Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
LINEAR ALGEBRA
MATRICES
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (or functions) enclosed in brackets. These numbers
(or function) are called entries of elements of the matrix.
2 0.4
Example:
5 -32
8
0
a11a22 .........
1 2
Example:
4 5
2. Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements may or
may not be zero.
1 0
Example:
0 5
Properties
a. diag [x, y, z] + diag [p, q, r] = diag [x + p, y + q, z + r]
b. diag [x, y, z] diag [p, q, r] = diag [xp, yq, zr]
1
c.
diag x, y, z
d.
e.
f.
diag 1 , 1 , 1
x
y
z
4. Identity Matrix
A diagonal matrix whose all diagonal elements are 1. Denoted by I
Properties
a. AI = IA = A
n
b. I I
1
c. I I
d. det(I) = 1
5. Null matrix
An m x n matrix whose all elements are zero. Denoted by O.
Properties:
a. A + O = O + A = A
b. A + (- A) = O
6. Upper Triangular Matrix
A square matrix whose lower off diagonal elements are zero.
3 4 5
Example: 0 6 7
0 0 9
7.
8.
Idempotent Matrix
A matrix is called Idempotent if A 2 A
1 0
Example:
0 1
9.
Involutary Matrix
A matrix is called Involutary if A 2 I .
Matrix Equality
Two matrices
A mn
m=p; n=q
Cik aij b jk
j1
Properties
If AB = AC B = C (if A is non-singular)
BA = CA B = C (if A is non-singular)
Transpose of a matrix
If we interchange the rows by columns of a matrix and vice versa we obtain transpose of a
matrix.
1 3
eg., A = 2 4
6 5
1 2 6
; AT
3 4 5
Conjugate of a matrix
The matrix obtained by replacing each element of matrix by its complex conjugate.
Properties
a.
A A
b.
A B A B
c.
d.
KA K A
AB AB
b.
A B A B
c.
KA KA
d.
AB B A
Trace of matrix
Trace of a matrix is sum of all diagonal elements of the matrix.
Classification of real Matrix
T
a. Symmetric Matrix : A A
T
AT A1 ;
AA T =I
Note:
a. If A & B are symmetric, then (A + B) & (A B) are also symmetric
b. For any matrix AA T is always symmetric.
A + AT
c. For any matrix,
is symmetric &
A AT
a. Hermitian matrix : A A
c. Unitary Matrix : A A 1 ; AA 1
Determinants
Determinants are only defined for square matrices.
For a 2 2 matrix
a11
a21
a12
a22
= a11a22 a12a21
a11
If a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
is skew symmetric.
a12
Minor of element a21 : M21
a13
a32
a33
i j
Mij
Determinant
Suppose, we need to calculate a 3 3 determinant
j1
j1
j1
If two rows or columns are interchanged, then value of determinant is multiplied by -1.
If one row or column of a matrix is multiplied by k, then determinant also becomes k times.
KA Kn A
AB A * B
An A
A 1
1
A
Inverse of a matrix
Inverse of a matrix only exists for square matrices
A
1
Adj A
A
Properties
a.
AA1 A1 A I
b.
AB 1 B1 A 1
c.
ABC 1 C1B1 A 1
d.
AT
A1
a b
c d
d b
1
ad bc c a
I.
Divide by determinant.
II.
III.
Rank of a Matrix
a. Rank is defined for all matrices, not necessarily a square matrix.
b. If A is a matrix of order m n,
then Rank (A) min (m, n)
c. A number r is said to be rank of matrix A, if and only if
There is at least one square sub-matrix of A of order r whose determinant is
non-zero.
If there is a sub-matrix of order (r + 1), then determinant of such sub-matrix
should be 0.
a11
a
21
Let A
a
m1
a12
a22
am2
a13
a1n
x1
0
0
a2n
x
; x
; 0= -
-
xn
0
amn m n
n1
m1
Inconsistent system
Not possible for homogenous system as the trivial solution
T
Non-Homogenous Equation
a11
a21
A
a
m1
a12
a22
am2
x1
b1
a1n
a2n
x2
b2
; X ; B= -
-
x
b
amn m n
n
m m 1
a11
a
21
Augmented matrix = [A | B] =
am1
a12
an
a22
am2
amn
b1
b2
bm
Conditions
Inconsistency
If r(A) r(A | B), system is inconsistent
The solution of system of equations can be obtained by using Gauss elimination Method.
(Not required for GATE)
Note
a12
a1n
a11
a
a22
a2n
21
Characteristic polynomial A I
am2
amn
am1
Characteristic equation A I 0
The roots of characteristic equation are called as characteristic roots or the Eigen values.
