Electrical and Electronics Measurement and Instrumentation

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35
Question Bank with solution

PART-A
Unit-1
1. Derive the dimensional equation for jan14, july13, jan13
i)
EMF in SI units
ii)
Magnetizing force in SI units
iii) Capacitance in SI units
iv) MMF in LMTI
v)
Flux density in LMTI
vi) Resistivity and conductivity in SI units
Capacitance
C = q/v = [M1/2 L3/2 T-1 1/2]/ [M1/2L1/2T-1-1/2] = [L]
Resistance
[L-1T-1]
R = V/I = [M1/2L1/2 T-1 -1/2]/[M1/2L3/2T-21/2] =
Where f = frequency, Bm = Max. flux density, d= diameter of wire, resistivity

of
material. Find the values a, b,c,and g using L,M,T,I system
P = k fa Bmb dc g
[P] = [I1L-1 ]
[f] = [T-1 ]
[Bm] = [M1T-2I-1 ]
[d] = [L]
[] = [M1 L3 T-3I-2]
[I1L-1 ] = k [T-1 ] a [M1T-2I-1 ] b [L] c [M1 L3 T-3I-2] g
Department of EEE, SJBIT
Page 1

[I1L-1 ] = k [T-a ] [MbT-2bI-b ] [L c ] [Mg L3g T-3gI-2g]
By comparing and solving a = 2, b = 2, g=1 , c=4

2. Expression for mean torque of an electrodynamometer type of wattmeter is
given by TdMaEbZc where M=mutual incductance, E= applied vtg,
Z=impedance. Determine the values of a,b,c.jan14
Torque, moment or moment of force (see the terminology below), is the
tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis,[1] fulcrum, or pivot.
Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to
an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the
lever-arm distance vector and the force vector, which tends to produce
rotation.
Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object
such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of
a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque (turning force) that
loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
The symbol for torque is typically , the Greek letter tau. When it is called
moment, it is commonly denoted M.
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied,
the length of the lever arm[2] connecting the axis to the point of force
application, and the angle between the force vector and the lever arm. In
symbols:
where
is the torque vector and is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is
measured to the point where force is applied),
F is the force vector,
denotes the cross product,
is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.
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The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this
length appropriately lies behind the operation of levers,pulleys, gears,
and most other simple machines involving a mechanical advantage.
The SI unit for torque is the newton metre (Nm).
3. Derive the balancing equ for Kelvins double bridge
june12,dec11
jan14, july13,
An interesting variation of the Wheatstone bridge is the Kelvin Double bridge,

used for measuring very low resistances (typically less than 1/10 of an ohm). Its
schematic diagram is as such:
The low-value resistors are represented by thick-line symbols, and the wires
connecting them to the voltage source (carrying high current) are likewise drawn
thickly in the schematic. This oddly-configured bridge is perhaps best understood
by beginning with a standard Wheatstone bridge set up for measuring low
resistance, and evolving it step-by-step into its final form in an effort to overcome
certain problems encountered in the standard Wheatstone configuration.
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If we were to use a standard Wheatstone bridge to measure low resistance, it would
look something like this:
When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know that the bridge is balanced
and that the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each other.
Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides us with the necessary
data to solve for Rx . . . almost.
We have a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between Ra and
Rx possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial
compared to the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will drop
substantial voltage, given the high current through them, and thus will affect the
null detector's indication and thus the balance of the bridge:
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Since we don't want to measure these stray wire and connection resistances, but
only measure Rx, we must find some way to connect the null detector so that it
won't be influenced by voltage dropped across them. If we connect the null
detector and RM/RN ratio arms directly across the ends of Ra and Rx, this gets us
closer to a practical solution:
Page 5
Now the top two Ewire voltage drops are of no effect to the null detector, and do
not influence the accuracy of Rx's resistance measurement. However, the two
remaining Ewire voltage drops will cause problems, as the wire connecting the
lower end of Ra with the top end of Rx is now shunting across those two voltage
drops, and will conduct substantial current, introducing stray voltage drops along
its own length as well.
Knowing that the left side of the null detector must connect to the two near ends of
Ra and Rx in order to avoid introducing those Ewire voltage drops into the null
detector's loop, and that any direct wire connecting those ends of Ra and Rx will
itself carry substantial current and create more stray voltage drops, the only way
out of this predicament is to make the connecting path between the lower end of
Ra and the upper end of Rx substantially resistive:
Page 6
We can manage the stray voltage drops between Ra and Rx by sizing the two new
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as the two ratio
arms on the other side of the null detector. This is why these resistors were labeled
Rm and Rn in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their
proportionality with RM and RN:
Page 7
With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio RM/RN, rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted
until the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that Ra/Rx is equal to
RM/RN, or simply find Rx by the following equation:
The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (Rwire is the
resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low-resistance standard
Ra and the test resistance Rx):
5. Obtain wheatstone bridge sensitivity interms of parameters of the bridge

