and one-third at the work. This concentration of heat can be used for some
special electrode types eg E4110 and E4815. For electrode positive (+) the electrode is
connected to the positive terminal on the machine (see sketch on the next page).
September 2009
152
Arc blow
Arc blow is a deflection of the arc from its intended direction when the magnetic fields of
the arc and the work are of similar polarities and tend to repel each other.
Arc blow occurs most frequently at high welding currents (above 200amps and is)
always a possibility when using direct current on fillet welds, especially in corners.
There is no general rule for correcting arc blow, but one of the following methods will
often eliminate it:
reverse the position of the return lead connection to the work
reverse the position of the work
reverse the direction of welding
fasten the return lead diagonally across the line of welding
use a device called an arc oscillator to control magnetic fields.
Any one of these measures alters the direction of flow of the return current within the
work, and affects the magnetic fields which are the cause of arc blow. If the trouble
persists, change from direct current to alternating current whenever possible. Arc blow
doesn't occur with alternating current because the rapid reversals of current flow cause
equally rapid reversals of magnetic polarity, and the stability of the arc is not affected.
September 2009
153
Amperage
You must stick to the amperage ranges recommended by electrode manufacturers which are
printed on all electrode packaging.
Too high an amperage setting for a given type and size electrode will:
overheat the electrode and deteriorate the flux coating producing porosity
increase penetration
increase spatter levels
produce poor weld appearances
increase the chance of undercut
cause loss of deposited metal elements
Too low an amperage setting for a given type and size electrode will:
reduce arc stability making it difficult to strike and maintain the arc
reduce penetration
produce poor weld appearance
reduce welding speeds
Voltage
No control over welding voltage is possible on alternating current welding machines. Voltage
selection is available on direct current welding machines.
Some types of covered electrodes require a high voltage to initiate the arc and direct current
is sometimes preferred because of this. The control panel on some types of DC generators
has a switch which can rotate through a number of voltages for different types of electrodes
and arc conditions. This voltage switch is used with the amperage control for very accurate
arc conditions.
Arc length
Arc lengths that are either too long or too short will reduce penetration and produce welds of
poor quality.
An arc length which is too long will:
increase spatter levels
increase the chance of undercut
produce an erratic arc
increase the chance of contamination from the surrounding air
increase the voltage.
An arc length which is too short will:
cause the electrode to stick to the job
reduce the current flow
cause lack of fusion
increase the chance of overroll
cause slag inclusions.
September 2009
154
Slag control
The flux on covered electrodes melts during welding and solidifies to form the slag
cover.
To stop slag getting trapped in the weld, or producing contaminated and poorly shaped
welds, consider:
the choice of electrode type, especially with positional work
electrode angles
arc length
amperage setting
polarity.
September 2009
155
Review questions
on page 184.
Short answers
1.
What polarity is used when most of the heat generated in a direct current welding
circuit needs to be concentrated on the electrode side of the arc?
2.
When will arc blow be more likely to occur?

a. above .................... amps
b. on ......................... current
3.
If too high an amperage is used for a given type or size of electrode the weld
will be affected. List 4 effects high amperage will have on the weld:
a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c.................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
4.
List 4 changes that can occur if too short an arc length is used:
a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c.................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
September 2009
5.
156
What must you consider to effectively control welding slag? Give 3 examples:
a ...............................................................................................................................
b .................................................................................................................................
c ................................................................................................................................
Multiple choice
Too short an arc length may cause:
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
Voltage control:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
should not be considered with covered electrodes

is the same as amperage control
increases the hardenability of the weld
is not possible with alternating current
Weld penetration will be reduced by:

a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
increased spatter levels

slag inclusions
arc blow
undercut
too low an amperage setting

decreasing the welding cable length
selecting a smaller diameter electrode
increasing the angle of edge preparation
Slag inclusions may be caused by:

a.
b.
c.
d.
September 2009
amperage too high

the angle of the electrode
welding in the flat position
weld testing procedures
157
10. Electrode positive:

a.
b.
c.
d.
produces most of the heat in the job

is a problem with alternating current
is the best polarity for all electrodes
is sometimes called reverse polarity
True or false
11. Some flux classifications require a high voltage to initiate the arc easily.
T
12. Arc blow will only occur when using direct current.
13. Too high an amperage will make it difficult to maintain the arc.
14. A short arc length will increase spatter levels.
15. The electrode angle needs to be considered to ensure better slag control.
September 2009
158
Section 12 - Manual metal arc electrodes
Section 12
Task
To understand the electrode classification system and its

