Ques:1: Explain Surge Impedance loading

The load at which the reactive power absorbed by inductance of the line is equal to the reactive
power supplied by the capacitance of the line is known as Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
Surge Impedance of a Transmission line Zs =L/C
Where L= Inductance of the line per phase
C=Capacitance of the line, phase to neutral
If the line is loaded such that the load impedance is equal to the Surge Impedance (Zs ) of the line,
the power carried by the line is called Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
Pn = V I = V2/ Zs
Line loading is expressed as a multiple of SIL. eg. 1.2 P n
SIL mainly depends on voltage class and the conductor configuration of the line.
For the load equal to SIL, the voltage of the line does not change along the length of the line.
Hence no extra compensation for reactive power is required.
If the load carried by the line is less than SIL, it is said to be lightly loaded and if the load carried
is more than SIL, it is said to be heavily loaded.
Shorter lines are loaded with SIL > 1 and long lines are loaded with SIL < 1

Ques: 4: What are the disadvantages of poor power factor?

Apparent power = 3 VI /1000

Real power= 3 VI Cos /1000
Hence KW= KVA x Cos
(a) The amount of KW which can be supplied to load from the same KVA rating of power
Transformer depends on power factor
With higher power factor, higher KW can be supplied from the same power transformer
(b) With given KW load of a motor or other load, poor power factor means higher KVA. Hence,
Higher current for the same voltage. This gives rise to more I 2Rt losses, hence loss of electrical
energy
(c) Higher current I gives higher IZ drop in supply circuit. Hence, higher voltage regulation
problems.
Thus poor power factor gives poor voltage control, higher losses and poor use of electrical
equipment rating.

Ques : 12: What is corona ? Give its possible sources of generation and its significance.

At higher voltages, the localized high electric fields ionize the air surrounding the surface of the
conductor giving a violet visible discharge, called corona.
The physics of this process sees it as excitation of nitrogen molecule in the air which emits ultra
violet radiation, generally in the wave length range of 200 to 405 mm
It is an external phenomenon dependent only on voltage
It is accompanied by hissing sound, vibrations, power loss and radio interference
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by predominant third harmonic current which cause
radio interference in the adjacent communication circuits.
Corona causes increase in effective conductor diameter and reduces surface stress

Location :

It is observed on hard ware, at the point of connection between the conductors, along the busbar,
equipments, etc
It is often observed on the first insulator in a string where the electric field tends to be the greatest
Looped excess wire around the conductor at critical point generates high electric fields due to
uneven surface. Hence high corona discharge
Uneven/rough surface generates high electric fields, hence high corona discharge.

Significance:

Corona can be an indicator of poorly designed or defective component or poor workmanship

Magnitude of corona can be used to decide the best time to wash the insulators
Corona is a tool to verify the proper commissioning of electrical installation

Ques: 13 : What is the effect of corona on the transmission lines? How is it to be reduced ?
Effects of Corona :

The ozone and other by products of corona on a cap and pin type insulator will cause corrosion of
the pin and may pit the cement, leading to pin separation
The nitric acid formed from the nitrogen oxide and water vapour generated by corona can damage
the polymeric material leading to cracks or puncture in the housing
The moment the housing is damaged, the moisture can penetrate to the internal fiber glass core
This moisture combined with acid not only degrades the rod but also reduces the dielectric
properties of the insulator leading to eventual failure
Progressive degradation of the polymer near the end fittings

To Reduce Corona:

To reduce corona on the line

(a) The insulator strings to be equipped with grading ring / corona ring ( 400KV and above lines)
(b) Proper washing and cleaning of insulators on the line
(c) Proper construction and commissioning of the line
(d) Proper installation practice to avoid uneven or rough surfaces

Ques: 15: What are the factors affecting corona ?

Rain, moisture, fog , humidity, temperature, pressure ,etc affect the critical disruptive voltage
stress of air
The fair weather has negligible corona effect as its critical disruptive value is high
Rain causes increase in corona.

Ques: 16: How corona is measured/detected ? Is it possible to detect corona during day time?