To find the Eigen vector, we need to solve
A I x 0
If 1 , 2 ......., n are Eigen value of A, k 1 ,k2 .......,kn are Eigen values of kA.
j.
A
1
A
2
, .........,
A
n
C1 n C2 n 1 ...... Cn 0
Then
CALCULUS
Important Series Expansion
n
a.
n
1 x
b.
1 x 1 1 x x2 ............
c.
x2
x3
2
3
a 1 x log a xloga xloga ................
2!
3!
n
Cr xr
r 0
d. sinx x x
x5 .................
3!
5!
e.
cos x 1 x
f.
tan x = x x
2!
3
4
+ x
4!
......................
2 5
3! + 15 x + .........
g. log (1 + x) = x x
x3 + ............, x < 1
2 +
3
Important Limits
lt
sinx
1
x0
x
lt
tanx
b.
1
x0
x
lt
1
c.
1 nx x en
x0
a.
d.
e.
f.
lt
x0
lt
x0
lt
x
cos x 1
1
1 x
1 1
e
x
L Hospitals Rule
If f (x) and g(x) are to function such that
lt
xa
f x 0
and
lt
xa
gx 0
Then
f x
lt
x a g x
lt
f' x
x a g' x
If f(x) and g(x) are also zero as x a , then we can take successive derivatives till this
condition is violated.
For continuity,
lim
xa
For differentiability,
f x =f a
lim f x0 h f x0
If a function is differentiable at some point then it is continuous at that point but converse
may not be true.
Mean Value Theorems
Rolles Theorem
If there is a function f(x) such that f(x) is continuous in closed interval a x b and f(x)
is existing at every point in open interval a < x < b and f(a) = f(b).
Then, there exists a point c such that f(c) = 0 and a < c < b.
f ' c
f b f a
b a
Differentiation
Properties: (f + g) = f + g ; (f g) = f g ; (f g) = f g + f g
Important derivatives
xn n xn 1
nx 1 x
b.
a.
c.
loga x (loga e) 1
x
x
d. e e
a a loge a
e.
f. sin x cos x
g. cos x -sin x
2
h. tan x sec x
i.
j.
k. cot x - cosec2 x
l.
sin h x cos h x
m. cos h x sin h x
n. sin1 x
1 - x2
-1
cos1 x
1 x2
o.
p. tan1 x
1
1 x2
cosec 1 x
q.
r.
s.
sec1x
cot 1 x
-1
x x2 1
1
x x2 1
-1
1 x2
Taylor series
f(a + h) = f(a) + h f(a) +
h2
f(a) + ..
2
Maclaurin
x2
f(0)+..
2
Partial Derivative
If a derivative of a function of several independent variables be found with respect to any
one of them, keeping the others as constant, it is said to be a partial derivative.
Homogenous Function
n
= x a0 a1
x
y
x a2
.................... an
x
y
Eulers Theorem
If u is a homogenous function of x & y of degree n, then
u
nu
x y
y
x
2 f
;
let r 2
x x a
y b
x a
y b
r<0
Minima
rt > s2 ;
y b
2 f
; t 2
y
Maxima
rt > s2 ;
2 f
s
xy xa
r>0
Saddle point
rt < s2
Integration
Indefinite integrals are just opposite of derivatives and hence important derivatives must
always be remembered.
Properties of definite integral
a.
b.
f x dx f t dt
f x dx f x dx
a
c.
d.
f x dx f x dx f x dx
f x dx f a b x dx
a
e.
d
f x dx f t ' t f t ' t
dt t
Vectors
Addition of vector
a b of two vector a = a1 ,a2 ,a3 and b = b1 ,b2 ,b3
a + b = a1 b1 ,a2 b2 ,a3 b3
Scalar Multiplication
ca = ca1 , ca2 , ca3
Unit vector
a
a
Dot Product
a.b= a
(Schwarz inequality)
b. |a + b| |a| + |b|
(Triangle inequality)
c. |a + b|2 + |a b|2 = 2
i
= a1
b1
j
a2
b2
(Parallelogram Equality)
Properties:
c a b c
a b b a
b. a b
Scalar Triple Product
(a, b, c) = a . b c
sin
k
a3
b3
a.
a b c a . c b a . b c
Directional derivative
Derivative of a scalar function in the direction of b
Db f
. grad f
v1 v 2 v 3
; where v v1 , v 2 , v 3
x
y
z
Curl v v
x
v1
y
v2
z
v3
v v1 , v 2 , v 3
Some identities
a. Div grad f = 2
2 f 2 f 2 f
x 2 y 2 z 2
b. Curl grad f = f 0
c. Div curl f = . f 0
d. Curl curl f = grad div f 2 f
Line Integral
F r .dr
dr
a F r t . dt
dt
F r .dr
F F1 ,F2 ,F3
Greens Theorem
F2
R x
F1
dx dy
y
F1 dx F2dy
S
T
S curl F . n d A C F. r ' s ds
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The order of a deferential equation is the order of highest derivative appearing in it.