relationship to electrode selection. This section covers part of
Why
So you will be able to select welding electrodes for use in

industry.
To pass
At the end of this section of the module you will do a written

September 2009
159
Covered electrodes
The covered electrode used with manual metal arc welding consists of a rod with a
coating of flux. Flux, a mixture of minerals and chemicals, determines the nature of the
electrode.
Electrode flux types
The most common electrode flux types for welding carbon steels are:
cellulose
rutile
iron powder
iron oxide
hydrogen controlled.
Characteristics of electrodes
Electrodes must be matched to the welding current, ie AC, electrode DC+ or electrode
DC-. Correctly matched welding current improves an electrode's operating
characteristics. Mis-matched current has the opposite effect.
In many cases the selection of a particular type of electrode is based on its operating
characteristics and its suitability to produce the necessary requirements for a specific
application or job eg current type and weld position.
Factors which affect electrode selection
joint design
material type
material thickness
welding machine type
deposition rate
depth of penetration
weld appearance
spatter level
weld fluidity
slag volume
slag removal
fume emission
ease of starting
tolerance to arc length variation.
September 2009
160
Electrode classification
Electrode classification is covered by the following standards:
SAA 1553.1: low carbon steel electrodes for manual metal arc welding carbon
steels and carbon manganese steels. SAA 1553.1 covers electrodes:
E41XX
E48XX
SAA 1553.2: low and intermediate alloy steel electrodes for manual metal arc welding
carbon steels and low and intermediate alloy steels. SAA 1553.2 covers electrodes:
E41XX-X
E48XX-X
E55XX-X
E62XX-X
E69XX-X
E76XX-X
E83XX-X
These standards cover:
tensile strength of the weld metal
type of flux coating
welding position suitability
type of current to be used
chemical composition of the weld metal
The electrode classification numbers can be broken down as follows:
EXXXX-X
E - an electrode
The first two numbers indicate 1/10 of the weld metal's tensile strength in MPa: eg
E41XX - 410MPa E48XX = 480MPa
The second two numbers indicate flux type, welding position and current type. Refer to
the chart on the following page.
An additional letter and number may be added to the electrode's classification number if
its chemical composition differs from electrodes covered in AS1553 Part 1. This suffix
grouping refers to the additional elements contained in the electrode eg AS1553 Part 2
- EXXXX-C1. Here the suffix group letter C means that nickel will be included in the
finished weld.
Suffix groups
carbon molybdenum
Group A
chromium molybdenum
Group B
nickel
Group C
Group NM nickel molybdenum
manganese molybdenum
Group D
all other low alloy steel electrodes
Group G
September 2009
161
Electrode
class
EXX10
Kind of
current
DC+
Penetration
particulars
deep
EXX11
AC, DC+
deep
AC, DC-
shallow
AC, DC+
shallow
AC, DC
moderate
DC+
moderate
AC, DC+
moderate
AC, DC+
moderate
AC, DC
AC, DC
AC, DC
AC, DC+
deep
shallow
moderate
moderate
DC+
moderate
AC, DC+
moderate
AC, DC+
moderate
EXX12
EXX13
EXX14
EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
EXX20
EXX24
EXX27
EXX28
EXX45
EXX46
EXX48
EXX99
Description of covering Welding