jan13, dec11
Page 8

The bridge consists of four resistive arms together with a source of e.m.f.
and a null
detector. The galvanometer is used as a null detector.
The arms consisting the resistances R] and R2 are called ratio arms. The arm
consisting the standard known resistance R3 is called standard arm. The
resistance R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured. The battery is
connected between A and C while galvanometer is connected between Band
D.
6. Explain the neat sketch how megger is used for the measurement of very
high resistance. Jan13,
The important construction features of Megger consist of following parts:
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1) Control and Deflecting coil: They are normally mounted at right angle to
each other and connected parallel to the generator. The polarities are such
that the torque produced by them is in opposite direction.
2) Permanent Magnet: Permanent magnet with north and south poles to
produce magnetic effect for deflection of pointer.
3) Pointer and scale: A pointer is attached to the coils and end of the
pointer floats on a scale which is in the range from zero to infinity. The
unit for this is ohms.
4) D.C generator or battery connection: Testing voltage is supplied by
hand operated D.C generator for manual operated Megger and a battery and
electronic voltage charger for automatic type Megger.
5) Pressure coil and current coil: Provided for preventing damage to the
instrument in case of low external source resistance.
Working: The voltage for testing is supplied by a hand generator incorporated in the
instrument or by battery or electronic voltage charger. It is usually 250V or
500V and is smaller in size.
- A test volt of 500V D.C is suitable for testing ships equipment operating
at 440V A.C. Test voltage of 1000V to 5000V is used onboard for high
voltage system onboard.
- The current carrying coil (deflecting coil) is connected in series and carries
the current taken by the circuit under test. The pressure coil (control coil) is
connected across the circuit.
- Current limiting resistor CCR and PCR are connected in series with pressure
and current coil to prevent damage in case of low resistance in external source.
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- In hand generator, the armature is moving in the field of permanent magnet
or vice versa, to generate a test voltage by electromagnetic induction effect.
- With an increase of potential voltage across the external circuit, the
deflection of the pointer increases; and with an increase of current, the
deflection of pointer decrease so the resultant torque on the movement is
directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to
the resistance.
- When the external circuit is open, torque due to voltage coil will be
maximum and the pointer will read infinity. When there is short circuit the
pointer will read 0.
Unit-2
1. Explain the sources and detectors used in AC bridges.
Jan14, june12
One way to maximize the effectiveness of audio headphones as a null

detector is to connect them to the signal source through an impedancematching transformer. Headphone speakers are typically low-impedance
units (8 ), requiring substantial current to drive, and so a step-down
transformer helps match low-current signals to the impedance of the
headphone speakers. An audio output transformer works well for this
purpose: (Figure below)
Page 11
Modern low-Ohm headphones require an impedance matching transformer

for use as a sensitive null detector.
Using a pair of headphones that completely surround the ears (the closedcup type), I've been able to detect currents of less than 0.1 A with this
simple detector circuit. Roughly equal performance was obtained using two
different step-down transformers: a small power transformer (120/6 volt
ratio), and an audio output transformer (1000:8 ohm impedance ratio). With
the pushbutton switch in place to interrupt current, this circuit is usable for
detecting signals from DC to over 2 MHz: even if the frequency is far above
or below the audio range, a click will be heard from the headphones each
time the switch is pressed and released.
Connected to a resistive bridge, the whole circuit looks like Figure below.
Page 12
Bridge with sensitive AC null detector.

Listening to the headphones as one or more of the resistor arms of the
bridge is adjusted, a condition of balance will be realized when the
headphones fail to produce clicks (or tones, if the bridge's power source
frequency is within audio range) as the switch is actuated.
When describing general AC bridges, where impedances and not just
resistances must be in proper ratio for balance, it is sometimes helpful to
draw the respective bridge legs in the form of box-shaped components, each
one with a certain impedance: (Figure below)
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Generalized AC impedance bridge: Z = nonspecific complex impedance.
For this general form of AC bridge to balance, the impedance ratios of each
branch must be equal:
Again, it must be stressed that the impedance quantities in the above

equation must be complex, accounting for both magnitude and phase angle.
It is insufficient that the impedance magnitudes alone be balanced; without
phase angles in balance as well, there will still be voltage across the
terminals of the null detector and the bridge will not be balanced.
Bridge circuits can be constructed to measure just about any device value
desired, be it capacitance, inductance, resistance, or even Q. As always in
bridge measurement circuits, the unknown quantity is always balanced
against a known standard, obtained from a high-quality, calibrated
component that can be adjusted in value until the null detector device
indicates a condition of balance. Depending on how the bridge is set up, the
unknown component's value may be determined directly from the setting of
the calibrated standard, or derived from that standard through a
mathematical formula.
A couple of simple bridge circuits are shown below, one for inductance
(Figure below) and one for capacitance: (Figure below)
Page 14
Symmetrical bridge measures unknown inductor by comparison to a

standard inductor.
Symmetrical bridge measures unknown capacitor by comparison to a

standard capacitor.
Simple symmetrical bridges such as these are so named because they
exhibit symmetry (mirror-image similarity) from left to right. The two
bridge circuits shown above are balanced by adjusting the calibrated reactive
component (Ls or Cs). They are a bit simplified from their real-life
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counterparts, as practical symmetrical bridge circuits often have a calibrated,
variable resistor in series or parallel with the reactive component to balance
out stray resistance in the unknown component. But, in the hypothetical
world of perfect components, these simple bridge circuits do just fine to
illustrate the basic concept.
An example of a little extra complexity added to compensate for real-world
effects can be found in the so-called Wien bridge, which uses a parallel
capacitor-resistor standard impedance to balance out an unknown series
capacitor-resistor combination. (Figure below) All capacitors have some
amount of internal resistance, be it literal or equivalent (in the form of
dielectric heating losses) which tend to spoil their otherwise perfectly
reactive natures. This internal resistance may be of interest to measure, and
so the Wien bridge attempts to do so by providing a balancing impedance
that isn't pure either:
Wein Bridge measures both capacitive Cx and resistive Rx components of

real capacitor.
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Being that there are two standard components to be adjusted (a resistor and a
capacitor) this bridge will take a little more time to balance than the others
we've seen so far. The combined effect of Rs and Cs is to alter the
magnitude and phase angle until the bridge achieves a condition of balance.
Once that balance is achieved, the settings of Rs and Cs can be read from
their calibrated knobs, the parallel impedance of the two determined
mathematically, and the unknown capacitance and resistance determined
mathematically from the balance equation (Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4).
It is assumed in the operation of the Wien bridge that the standard capacitor
has negligible internal resistance, or at least that resistance is already known
so that it can be factored into the balance equation. Wien bridges are useful
for determining the values of lossy capacitor designs like electrolytics,
where the internal resistance is relatively high. They are also used as
frequency meters, because the balance of the bridge is frequency-dependent.
When used in this fashion, the capacitors are made fixed (and usually of
equal value) and the top two resistors are made variable and are adjusted by
means of the same knob.
An interesting variation on this theme is found in the next bridge circuit,
used to precisely measure inductances.
Page 17
Maxwell-Wein bridge measures an inductor in terms of a capacitor standard.