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after the differential equation is expressed in a form free from radicals & fractions.
For equations of first order & first degree
f x dx g y dy c
Integrating factors
An equation of the form
P(x, y) dx + Q (x, y) dy = 0
This can be reduced to exact form by multiplying both sides by IF.
If
1 P Q
is a function of x, then
Q y x
R(x) =
1 P Q
Q y x
Integrating Factor
IF = exp
R x dx
Q P
Otherwise, if 1 P
is a function of y
x y
Q P
S(y) = 1 P
x y
S y dy
y ' P x y r x
y x eh ehrdx c
Bernoullis equation
dy
Py Qyn
dx
Where P & Q are function of x
The equation
1 n
dz
P 1 n z Q 1 n
dx
This is a linear equation & can be solved easily.
Clairauts equation
k
.............. k n y X
1
dxn
dxn1
dx
k
............. k n y 0
1
dxn
dxn1
k
............ kn y x
1
dxn
dxn1
e. y = CF + PI is complete solution
dn y
dn
n
by
D
Dn y
dxn
dxn
dn y
dn1 y
k
............ kn y 0 becomes
1
dxn
dxn1
Dn k1Dn1 ........... kn y 0
.(i)
D m1 D m2 ............ D mn 0
m1x
y = c1e
m2x
c2e
is equivalent to (i)
........... cnemnx
y = c1 c2 x emx c3e
.......... cnemnx
k
.......... kn y X
1
dxn
dxn1
Particular Integral
PI = y1
W1 x
W x
dx y 2
W2 x
W x
dx .......... yn
Wn x
W x
dx
y1
W x
y1 '
y1
y2
yn
y2 '
yn '
y2
n
yn
y1
Wi x
y1 '
y1
y2
y i1 0
y 2 ' y i1 ' 0
yn
yn '
y2
y i1 1
yn
Wi x is obtained from W(x) by replacing ith column by all zeroes & last 1.
Euler-Cauchy Equation
An equation of the form
xn
n1
dn y
y
n1 d
k
x
.......... kn y 0
n
1
n
dx
dx 1
y c1 x
m2
c2 x
........... cn xmn
y c1 c2 nx xm c3 x
mn
........ cnx
COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
x iy
Analytic function
A function f(z) which is single valued and possesses a unique derivative with respect to z at
all points of region R is called as an analytic function.
If u & v are real, single valued functions of x & y s. t.
u u v v
are continuous
, , ,
x y x y
u v v u
x y x
y
f z dz f z t z ' t dt
Cauchys Theorem
If f(z) is an analytic function and f(z) is continuous at each point within and on a
closed curve C. then
f z dz 0
n a n!
2i
f z
n1
z a
dz
Isolated singularity
f z
an z a
n
an
f t
1
dt
2i t an1
Removable singularity
If all the negative power of (z a) are zero in the expansion of f(z),
f(z) =
an z a
n0
Poles
If all negative powers of (z a) after nth are missing, then z = a is a pole of order n.
Essential singularity
If the number of negative power of (z a) is infinite, the z = a is essential
singularity & cannot be removed.
RESIDUES
If z = a is an isolated singularity of f(z)
2
f z a0 a1 z a a2 z a ............. a1 z a
Then residue of f(z) at z = a is a1
a 2 z a
...........
Residue Theorem
c f z dz 2i
Res f a
1 dn1
n
n1 z a f z
n 1! dz
z a
I=
F cos ,sin d
0
ei ei
ei ei
; sin
2i
2
cos
Assume z= ei
1
z+ z
; sin 1 z 1
cos
2
2i
z
I=
f z
c
dz
n
2i Res f zk
iz
k=1
f z
iz
f x dx
2iRes f z
Where residue is calculated at poles in upper half plane & poles of f(z) are found
by substituting z in place of x in f(x).