positions
F, V, OH, H, H
High cellulose, sodium
FILLET
silicate binder
High cellulose, potassium F, V, OH, H, H
silicate binder
FILLET
F, V, OH, H, H
High titania, sodium
FILLET
silicate binder
F, V, OH, H, H
High titania, potassium
FILLET
silicate binder
Titania, approx 20% Iron F, V, OH, H, H
powder
FILLET
Hydrogen controlled
F, V, OH, H, H
sodium silicate binder
FILLET
Hydrogen controlled
F, V, OH, H, H
potassium, titania binder FILLET
Hydrogen controlled
F, V, OH, H, H
potassium, titania, 25FILLET
40% Iron powder
High iron oxide
F, H FILLET
Titania, 35% Iron powder F, H FILLET
Iron powder, Iron oxide
F, H FILLET
Hydrogen controlled, 50% F, H FILLET
Iron powder
Hydrogen controlled
F, OH, H, Vsodium silicate binder
DOWN, H
FILLET
F, OH, H, VHydrogen controlled,
DOWN, H
potassium, titania
FILLET
Hydrogen controlled,
F, OH, H, Vpotassium, titania, 25DOWN, H
40% Iron powder
FILLET
As specified by manufacturer
September 2009
162
Section 12- Manual metal arc electrodes
Fluxes
Cellulos
e
very forceful deep penetrating arc
large volume of shielding gases
considerable spatter.
Rutile
smooth running
medium penetration
varies from viscous to fluid slag.
Iron powder
principally used in the flat position
high deposition rate
medium penetration
smooth running.
Hydrogen controlled
produces very little hydrogen gas
must be used dry
medium penetration
fluid slag
moderate spatter
used on heavy sections, restrained joints and low alloy steels
produces weld metal with superior quality, high ductility, low temperature notch
ductility and radiographic soundness.
Iron oxide
deep penetration
used on deep joints because of easy slag removal
flat and horizontal fillets only.
Flux functions
protects the weld metal from the atmosphere during transference across the arc
allows the weld metal to alloy
assists penetration
allows faster welding
stabilises the arc
controls the shape of the deposit
Functions of slag
collects unwanted oxides, impurities

protects the metal while it's in a liquid state
controls the shape of the weld
insulates the welds, allows slow cooling and promotes an annealing effect.
September 2009
163
Functions of core wire
current carrier
filler metal
source of alloys
source of deoxidants.
Core wire is generally carbon steel. Electrode characteristics are changed by varying
the flux composition.
Storage, handling and conditioning electrodes

The condition of the flux coating influences the electrode's performance. The flux
coating on the electrode is quite fragile and can be easily damaged by rough handling,
bending or dropping the electrodes. An electrode with a damaged flux coating will
seriously affect the quality of the weld.
Electrodes also absorb excessive moisture if stored incorrectly. This moisture affects
their running characteristics and the quality of the deposited weld.
Excessive moisture in coatings causes:
difficulty with slag removal
blistering of coatings, especially cellulose types
weld metal porosity
arc instability
excessive spatter
or cracking in the HAZ.
Storage
The bulk storage of electrodes should be in a location or room which is dry with the
temperature kept at about 20C. As soon as the seal on the electrode container is
opened, the electrodes should be stored in a vented cabinet at a controlled temperature
between 20C and 120C depending on the type, eg hydrogen controlled at 120C and
rutile at 40C. If electrodes are exposed to the atmosphere for a long time they may
need reconditioning.
Conditioning electrodes
Absorption of excessive moisture is a major problem. Conditioning and redrying
electrodes removes this. Most electrodes need some moisture and too much drying can
affect their running characteristics.
Rutile electrodes
These require a small amount of moisture for the best running characteristics. This is
controlled in manufacture and must not be dried out. If rutile electrodes become damp,
re-dry them at a temperature between 70C and 170C for thirty minutes.
September 2009
164
Cellulose electrodes
These require a fairly high percentage of moisture for best operating performance and if
excessively dried, will lose arc voltage and running characteristics.
Hydrogen controlled electrodes
Dry at temperatures between 200C and 250C for a period of three hours. Do not
exceed the recommended maximum temperature and time as either can cause
chemical changes in the coating which will permanently impair the electrode
performance. If these type of electrodes have been wet or the flux covering damaged,
they should not be used, dried or not.
Iron powder electrodes
If these electrodes are exposed to moisture they must be re-dried at a temperature of
150C for one hour.
Note: The manufacturer's recommendations and code requirements for storage and
reconditioning must be followed for all electrodes;
Care of electrodes
store in a well ventilated area
do not open packets unnecessarily
do not drop or handle roughly
record batch numbers.
September 2009
165
Review questions
on page 185.
Short answers
1.
What is the Australian Standard classification for low carbon steel electrodes?
2.
What is the Australian Standard classification for low alloy steel electrodes?
3.
An E4112 electrode is a common general purpose electrode. Explain what is

meant by:
a. E
....................................................................................................................
b. 41
...................................................................................................................
c.
....................................................................................................................
12
4.
What type of electrode is E4816?
5.
List 5 functions of a flux coating:

a ................................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................................
c ................................................................................................................................
d ................................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................................
September 2009
166
Multiple choice
A rutile electrode has the following classification:
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
An E4824 electrode type is only recommended for the following welding

positions:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
flat and vertical

overhead and horizontal
flat and horizontal
vertical and overhead
Moisture contaminated hydrogen controlled electrodes must be dried before

welding by heating to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
E4112
E4120
E4111
E4814
200C - 250C for 3 hours