An Israeli-based firm Ofil developed Corona Camera which can be used to detect corona
discharge to monitor degradation and condition of composite insulators/housing material in
electrical network
Yes, with the use of Corona Camera, it is possible to detect corona even during daytime in
ambient solar conditions
The wave length of the emitted UV radiation due to corona discharge corresponds directly to that
of background solar radiation and therefore is basically blocked from normal view
Technology using special optical filters to block out background solar radiation thereby only that
radiation emanating from the corona source is viewed even in full daylight

Ques : 12: What is Transposition of Tower ?

In practice, the three phase conductors on a transmission line are un symmetrically spaced
Hence, the inductance and capacitance of each phase is different
Therefore, the voltage drops are different causing unbalance in voltages
To reduce these unbalance to minimum, the conductors are transposed after certain length of the
transmission line i.e. the relative positions of the three phase conductors on the line are inter
changed by erecting special transposition tower.
For example, transposition tower on 400KV Asoj-Amreli single circuit line (length 291km) on
Location Nos 206,406 and 611 from Asoj end.

For 400KV single circuit with horizontal formation of tower, the relative positions of conductors
of all the three phases are to be changed on the same tower
But for 400KV double circuit tower, transposition of only one phase is to be provided on one
tower. For remaining two phases, subsequent towers are to be used for transposition. For example,
three transposition towers for conductor of three phases on different location Nos 238, 249 and
322 on 400KV Asoj-Chorania line.

Ques : 16: What are bundled conductors ?

A bundle conductor is made up of two or more sub conductors per phase

Bundle conductors are called duplex, triplex, quadraplex, etc.
By utilizing bundled conductors, line inductance is reduced considerably with the incidental
advantage of increased power transmission capacity of the line
With the higher effective diameter of the bundle conductor , the corona inception increases
Bundle conductors are used for EHV sub stations and EHV lines generally for 400KV & above
voltage system
A bundle of 4 moose conductor is used on 400 KV bus and a bundle of 2 moose conductors is
used on 400KV lines.

Ques : 10 : What is skin effect ?

In AC, the current density near the surface of conductor is higher than that at the axis due to
internal flux linkage
The non uniform current density causes higher current to flow near the surface of the conductor
than near the core of the conductor.
This is called skin effect
Skin effect causes increase in DC resistance of the conductor
Skin effect is more predominant at higher frequencies
Skin effect is absent in DC

Ques : 11 : What is proximity effect ?

The current density in a conductor depends on the internal flux distribution

When a AC conductor is placed in parallel with another conductor , the current distribution in both
the conductor gets modified such that AC current density on the side nearer to the other conductor
is lesser than that at the other end.
This is called proximity effect
The proximity effect causes increase in the effective DC resistance.

Ques : 17: What is BIL ? Explain

BIL : Basic Insulation Level

It indicates the ability of the insulation of the equipment to withstand the electrical stresses.
It is the combination of rated voltage, the corresponding impulse withstand voltage and
corresponding power frequency withstand voltage which together categorize the insulation quality
of the equipment
For the sake of convenience the rated insulation of a equipment is designated by rated voltage and
impulse withstand voltage.

Ques: 19: Define: Ground Clearance

Distance between ground and the highest earthed point on equipment is called ground clearance.

Ques : 99 : What is the function of armour in cable ?

To protect the insulation and conductor from mechanical damage

Ques: 20: Define : Potential Gradient

The rate of change of electric intensity at a point along the direction of the field is called potential
gradient at that point
Its unit is volts/meter

Ques : 18: Explain : Creepage distance

It is the shortest distance between two conducting parts along the surface of the insulating material
Figure:

Creepage

Ques: 5 : Explain Insulation Resistance.

Insulation resistance (IR) of an electrical equipment refers to the resistance between conducting
part and earth.
It is expressed in M
It can also be measured between two circuits separated by insulation
It is measured by Megger. (500/1000/2500/5000V)
IR reveals quality of insulation of the equipment and the degree of dryness/ moisture.
The subsequent high voltage test can be avoided if IR is low.