This ingenious bridge circuit is known as the Maxwell-Wien
bridge (sometimes known plainly as the Maxwell bridge), and is used to
measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and
capacitance. (Figure above) Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to
manufacture than capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple
symmetrical inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the phase
shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a
capacitive impedance can balance out an inductive impedance if they are
located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they are here.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather
than a symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement
error due to mutual inductance between two inductors. Magnetic fields can
be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils in a
bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no second
inductor to react with in the Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.
Page 18

For easiest operation, the standard capacitor (Cs) and the resistor in parallel
with it (Rs) are made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve balance.
However, the bridge can be made to work if the capacitor is fixed (nonvariable) and more than one resistor made variable (at least the resistor in
parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in the latter
configuration it takes more trial-and-error adjustment to achieve balance, as
the different variable resistors interact in balancing magnitude and phase.
Unlike the plain Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is
independent of source frequency, and in some cases this bridge can be made
to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source,
the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range.
There are more variations beyond these designs, but a full discussion is not
warranted here. General-purpose impedance bridge circuits are
manufactured which can be switched into more than one configuration for
maximum flexibility of use.
A potential problem in sensitive AC bridge circuits is that of stray
capacitance between either end of the null detector unit and ground (earth)
potential. Because capacitances can conduct alternating current by
charging and discharging, they form stray current paths to the AC voltage
source which may affect bridge balance: (Figure below)
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2. Derive the balance eqn for Anderson bridge jan14, july13, jan13, june12
AC bridges are often used to measure the value of unknown impedance
(self/mutual inductance of inductors or capacitance of capacitors
accurately). A large number of AC bridges are available and Anderson's
Bridge is an AC bridge used to measure self inductance of the coil. It is a
modification of Wheatstones Bridge. It enables us to measure the
inductance of a coil using
capacitor and resistors and
does not require repeated
balancing of the bridge. The
connections are shown in
Fig: 1.
The bridge is balanced by a
steady current by replacing the
headphone H by moving coil
galvanometer and A.C source
by a battery. This is done by
adjusting the variable resistance,
r. After a steady balance has
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been obtained, inductive balance is obtained by using the A.C source and
headphone.
The condition for balance is that the potentials at the terminals D and E
are same. Then the current flowing through branch AB is I1, through
branch AE and EB is I2. The current flowing through branches AD and
DC is I3, while that through branch BC is I1+I2. No current flows
through branch DE.
Circuit Details
Consider the mesh ABCDA
(1)
This shows that potential drop along ABC is equal to that along ADC.
Consider the mesh ABEA, there is no e.m.f.
(2)
Consider the mesh AEDA,
(3)
i.e. potential difference from A to E is equal to that from A to D.
From
(3)
we
get,
3.
(4)
Now substitute the value of I3 from (1) in (4)
(5)
Dividing (5) by (2)
4.
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(6)
Multiply and divide by R in the L.H.S of (6) and rearrange,
5.
(7)
Equating real parts on both sides of (7)
(8)
Equation (8) represents the condition for balancing of the bridge.
Equating imaginary parts on both sides of (7)
(9)
Substituting :
From (8) and (9) gives us

(10)
At this condition of balancing there is minimum sound in the headphone.
Further we can make P=Q
(11)
The inductive reactance can be calculated by
(11)
6. Explain how capacitance and dissipation factor is measured using Schering

bridge.
Jan13
the Schering Bridge is an electrical circuit used for measuring the
insulating properties of electrical cables and equipment.[1] It is
an AC bridge circuit, developed by Harald Schering. It has the advantage
that the balance equation is independent of frequency.
Page 22

The connections of the Schering bridge under balance conditions are
shown in the figure below.
In this diagram:
C1 = capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,
R1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1,
C2 = a standard capacitor,
R3 = a non-inductive resistance,
C4 = a variable capacitor,
R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with the variable
capacitor C4.
7. Obtain the balance eqn for maxwells inductance , capacitance bridge used
for measurement of unknown inductance. Dec11.
A Maxwell bridge (in long form, a Maxwell-Wien bridge) is a type
of Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q
value) in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. It is areal product bridge.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be
compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in
the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential difference across
the detector and hence no current flowing through it. The unknown inductance then
becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
Page 23

With reference to the picture, in a typical application
entities, and
and are known variable entities.
the bridge is balanced.
and
and
and
are known fixed