100C - 150C for 1 hour
The first two digits of a classification indicate the:

a.
b.
c.
d.
impact strength
ductility
welding position
tensile strength of the weld deposit
10. Australian Standard 1553 Part 2 has a suffix letter after the classification to
indicate:
a.
b.
c.
d.
additional alloying elements

storage and conditioning
preferred polarity
penetration ability
September 2009
167
True or false
11. Cellulose electrodes are used extensively for the root runs on plate and pipe butt
welds.
T
F
12. Hydrogen controlled electrodes do not have to be conditioned before welding.
T
13. DC+ is the correct polarity for all cellulose electrodes.
14. Hydrogen controlled electrodes are not suitable for welding heavy sections of steel.
15. Iron powder electrodes produce very smooth bead shapes.

T
September 2009
Answers to review questions
168

Section 1 Welding safety
1.
electrode coatings
the metal being welded
surface coatings surface
contaminants
2.
ventilation
fire and explosion
electric shock
3.
in a cylinder cradle
4.
to prevent them arcing and damaging the ropes
5.
ultraviolet
infrared
visible light
6c. there must first be an inspection of the area

7c. yellow
8b. adequate ventilation
9b. SAA approved
10d. can all be electrically hazardous
11. true
12. true
13. false
14. true
15. false
September 2009
169
Section 2 Welding regulations

1.
AS1674
2.
metals and consumables

working practices testing
methods welding terms
statutory requirements safety
standards
3a. welds are to be free of defects as stated in the code

3b. candidates must successfully complete a written theory examination in accordance
with this code
4.
Workcover Authority of NSW
5.
all persons - employers and employees
6.
6c. reported to the workplace safety committee
7.
7b. at all stages of construction
8d. have management, worker and union representation

9a. costing procedure
10d. be concerned for the health and safety of other workers
11. true
12. false
13. false
14. true
15. true
Section 3 Welding terms and symbols

1a. a weld where the weld metal is mostly confined within the thickness of the parts
being joined
1b. triangular in shape with most of the weld metal external from the parent metal
2. to ensure better communications
September 2009
3.
70%
4.
the thickness of the plate
170
5. fillet weld all round on site

10mm leg length
6c. plug or slot weld
7b. leg length
8b. the junction of the parent metal and the weld face
9a. AS1101 10d. 4mm
11. true
12. false
13. false
14. true
15. false
Section 4 Heat treatment

1.
723C
2.
(any 3)
the temperature it's heated to
time held at that temperature
cooling rate
amount of carbon in the steel
3.
if heated above 723C, the grain size can increase

if heat is not uniform, grains can become distorted in shape
4.
820C to 980C
5.
to relieve internal stresses and reduce grain distortion 6b.
requires heating in the range 590C to 670C
September 2009
171
7b. heating rings

8d. be rapidly cooled from a high temperature
9c. it does not contain enough carbon
10a. to prevent heat loss in the weld area
11. false
12. true
13. true
14. false
15. true
Section 5 Metal cutting and gouging

1.
it will oxidise rapidly
2.
nozzle design allows grooving instead of cutting
3.
produces better quality cuts

faster cutting speeds ensures
accuracy
provides consistency in size and shape
4.
(any 3)
edge preparations back
gouging welds removing
defective welds cutting and
shaping sections
5.
(any 7)
carbon steels
low alloy steels
stainless steels
cast iron
aluminium
copper/brass
nickel alloys
titanium
6b. 815C
7c. angle of nozzle to work
September 2009
172
8a. edge preparations

9c. cutting branch openings
10d. can be used on non-ferrous metals
11. true
12. false
13. true
14. true
15. true
Section 6 Elements in carbon steel

1.
carbon
manganese
silicon
phosphorous
sulphur
iron
0.25%
1.0%
0.4%
0.04%
0.04%
remainder
2.
carbon
manganese
silicon
phosphorous
sulphur
iron
0.45%
0.75%
0.3%
0.05% (maximum)
0.05% (maximum)
remainder
3.
carbon
manganese
silicon
phosphorous
sulphur
iron
0.72%
0.8%
0.5%
0.04%
0.05% (maximum)
remainder
4.
reduces ductility increases

hardness reduces weldability
lowers the melting point
increases hardenability
increases tensile strength
5.
causes cracking in the heat affected zone
September 2009
173
6c. sulphur
7d. prevents hot shortness
8d. carbon
9a. sulphur
10b. at low temperatures
11. true
12. false
13. false
14. true
15. true
Section 7 Preparing weld joints