Ec s E
n
U Ei =
i1
C
n
Ei =
i1
n
i1
n
i1
EiC
EiC
Axioms of Probability
E1 ,E2 ,...........,En are possible events & S is the sample space.
a. 0 P (E) 1
b. P(S) = 1
c.
n
n
P Ei = P Ei
i1 i=1
P(A E) + P (B E)
= P(A)* P(E | A) + P(B) * P(E | B)
Statistics
x
n
fx
f
If n is even, Median =
n 1
2
n2
th
th value
value + n 2 1
2
th
value
n xi2 xi
n2
n = number of observations
variance = 2
N fi2 xi2 fi xi
N
Coefficient of variation = CV =
P x 1
E X x P x
c. V x E x 2 E x
f x dx 1
F x
E x
f x dx
cumulative distribution
expected value of x
variance of x
xf x dx
V x E x 2 E x
E ax1 bx2 aE x1 bE x2
V ax1 bx2 a2 V x1 b2 V x2
P X x nCxPx 1 P
Mean = E(X) = nP
Variance = V[x] = nP(1 P)
Poisson Distribution
A random variable x, having possible values 0,1, 2, 3,., is poisson variable if
P X x
Mean = E(x) =
Variance = V(x) =
Continuous Distributions
Uniform Distribution
1
if a x b
f x b a
0 otherwise
Mean = E(x) =
ba
2
Variance = V(x) =
b a2
12
e x
x!
Exponential Distribution
x
if x 0
e
f x
0 if x 0
Mean = E(x) = 1
Variance = V(x) = 1 2
Normal Distribution
1
f x
22
x 2
ep
22
, x
Means = E(x) =
Variance = v(x) = 2
Coefficient of correlation
x, y
var x var y
cov
x x
y y = b
x x
= bxy y y
yx
b xy =
cov x, y
var y
bb
xy
yx
b yx =
cov x, y
var x
NUMERICAL METHODS
Numerical solution of algebraic equations
Bisection Method
If a function f(x) is continuous between a & b and f(a) & f(b) are of opposite sign,
then there exists at least one roots of f(x) between a & b.
Since root lies between a & b, we assume root x0
If f x0 0 ; x 0 is the root
a b
2
Else, if f x0 has same sign as f a , then roots lies between x 0 & b and
we assume
x b
, and follow same procedure otherwise if f x0 has same sign
x1 0
2
as f b , then
root lies between a & x 0 & we assume x1
a x0
2
n
loge 2
Regula-Falsi Method
This method is similar to bisection method, as we assume two value x0 & x1
such that
f x0 f x1 0 .
x2
f x1 .x0 f x0 .x1
f x1 f x0
If f(x2)>0 then
x3
f x2 .x0 f x0 .x2
f x2 f x 0
If f(x2)<0 then
x3
f x1 .x2 f x2 .x1
f x1 f x2
Secant Method
provide the guarantee for existence of the root in the given interval , So it is called
un reliable method .
x2
f x1 .x0 f x0 .x1
f x1 f x0
f x2 .x1 f x1 .x2
f x2 f x1
Newton-Raphson Method
xn1 xn
f xn
f ' xn
Note : Since N.R. iteration method is quadratic convergence so to apply this formula f " x
must exist.
Order of convergence
Bisection
= Linear
Regula false
= Linear
Secant
= superlinear
Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Rule
b
a f x dx
, can be calculated as
Divide interval (a, b) into n sub-intervals such that width of each interval
b a
h
n
we have (n + 1) points at edges of each intervals
x0 , x1 , x2 ,.........., xn
y0 f x0 ; y1 f x1 ,..................., yn f xn
b
a f x dx 2 y 0 2 y1 y 2 .......... yn1 yn
Simpsons 1
rd Rule
3
Here the number of intervals should be even
b a
h
Simpsons 3
8 th Rule
Here the number of intervals should be even
b
a f x dx
3h
y 3(y1 y 2 y 4 y5........ yn1 ) 2(y 3 y 6 y 9 ..............yn3 ) y n
8 0
Truncation error
(b a) 2
h max f " and order of error =2
12
(b a) 4
iv
Simpsons 3
bound
th Rule: T
bound
3(b a) 4
iv
h max f and order of error =5
n80
where x0 xn
Note : If truncation error occurs at nth order derivative then it gives exact result while
integrating the polynomial up to degree (n-1).
Numerical solution of Differential equation
Eulers Method
dy
f x, y
dx
To solve differential equation by numerical method, we define a step size h
We can calculate value of y at
x0 h, x0 2h,.........., x0 nh
intermediate points.
y i1 yi hf xi , y i
y i y x i ; y i 1 y xi 1
; Xi 1 Xi h
y1 y 0
h
f x , y f x0 h, y 0 h
2 0 0
y1 y 0 k
k 1 6 k1 2k 2 2k 3 k 4
k1 hf x0 , y 0
k
h
k 2 hf x0 , y 0 1
2
2
k
h
k 3 hf x0 , y 0 2
2
2
k 4 hf x0 h, y 0 k 3
Similar method for other iterations