are adjusted until
can then be calculated based on the values of the other components:
Unit-3
1. Explain clearly how shunts and multipliers are used to extend the range
of instruments. JAN14, dec11
The theory follows from Ohm's, and Kirchoff''s laws. In the case of the multiplier,
the same current flows through the meter and the multiplier resistance. The meter
resistance can sometimes be ignored, because it is very small compared to the
multiplier.
In the case of the shunt, the same voltage is applied across the shunt and the meter
resistance. The meter resistance can not be ignored.
This theory does not work with digital panel meters because the input resistance
is extremely high and is unknown. In addition, they are intrinsically voltmeters not ammeters or microammeters like a mechanical meter with a d'Arsonval
movement. To calculate the shunt for a digital meter - just use Ohm's law to see
what resistor (R) will give you the required V (2Volts or 200mV - depending)
for the current (I) to be measured.
Digital meters and valve voltmeters use a potentiometer voltage divider - see
potentiometer software next..
Formulae
For Shunt:
I Rshunt=Rm FSD
whence:
Rshunt= IRm FSD
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For Multiplier:
FSD (Rmult+Rm)=V
and so:
Rmult=(VFSD)Rm
Where:
FSD = Meter Full Scale Deflection
I = Current Range
V = Voltage Range
Rshunt = Shunt Resistance
Rmult = MultiplierResistance
Rm = Meter Resistance
2. What are the advantages of instrument transformer?
Jan14
Advantages:
Single range ammeters and voltmeters can measure a wide range of currents
and voltages, if used in conjunction with suitable Current Transformers
(CTs) and Potential Transformers (PTs)
The measuring instruments like ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeters etc are
incorporated in the secondary circuit and hence they are totally segregated
from the high voltage, thereby ensuring safety for the operator and observer
The meter need not be insulated for high voltages which would be the case if
they are directly included in a high voltage circuit
Using current transformer with suitable split and hinged core, it easy to
measure heavy currents in the busbarwithout having to break the conductor
carrying current. The core of the Current Transformer (CT) is opened at the
hinge, the current carrying conductor is introduced in the center of the core
through a opening made and the core is tightly closed again. The conductor
itself acts as a single turn primary winding of the current transformer
4. Explain the CT and PT

july13, jan13, june12

Page 25

Current Transformers (CT) and Potential Transformers (PT) are used to measure
the current and voltage in a circuit of the order of hundreds of amperes and volts
respectively.
A CT has large number of turns on its secondary winding, but very few turns on its
primary winding. The primary winding is connected in series with the load so that
it carries full load current. A low voltage range ammeter (0-5A) is connected
across the secondary winding terminals. Secondary of the CT is practically short
circuited since the ammeter resistance is very low. It should be remembered that
secondary of the CT should not be made open as it draws heavy current and
damages the primary winding of the CT
A PT has large number of turns in the primary and fewer turns in the secondary
and hence it steps down the voltage. The primary winding is connected across the
supply voltage and low range voltmeter (0-110V) is connected across the
secondary winding terminals
Some of the main difference between current transformers (CT) and potential
transformers (PT) are given below:
The secondary of the CT is almost short circuit, whereas the secondary of

the PT is practically a open circuit
The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the load so that it
carries the full line current, but there is only a small voltage across it.
However the primary winding of the PT has the full supply voltage applied
across it
In CT the excitation current I0 and flux density vary over a wide range
whereas in PT, they vary over a limited range only
Unit-4
1. Explain with a neat figure construction and working of dynamometer
type wattmeter.
Jan14, july13, dec11.
Page 26
a watt meter is used to measure the electric power of a circuit, or sometime it also measures the
rate of energy transferred from one circuit to another circuit. When a moving coil
(that is free to rotate) is kept under the influence of a current carrying conductor,
then automatically a mechanical force will be applied to the moving coil, and this
force will make a little deflection of the moving coil. If a pointer is connected with
the moving coil, which will move of a scale, then the deflection can be easily
measured by connecting the moving coil with that pointer. This is the principle of
operation of all dynamo meter type instruments, and this principle is equally
applicable for dynamo meter type watt meter also.
This type of watt meter consists of two types of coil, more specifically current coil
and voltage coil. There are two current coils which are kept at constant position
and the measurable current will flow through those current coils. A voltage coil is
placed inside those two current coils, and this voltage coil is totally free to rotate.
The current coils are arranged such a way, that they are connected with the circuit
in series. And the voltage coil is connected in parallel with the circuit. As simple as
other voltmeter and ammeter connection. In fact, a watt meter is a package of an
ammeter and a voltmeter, because the product of voltage and current is the power,
which is the measurable quantity of a watt meter.
When current flows through the current coils, then automatically a magnetic field
is developed around those coils. Under the influence of the electromagnetic field,
voltage coil also carries some amount of current as it is connected with the circuit
in parallel. In this way, the deflection of the pointer will proportional to both
current and voltage of the circuit. In this way, Watt = Current Voltage equation is
satisfied and the deflection shows the value of power inside the circuit. A dynamo
Page 27

meter type watt meter is used in various applications where the power or energy
transfer has to be measured.
2. Explain with the help of neat sketch the construction of induction type
energy meter. Jan14, jan13,june12, dec11.
The principle of working and construction of induction type meter is very simple and easy to
understand that's why these are widely used in measuring energy in domestic as
well as industrial world. In all induction meters we have two fluxes which are
produced by two different alternating currents on a metallic disc. Due to alternating
fluxes there is an induced emf, the emf produced at one point (as shown in the
figure given below) interacts with the alternating current of the other side resulting
in the production of torque.
Induction Type Meter
Page 28

Similarly, the emf produced at the point two interacts with the alternating current
at point one, resulting in the production of torque again but in opposite direction.
Hence due to these two torques which are in different directions, the metallic disc
moves. This is basic principle of working of aninduction type meters. Now let us
derive the mathematical expression for deflecting torque. Let us take flux produced
at point one be equal to F1and the flux and at point two be equal to F2. Now the
instantaneous values of these two flux can written as:
where Fm1 and Fm2 are respectively the maximum values of fluxes F1 and F2, B
is phase difference between two fluxes.
We can also write the expression for induced emf's at point one be
eddy
currents
at point two. Thus we have the expression for

at
point
one
is
where K is some constant and f is frequency.
3. Write a short note on electronic energy meter. Jan14, july13,

juune12,dec11
Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display,

and some can also transmit readings to remote places. In addition to
measuring energy used, electronic meters can also record other
parameters of the load and supply such as instantaneous and maximum
Page 29