1.
to prevent inclusions
to ensure full penetration welds to
ensure complete joint fusion to help
control distortion to retain sectional
strength
2.
metal thickness
welding process joint
access code
requirements
3.
to prevent porosity and inclusions to

reduce fumes
4.
the thicker section needs to be reduced to a 3:1 taper
5.
to support the weld metal and prevent contamination
6d. for materials under 3mm thick

7c. single U butt joint
8d. prevent weld contamination
9b. distortion is more easily controlled
10b. 45
September 2009
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
174
true
false
true
true
false
Section 8 Welding procedure

1.
a list of variables for welding components to an acceptable standard
2.
preparation and welding of test sample

testing the weld sample
evaluation of the end result
consideration of changes
approval from statutory body
recording the procedure
3.
changes to: parent metal

welding process welding
consumables welding
variables heat treatment
welding position
4.
general
specific
5.
(any 10)
material specification
process
filler metal and flux
current and range arc
voltage travel speed
joint design and tolerances
joint and surface preparation
surface cleaning
tack welds
position of welding
welding details and technique
pre-heat and interpass heating
post heat treatment
testing
recording
September 2009
175
6c. variables must be documented

76. electrode classification
8d. carried out to the steelmaker's recommendation
9a. must be recorded
10c. welding consumables
11. true
12. false
13. false
14. false
15. true
Section 9 Weld testing

1.
to ensure weld quality and reduce the risk of death, injury and property damage
2.
(any 5) transverse
tensile test
face bend and root bend test nick
break test fillet break test impact
test macro test
all weld metal tensile test
3.
visual inspection liquid

penetrant test magnetic
particle testing ultrasonic
testing radiographic
examination
4.
to determine the ductility of the weld sample
5.
to determine the internal weld quality
6c. external weld faults

7c. surface cracks
8c. gamma rays
September 2009
9b.
10b
.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
176
undercut
underbead cracking
true
false
false
false
true
Section 10 Elementary electricity

1.
voltage is the unit of pressure in an electrical circuit which forces it to flow
2.
amperage is the rate of current flow in an electrical circuit
3.
open circuit voltage is the potential available when the welding machine is turned
on but no welding is taking place
4.
to prevent overheating
5.
from an electric motor or engine
6c.
transformer
76. generator
8d. current carrying capacity
9b. the arc is struck without touching the work
10a. a positive half cycle and a negative half cycle
11. false
12. true
13. false
14. true
15. true
September 2009
177
Section 11 Arc conditions

1.
reverse polarity (electrode positive)
2a.
above 200 amps b. on direct current
3.
(any 4)
overheat the electrode and deteriorate the flux coating producing porosity
increase penetration
increase spatter
increase chance of undercut
loss of deposited metal elements
produce poor weld appearance
4.
(any 4)
cause the electrode to stick to the job
reduce the current flow
cause lack of fusion
increase the chance of overroll
cause slag inclusions
5.
(any 3)
electrode angles
amperage
arc length polarity
electrode type
6b. slag inclusions

76. is not possible with alternating current
8a. too low an amperage
9b. the angle of the electrode
10d. is sometimes called reverse polarity
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
true
true
false
false
true
September 2009
178
Section 12 Manual metal arc electrodes

1.
AS1553 Parti
2.
AS1553 Part2
3a. E - electrode
b. 41 - 41 OMPa tensile strength
c. 12 - any welding position
rutile flux coating AC or DC current
4.
hydrogen controlled
5.
(any 5)
protects the weld metal from the atmosphere
allows weld metal to alloy
assists penetration
allows faster welding
stabilises the arc
controls the shape of the deposit
6a. E4112
7c. flat and horizontal
8a. 200C - 250C for 3 hours
9d. tensile strength of the weld deposit
10a. additional alloying elements
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
true
false
false
false
true
September 2009
179
Words you need to know

air arc gouging
gouging using a copper coated carbon electrode to

melt the surface of the metal and a stream of
compressed air to remove it
alternating current (AC)
an electric current that regularly alters its direction of