rate of usage demands, voltages, power factor andreactive power used
etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for example, recording the
amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours.
4. Explain how 3phase reactive power is measured.
Jan13
In a star (wye) connected topology, with rotation sequence L1 - L2 - L3, the timevarying instantaneous voltages can be calculated for each phase A,C,B respectively
by:
where:
is the peak voltage,
is the phase angle in radians
is the time in seconds
is the frequency in cycles per second and
voltages L1-N, L2-N and L3-N are referenced to the star connection point.
5. Explain the working and operation of LPF wattmeter. June12
with the wattmeter now placed in series and the transmitter off, measure the
forward RF power. Here's how:
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1. Set the meter's FUNCTION switch to the POWER position.
2. Set the RANGE switch to the appropriate setting. (For the SX100, use the
30W range; and for the SX200, use the 20W range).
3. Verify that the TX and ANT output connections are secure.
4. Turn on the transmitter and turn up the output power to 10 watts.
5. Set the POWER switch on the wattmeter to FWD (forward) and record the
reading. If you're using the TR6000 transmitter, the power-adjust dial is
labeled on the front of the unit. If you have the earlier TR20 (Phase II)
transmitter, open the transmitter lid and adjust the blue power potentiometer,
located vertically just above the power-switch. (A properly tuned antenna
should allow a reading of 10 watts.)
6. Record reflected power by turning the meter's POWER switch to REF. This
reading should be less than 1, and less than 1/10 the forward power reading.
Unit-5
1. Write a note on true RMS reading voltmeter. Jan14, jan13
A modern digital electronic wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage
and current thousands of times a second. For each sample, the voltage is
multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one
cycle is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent voltamperes (VA) is the power factor. A computer circuit uses the sampled
values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power (watts),
power factor, and kilowatt-hours. The readings may be displayed on the
device, retained to provide a log and calculate averages, or transmitted to
other equipment for further use. Wattmeters vary considerably in
correctly calculating energy consumption, especially when real power is
much lower than VA (highlyreactiveloads, e.g. electric motors). Simple
meters may be calibrated to meet specified accuracy only
for sinusoidalwaveforms.
Waveforms
for switched-mode
power
supplies as used for much electronic equipment may be very far from
sinusoidal, leading to unknown and possibly large errors at any power.
This may not be specified in the meter's manual.
Page 31

3. Explain with the neat sketch the working of Electronic multimeter.
July13
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is
an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions
in one unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to
measure voltage, current,
and resistance. Analog
multimeters use
a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the
measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to
the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters are now far more common than
analog ones, but analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example
when monitoring a rapidly varying value.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field
service work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of
accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of
industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor
controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC
voltmeter, multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog
multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches.
For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor
connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of
switches allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The
product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of
the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale
voltage of the range. As an example, a meter movement that required
1 milliampere for full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms,
would, on a 10-volt range of the multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series
resistance.[3]
For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the
meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of
a hypothetical 1-mA, 500-ohm movement on a 1-Ampere range, the shunt
resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms.
Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through
them. To measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so
Page 32

that the average value of current is non-zero. Since the rectified average value and
the root-mean-square value of a waveform need not be the same, simple rectifiertype circuits may only be accurate for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes
require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. Since
practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at
low values.
To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current
through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available
depends on the state of charge of the battery, a multimeter usually has an
adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit found in analog
multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so fullscale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms
scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.
Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor
networks. The internal resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the
series and shunt range resistors; the series network becomes a voltage divider.
Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed after the
amplifier stage, improving precision at low range.
Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same
principles as analog instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements,
usually a small constant current is passed through the device under test and the
digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop; this eliminates the scale
compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant current.
An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so
that the measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter.
In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable
and accurate measurements. Stability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the
long-term accuracy and precision of the instrument.
4. With a neat sketch explain the construction and operating principal of
single phase power factor meter. Jan13, june12
Page 33
AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active
power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in voltamperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes(var).[6]
The power factor is defined as:
In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as

vectors that form a vectortriangle such that:
If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power
factor is equal to the cosine of the angle,
, and:
Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition
a dimensionless number between 1 and 1. When power factor is equal
to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load
returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the
energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors
are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase
angle. Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive
loads are lagging (current lags voltage).
5. Explain the two types of phase sequence indicators. June12
Page 34

Phase sequence indicator are the indicator that determines the phase
sequence of the three phase supply system.
When we give conventional three phase supply (i.e. RYB) to
the induction motor, we see that the direction of the rotation of the rotor
is
in
clockwise
direction.
Now what will happen to direction of rotation of rotor if the phase
sequence is reversed, the answer to this question is that the rotor will
rotate in the anticlockwise direction. Thus we see that the direction of
rotation of rotor depends on the phase sequence. Let us study how these
phase instruments works and on what principle they work.
Now there are two types of phase sequence indicators and they are:
(a)
(b) Static type.
Rotating
type
Let us discuss one by one each type.

Rotating Type Phase Sequence Indicators
It works on the principle of induction motors. In this coils are connected
in star form and the supply is given from three terminal marked as RYB
as shown in the figure. When supply is given the coils produces the
rotating magnetic field and these rotating magnetic fields produces eddy
Page 35

emf in the movable aluminium disc as shown in the diagram.
These eddy emf produces eddy current on the aluminium disc, eddy
currents interact with the rotating magnetic field due this a torque is
produced which causes the light aluminium disc to move. If the disc
moves in the clockwise direction then chosen sequence is RYB and if the
direction of rotation is in anticlockwise the sequence is reversed.
Static Type Phase Sequence Indicators
Given below is the arrangement of static type indicator:
Page 36

Unit-6
1. Explain with the help of block diagram working of digital storage
oscilloscope. jan14, june12
the basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The
display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and
vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most
display sections are equipped with three basic controls: a focus knob, an intensity
knob and a beam finder button.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section
carries a Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector
switch and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section
is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or "sweep" of the instrument. The
primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also
included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal
beam position knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to
automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an
internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source
and coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level
adjustment will also be included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as
shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a
resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X)
attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe
Page 37

cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the
operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate
2. Explain with the help of block diagram working of dual trace
oscilloscope. Jan14, july13,dec11
A digital storage oscilloscope is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the
signal digitally rather than using analoguetechniques. It is now the most common
type of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and
measurement features which it typically provides
The input analogue signal is sampled and then converted into a digital record of the
amplitude of the signal at each sample time. The sampling frequency should be not
less than the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values are then turned
back into an analogue signal for display on a cathode ray tube (CRT), or
transformed as needed for the various possible types of outputliquid crystal
display, chart recorder, plotter or network interface.
Digital storage oscilloscope costs vary widely; bench-top self-contained
instruments (complete with displays) start at US$300or even less, with highperformance models selling for tens of thousands of dollars. Small, pocket-size
models.
3. Explain the measurement of phase and frequency using lissajous patterns.
Jan14
In mathematics, a Lissajous curve /lsu/, also known as Lissajous
figure or Bowditch curve /badt/, is the graph of a system of parametric
equations
which describe complex harmonic motion. This family of curves was

investigated by Nathaniel Bowditch in 1815, and later in more detail by Jules
Antoine Lissajous in 1857.
The appearance of the figure is highly sensitive to the ratio a/b. For a ratio of 1,
the figure is an ellipse, with special cases
including circles (A = B, = /2 radians) and lines ( = 0). Another simple
Lissajous figure is the parabola (a/b = 2, = /4). Other ratios produce more
complicated curves, which are closed only if a/b isrational. The visual form of
Page 38

these curves is often suggestive of a three-dimensional knot, and indeed many
kinds of knots, including those known as Lissajous knots, project to the plane
as Lissajous figures.
Visually, the ratio a/b determines the number of "lobes" of the figure. For
example, a ratio of 3/1 or 1/3 produces a figure with three major lobes (see
image). Similarly, a ratio of 5/4 produces a figure with 5 horizontal lobes and 4
vertical lobes. Rational ratios produce closed (connected) or "still" figures,
while irrational ratios produce figures that appear to rotate. The
ratio A/B determines the relative width-to-height ratio of the curve. For
example, a ratio of 2/1 produces a figure that is twice as wide as it is high.
Finally, the value of determines the apparent "rotation" angle of the figure,
viewed as if it were actually a three-dimensional curve. For example, =0
produces x and y components that are exactly in phase, so the resulting figure
appears as an apparent three-dimensional figure viewed from straight on (0).
In contrast, any non-zero produces a figure that appears to be rotated, either
as a left/right or an up/down rotation (depending on the ratio a/b).
Lissajous figure on an oscilloscope, displaying a 1:3 relationship between the

frequencies of the vertical and horizontal sinusoidal inputs, respectively.
Lissajous figures where a = 1, b = N (N is a natural number) and
are Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind of degree N. This property is

exploited to produce a set of points, calledPadua points, at which a function
may be sampled in order to compute either a bivariate interpolation or
quadrature of the function over the domain [-1,1][-1,1].
Page 39
4. Classify transducers with an example each.
Jan13
Transducer Classification
Some of the common methods of classifying transducers are given below.
Based on their application.
Based on the method of converting the non-electric signal into electric

signal.
Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.
Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that may be changed due

to the whole process. Some of the most commonly electrical quantities in a
transducer are resistance, capacitance, voltage, current or inductance. Thus,
during transduction, there may be changes in resistance, capacitance and
induction, which in turn change the output voltage or current.
Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.

5. Explain the construction and operating principal of LVDT with
necessary sketches, jan13, dec11, jan14, june12, july13
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called just

a differential transformer linear variable displacement
transformer, or linear variable displacement transducer is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position).
A counterpart to this device that is used for measuring rotary
displacement is called a rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT).
Page 40

6. List out the temperature detectors. Explain resistance temperature
detector. Jan13.
Thermistor- Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors whose prime function

is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when
subjected to a corresponding change in body temperature. Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors exhibit a decrease in electrical
resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors exhibit an increase in electrical
resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature.
Thermocouple
Resistance thermometer
Silicon bandgap temperature sensor
Unit-7& 8
1. Explain the photoconductive and photovoltaic cell.
june12.
Jan14, july13,
PHOTO- VOLTAIC IN SEMICONDUCTORS:
The height of the potential barrier is an open circuited dark (non-illuminated) P-N
junction adjusts itself such that resultant current is zero. Under this condition, the
electric field at the junction is in such a diretion so as to repel the majority carriers.
When light is incident on diode surface, minority carriers get injected & hence the
minority current increases. But since the diode is open circuited, the resultant
current must remain zero. Therefore majority current should increase by the same
amount as the minority carrier current. This increase in majority current is possible
if the retarding electric field at the junction is reduced resulting in the lowering of
the barrier height. Therefore across the diode terminals there appears voltage
which is equal the decrease in the barrier potential. This constitutes the
photovoltaic e.m.f. & is of the order of 0.1 volts for the Ge cell & 0.5 volt for Si
cell.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION:
We have seen that the photovoltaic e.m.f. Vp appears across the diode when the net
current I in the diode is zero.
Substituting I= 0. In the voltampere characteristics of a photo diode given by
Page 41