flow
alternator
a machine used to convert mechanical energy into

alternating current electricity
ambient temperature
room temperature
amperage
the rate of flow of electricity in a circuit
annealing
a heat treatment used to soften metals
arc-blow
a deflection of the direct current welding arc caused

by a magnetic field
arc-eye (flash)
a painful eye injury resulting from unprotected

exposure to the arc
brittleness
the ease with which a metal can be fractured when

subjected to bending or impact forces
cold shortness
short on strength when cold, that is, brittle at normal

temperatures
conditioning
the pre-heating of electrodes for use
confined space
any area with restricted ventilation and/or access
constant current (drooper)

welding machine
an arc welding machine whose welding voltage drops

below its open circuit voltage after the arc is struck
constant potential (flat)

welding machine
an arc welding machine whose welding voltage does

not change to any great degree after the arc is struck
contamination
the absorption of unwanted elements into the weld

pool during welding
contour
the sectional shape of the weld face. In a butt weld

this may be convex, flush or concave. In a fillet weld this
shape can be convex, concave or a mitre.
September 2009
180
contraction
the reduction in size that occurs when a hot portion

of metal cools
CPR (cardiac pulmonary

resuscitation)
a first aid technique used by qualified personnel to

stimulate breathing and the heart
crater
the flat portion left at the end of a weld where the arc
was broken or the oxyacetylene flame removed
current
the movement or flow of electricity through a circuit
de-oxidiser
an element used to remove oxygen particularly from

the weld area
diode
an electrical device which allows alternating current

to flow in one direction only
direct current (DC)
an electric current which flows in one direction only
distortion
the change of shape in a metal as a result of

restricted or uneven expansion and contraction
ductility
the ability of a metal to be permanently deformed

without fracture
EAR (expired air

resuscitation)
a first aid technique used by qualified personnel to

stimulate breathing
expansion
the increase in size that occurs when a piece of

metal is heated
ferrous metal
an alloy containing mostly iron
flash
see arc-eye
fuel gas
the gas burnt in oxygen to provide the heat for flame

cutting, heating or welding
gamma-rays
radiation emitted from radioactive isotopes used in

radiographic examination
generator
a machine used to convert mechanical energy into

direct current electricity
GMAW
gas metal arc welding
grain structure
the arrangement of metal crystals after solidification
groove weld
the American name for a butt weld on bevelled plates
September 2009
181
GTAW
gas tungsten arc welding
hardenability
the ability of a metal to be hardened by heat

treatment
hardness
the ability of a metal to withstand indentation or

scratching
HAZ (heat affected zone)
the zone of a weld adjacent to the fusion zone - this

section of the metal is not melted during welding but is
metallurgically changed by the heat of the welding
hazardous location
locations where highly flammable or explosive

substances are present
high frequency unit
an attachment to a welding machine which

superimposes high frequency current over the normal
welding current to facilitate arc initiation
hot shortness
short on strength when hot, that is, brittle when hot
hydrogen controlled
electrodes whose flux coatings reduce the amount of

hydrogen contained in the arc
hydrogen embrittlement
brittleness in the heat affected zone of a weld as a

result of trapped hydrogen
ignition temperature
the temperature at which a material will burn (for iron

this is 815C)
impact resistance
the ability of a metal to resist sudden impact loads

such as hammer blows
infra-red radiation
an invisible radiation emitted from the arc. These

rays produce heat causing skin damage and
intensifying the effects of ultraviolet radiation
ingestion
absorbing substances into the body by swallowing

them eg metal dust
inhalation
absorbing air or other substances into the body by

breathing
interrun heat treatment
maintaining pre-heat temperatures between deposit

of weld runs
inverter
a welding machine which changes rectified DC to AC

at a much lower frequency. This allows a lightweight
transformer to be used before the current is finally
rectified back to DC
September 2009
182
kerf
the gap made by oxy-fuel gas cutting
LPG (liquified petroleum

gas)
hydro-carbon fuel gas which can be used with

oxygen for heating, cutting or braze welding
machining
shaping or reducing the size of metal parts by

mechanical means
mechanical properties
properties in a metal which measure its resistance to

mechanical forces
MMAW
manual metal arc welding
non-ferrous metal
metal other than iron or iron alloys
normalizing
heat treatment used to refine the grain structure of a

weld
OAW
oxyacetylene welding
OCV (open circuit voltage)
the voltage across the terminals of a switched on