We get
I = Is + I0 ( 1- eVe/ kT )
Is + I0 ( 1- eVe/ kT ) = 0
1+ ( Is/I0) = e Vpe/ kT
log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) ) = Vpe/kT .
Therefore photo-voltaic e.m.f.
Vp =(kT/e) log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) )
But Is/I0 >> 1, except for extremely small light intensities.
Vp = (kT/e) log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) )
This equation shows that the photovoltaic e.m.f Vp increases algorithmically with
Is and hence with illumination it has been shown diagrammatically.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:
When a pair of electrodes is immersed in an electrolyte & light is allowed to
incident on one of them, a potential difference is created between the electrodes
this phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect. Devices based on this effect are
known as photovoltaic cells. In a photovoltaic cells light energy is used to create a
potential difference the potential difference so developed is directly proportional
to the frequency & intensity of incident light.
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
A basic photovoltaic cells consist of peace of semi conducting materials bonded to
a metal plate. Materials like selenium & silicon are mostly used for preparing
photovoltaic cells.
When light is made to fall on semi conducting material, valence electron holes are
liberated from its crystal structures the electrons so liberated move towards the
metal plate where as holes flow in opposite directions thus a potential difference is
created between the semi conducting materials and the metal plate. Consequently a
conventional current flows in the external circuit through a load resistor R .
In actual form of photovoltaic cells a thin metallic film of silver,gold or platinum is
deposited on a semi conducting layer like cuprous oxide (Cu2O) or iron selenide.
The whole arrangement is than attached to a metal based plate (copper) as shown
in the figure.
When external light is allowed to fall on metallic film F, it penetrates easily and at
the barrier layer between the metallic film and the semiconductor, photo-electric
emission occurs. The photoelectrons so emitted from the layer, move towards the
metallic film. Consequently the metallic film F becomes negatively charged and
the copper based plate positively charged. Hence a potential difference is
developed between two and a current flows in the external circuit.The strength is
Page 42

proportional to the intensity of light and flows without any bias i.e. without any
external source of e.m.f.
USES:
These cells are used in devices like
1.
Photographic exposure metre.
2.
Direct reading illuminations metre.
3.
Operation of relays.
SOLAR CELLS:
A solar cells or solar battery is basically a PN junction diode which converts solar
energy into electrical energy. It is also called a solar energy converter and is simply
a photo diode operated zero bias voltage.
CONSTRUCTION:
A solar cell consists of a PN junction diode generally made of Ge or Si. It may
also be constructed with many other semi conducting materials like GaAs, indium
arsenide and cadmium arsenide. The PN diode so formed is packed in a can with
glass windows on top so that light may fall upon P & N type materials. The
thickness of P region of is kept very small so that electrons generated in this region
can deffuse to the junction before the recombination takes place. Thickness of N
region is also kept small to allow holes generated near the surface to diffuse to the
junctions before they recombine. A heavy doping of P and N regions is
recommended to obtain a large photo voltage. A nickel plated ring is provided
around the P layer which acts as the positive output terminal. A metal contact at
the bottom serves as the negative output terminal.
WORKING:
The working of solar cells may be understood with reference of figure When light
is allowed to fall on a P-N junction diode, photons collide with valence electrons
and impart them sufficient energy enabling them to leave there parent atoms. Thus
electrons hole pairs are generated in both the P and the N sides of the junctions .
These electrons and holes reach the depletion region W by diffusion and are then
separated by a strong barrier field existing between there. However the minority
carriers, electrons in the p-side , slide down the barrier potential to reach the Inside
and the holes in the N-side move to P-side. Their flow constitutes the minority
Page 43

current which is directly proportional to the illumination and also depends on the
surface area being exposed light.
The accumulation of electrons and holes on the two sides of the jnction gives
rise to an open circuit voltage Voc which is a function of illumination. The open
circuit voltage produced for a silicon solar cells is typically 0.6 volt & the short
circuit current is about 40 m A / cm2 in bright noon day sun light power
conversion efficiency of about 15% are obtained with a thin N diffused layer into
a P wafer. Many such cells are interconnected to provide large quantities of
electrical power. Solar panels providing 5watt at 12 volt have been built to operate
24 hrs a day by recharging the batteries during day light hrs.
Characteristics:
Typical V- I characteristics of a solar cell corresponding to different levels of
illuminations are shown in the figure. It may be seen that for 100 m
W/cm2 illuminations the open circuit voltage is about 0.57 volt while the short
circuit current is 50 m A. maximum power output is however obtained when the
cell is operated at the knee of the curve.
4. What do you mean by DIC explain with a help of block diagram.
Jan13, june12, dec11, jan14, july13.
Page 44

5. With the help of neat sketch the working of XY recorder . jan14, jan13,
june12, dec11.
x-y recorder is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the

relationship between two variables. In x-y recorder's emf is plotted as a
function of another emf. This is done by one self balancing potentiometer
which controls the position of paper or chart roll while another self
balancing potentiometer controls the position of the recording pen. The emf
used for the operation of x-y recorders not necessarily measure only voltage.
the measure emf may be the output of the transducer which may be measure
of displacement ,force,pressure,strain or any other physical quantities.
Page 45

6. With the help of neat diagram explain the working of function generator.
Jan14, july13.
A function
generator is
usually
a
piece
of electronic
test
equipment or software used
to
generate
different
types
of
electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and
sawtooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which
requires an internal or external trigger source).[1] Integrated circuits used to
generate waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.
Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are
usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency
signals. When those traits are required, other signal generators would be more
appropriate.
Working
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose frequency

can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps.[3] This triangular wave is used as
the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly
charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces
a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches
upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using
a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the
size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can
be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode
over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the
polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow
fall.
A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor
is being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching
comparator output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to 100%) can be
obtained by using a comparator and the sawtooth or triangle signal. Most function
generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that can convert the
triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave by rounding off the corners of
the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems.
Page 46

A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF generators
for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense since they
typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only.
Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by
means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits.
This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a
given electronic circuit.
Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise.[citation needed]
More advanced function generators are called arbitrary waveform
generators (AWG). They use direct digital synthesis (DDS) techniques to generate
any waveform that can be described by a table of amplitudes.
7. Write a note on display devices.

July13.
A display device is an output device for presentation
of information in visual or tactile form (the latter used for example
in tactile electronic displays for blind people). When the input information
is supplied as an electrical signal, the display is called an electronic
display
Applications
Full-area 2-dimensional displays are used in, for example:
Television sets
Computer monitors
Head-mounted display
Broadcast reference monitor
Medical monitors
8. Write short notes on LED and LCD display. June12, jan13.

LCD stands for liquid crystal display and technically, both LED and LCD
TVs are liquid crystal displays. The basic technology is the same in that both
Page 47

television types have two layers of polarized glass through which the liquid
crystals both block and pass light. So really, LED TVs are a subset of LCD TVs.
LED, which stands for light emitting diodes, differs from general LCD TVs in
that LCDs use fluorescent lights while LEDs use those light emitting diodes. Also,
the placement of the lights on an LED TV can differ. The fluorescent lights in an
LCD TV are always behind the screen. On an LED TV, the light emitting diodes
can be placed either behind the screen or around its edges. The difference in lights
and in lighting placement has generally meant that LED TVs can be thinner than
LCDs, although this is starting to change. It has also meant that LED TVs run with
greater energy efficiency and can provide a clearer, better picture than the general
LCD TVs.
LED TVs provide a better picture for two basic reasons. First, LED TVs work with
a color wheel or distinct RGB-colored lights (red, green, blue) to produce more
realistic and sharper colors. Second, light emitting diodes can be dimmed. The
dimming capability on the back lighting in an LED TV allows the picture to
display with a truer black by darkening the lights and blocking more light from
passing through the panel. This capability is not present on edge-lit LED TVs;
however, edge-lit LED TVs can display a truer white than the fluorescent LED
TVs.
Because all these LCD TVs are thin-screen, each has particular angle-viewing and
anti-glare issues. The backlit TVs provide better, cleaner angle viewing than the
edge-lit LED TV. However, the backlit LED TV will usually have better angle
viewing than the standard LCD TV. Both LED and LCD TVs have good
reputations for their playback and gaming quality.
9. Write a note on Weston frequency meter.
Jan13.
The main principle of working of weston type frequency meter is that "when an
electric current flows through the two coils which are perpendicular to each other,
due to these currents some magnetic fields will produce and thus the magnetic
needle will deflects towards the stronger magnetic field showing the measurement
of frequency on the meter".
Construction of weston frequency is as compared to ferrodynamic type of
frequency meter. In order to construct a circuit diagram we need two coils, three
inductors and two resistors. Given below is the circuit diagram for the weston type
Page 48

frequency meter.
Axis of both coils are marked as shown. Scale of the meter is calibrated such that
at standard frequency the pointer will take position at 45. Coil 1 contains a series
resistor marked R1 and reactance coil marked as L1, while the coil 2 has a series
reactance coil marked as L2 and parallel resistor marked as R2. The indcuctor
which is marked as L0 is connected in series with the supplyvoltage in order to
reduce the higher harmonic means here this inductor is working as a filter circuit.
Let us look at the working of this meter.
Now when we apply voltage at standard frequency then the pointer will take
normal position, if there increase the frequency of the applied voltage then we will
see that the pointer will moves towards left marked as higher side as shown in the
circuit diagram. Again we reduce the frequency the pointer will start moving
towards the right side, if lower the frequency below the normal frequency then it
cross the normal position to move towards left side marked lower side as shown in
the figure.
Page 49

Now let us look at the internal working of this meter. Voltage drop across an
inductor is directly proportion to frequency of the source voltage, as we increase
the frequency of the applied voltage the voltage drop across the inductor
L1 increase that means the voltage impressed between the coil 1 is increased hence
the current through the coil 1 increase while the current through the coil 2
decreases. Since the electric current through the coil 1 increases the magnetic field
also increases and the magnetic needle attracts more towards the left side showing
the increment in the frequency. Similar action will takes if decrease the frequency
but in this the pointer will moves towards the left side.
Page 50

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Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Question Bank with solution

C = q/v = [M1/2 L3/2 T-1 1/2]/ [M1/2L1/2T-1-1/2] = [L]

R = V/I = [M1/2L1/2 T-1 -1/2]/[M1/2L3/2T-21/2] =

Where f = frequency, Bm = Max. flux density, d= diameter of wire, resistivity

[I1L-1 ] = k [T-1 ] a [M1T-2I-1 ] b [L] c [M1 L3 T-3I-2] g

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

By comparing and solving a = 2, b = 2, g=1 , c=4

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

An interesting variation of the Wheatstone bridge is the Kelvin Double bridge,

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

5. Obtain wheatstone bridge sensitivity interms of parameters of the bridge

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

One way to maximize the effectiveness of audio headphones as a null

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Modern low-Ohm headphones require an impedance matching transformer

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Bridge with sensitive AC null detector.

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Again, it must be stressed that the impedance quantities in the above

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Symmetrical bridge measures unknown inductor by comparison to a

Symmetrical bridge measures unknown capacitor by comparison to a

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Wein Bridge measures both capacitive Cx and resistive Rx components of

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Maxwell-Wein bridge measures an inductor in terms of a capacitor standard.

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

From (8) and (9) gives us

6. Explain how capacitance and dissipation factor is measured using Schering

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

are known fixed

can then be calculated based on the values of the other components:

Electrical and Electronic measurements & instrumentation 10EE35

4. Explain the CT and PT