welding machine before the arc is struck
OH&S
occupational health and safety
oxidisation
the joining with oxygen to form oxides - burning

is rapid oxidising
physical properties
properties of a metal which do not respond to

mechanical forces eg mass, magnetism,
thermal conductivity
plasma arc cutting

and gouging
a cutting process producing a high temperature

ionised gas to melt the metal which is removed by
the force of the arc
polarity
the direction of flow of an electric current
positional work
welding done in any welding position other than the

flat position or the horizontal fillet position
post heating
heat treatment after welding
pre-heating
heat treatment before welding
primary circuit
the circuit of a welding machine which receives

the electrical power, this is then transferred to the
secondary circuit by induction
September 2009
183
procedure sheet
a sheet listing the details for control of all the

stages of a welded structure
pyrometer
a device used to measure high temperatures
qualified welding
procedure
a proven welding procedure
quenching
the sudden cooling of heated metal
radiography
non destructive testing using x-rays or gamma-rays
rectifier
a device for changing AC to DC
residual stress
stresses which remain in a welded joint from

restricted movement during welding
resistance
the opposition to electrical flow through a conductor
respirator
a device worn over the nose and mouth to filter

inhaled air
respiratory tract infection
infection of the lungs and respiratory system
scaffolding
elevated platforms or staging used instead of ladders

to increase operator safety and comfort
secondary circuit
a circuit that receives power by induction from a

primary circuit
sine wave
the curves used to depict the wave form of

alternating current
slag
the brittle non-metallic blanket which forms from the

flux and covers the face of a weld
spatter
droplets of molten metal expelled from the weld

pool during welding
Standards Association of
Australia
an independent, non-profit body set up to promote a

minimum standard of safety and production
statutory authority
a body having the power to enforce laws related to a

particular industry
stress relieving
a heat treatment used to relieve residual stress
symmetrical appearance
appearance which is the same on both sides of a

centreline
September 2009
184
tensile strength
the resistance of a material to forces acting to

pull it apart
thermocouples
see pyrometer
tolerances
allowable variations in dimensions
toughness
strength without brittleness
ultraviolet radiation
an invisible radiation emitted from the arc.

These rays can cause severe eye damage
underbead cracking
cracking in the heat affected zone of a weld
variables
the operating conditions of welding that are

adjustable before and during welding
voltage
the electrical pressure in an electrical circuit
weldability
the degree of difficulty with which a metal can be

welded without special precautions
welding procedure
a series of instructions designed to ensure weld

quality
x-rays
electromagnetic radiation used in radiographic

examination
yield point
the point at which there is a noticeable increase in

deformation without an increase in load during a
tensile test
September 2009

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STUDENT COURSE NOTES PART (1)

Welding Principles Section 1 - 12

Student Progress Organiser

Welding safety _________________________________________ 6

Welding regulations ____________________________________ 25

Welding terms and symbols ______________________________ 31

Heat treatment _______________________________ ______

Metal cutting and gouging ____________________________ 59

Elements in carbon steel _____________________________ 88

Preparing weld joints ________________________________ 95

Welding procedure _________________________________ 106

Weld testing ______________________________________ 116

Elementary electricity ______________________________ 135

Arc conditions ____________________________________ 150

Manual metal arc electrodes ________________________ 158

Section 1 - Welding safety

To understand the safety requirements and recognise the

So you can work safely in a welding and fabrication

There will be a written competency test at the end of section

Section 1 - Welding safety

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-8

Section 1 - Welding safety

Cleaning and purging containers

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

First aid and emergency procedures

FLBOEA- Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

releases zinc fumes during cutting and

Possible health hazard

Section 1 - Welding safety

lead painted metal

manual metal arc

Possible health hazard

Section 1 - Welding safety

gas shielded arc

all electric arc

ozone may be produced by ultraviolet

all welding and

gives off inert gases (argon, helium)

Possible health hazard

eye, nose, lung irritants

Section 1 - Welding safety

Safety in confined spaces

Cylindrical work needs special care. Here rotators are

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

Industrial gas cylinders

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

Shoulder label for a gas cylinder

Storage and handling

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

Display warning signs, eg DANGER MEN WORKING ABOVE, in appropriate places.

Skin and eye damage prevention

Protective clothing and equipment

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

Protective clothing and equipment includes:

FLBOEA - Student Workbook 1-12

Section 1 - Welding safety

Heat treatment _________________________