Ques: 6 : Explain how Insulation resistance is measured

Megger consists of a built in mega ohm meter and a D.C. generator.

The generator is driven by hand or by a motor.
One terminal of megger is connected to conducting part and the other terminal is connected to
earth frame.
The rotor of the generator is driven by hand or motor.
The reading ( Vdc/ Idc) read by the megger gives IR value in M.
The scale of megger is graduated from 0 to in M.
When D.C. voltage is applied to the insulation, initially the insulation draws capacitive charging
current (Ic) in addition to leakage current( IL)
Initial megger reading Ro = Vdc / Idc = Vdc / ( Ic + IL)
After continuous application of D.C. voltage, the capacitive current reduces and only leakage
current continue.
Megger reading after 60 seconds will be R60= Vdc/Idc
Since IL Ic + IL, R60 Ro

Ques: 7 : What is P.I. ?

P.I. : Polarizing Index

It is the ratio of IR value measured for 10 minutes to 01 minute
i.e. P.I. = IR (10 minutes) / IR (01minute)
PI gives true idea about the quality of insulation

It gives a quantitative information about the insulation with respect to moisture, dirt and
contamination.
Its value depends on class of insulation of equipment
For class A , PI should be 1.5 and for class B insulation PI should be 2.0
PI less than one indicates a need for immediate reconditioning.

Ques: 8 : What are the differences between Insulation resistance & Earth resistance?
Insulation Resistance
Resistance measured between conducting
part and earth or between two circuits
separated by insulation
Measured by means of megger/ megaohm
meter
It is of the order of tens/thousands megaohms or
infinity for healthy insulation

It reveals quality of insulation of the

equipment and degree of dryness/
moisture.

Earth resistance
Measured for an earthed metallic body
or point
Measured by means of earth resistance
tester
For good effective earthing, the earth
resistance should be of the order of 0.5 to
2.0
It gives effectiveness of earthing system.

Ques:9: What is the difference between IR and PI ?

Insulation Resistance (IR)

Polarizing Index (PI)

IR of an electrical equipment refers to the

resistance measured between conducting
part and earth or between two circuits
separated by insulation

It is the ratio of IR value measured for

10 minutes to 1 minute

It is expressed in M
It is of the order of several tens/ thousand
M or infinity for healthy insulation

It reveals quality of insulation of the

equipment and the degree of dryness/
moisture
The subsequent high voltage test can
be avoided if IR value found is low

IR (10 minutes )
i.e. PI= --------------------IR (1 minute )
It being a ratio, it is unit less
Its value depends on class of insulation of
equipment. For class A insulation, PI should
be 1.5 and for B class, PI should be 2.0
It gives quantitative information about the
insulation with respect to moisture, dirt and
contamination
PI 1 indicates need for immediate
reconditioning

Ques: 2 Explain one and a half breaker scheme of bus bar arrangement

Schematic drawing:
Circuit-I

Circuit-II
Breaker-3

Bus-I

Bus-II
Isolator Breaker-1

Generally utilized in EHV sub stations (400KV and above)

Needs three breakers for two circuits

Breaker-2

Isolator

The number of breakers per circuit is 1. Hence, the name is given as one and a half breaker
scheme.
breaker is more per circuit
Such arrangement is particularly suitable for switchyard in large generating stations where very
high power block is to be handled by individual circuit ( say 500MW)
In GEB, one and a half breaker arrangement scheme is at Wanakbori TPS on 400KV circuits.
In PGCIL, it is at Dehgam S/S.
The higher cost is justified because of higher security and bypass facility.
Either of the two buses (Main bus I or Main bus II) can be taken out of service for maintenance
Any circuit can be switched off for the purpose of maintenance without the provision of bypass
Bus failure does not remove any circuit from service.

Ques: 3 Explain Three bus system of bus bar arrangement

schematic Arrangement
Transfer Bus
Main Bus-I
Main Bus-II

Isolator-89A

89B

89C

Breaker

89D

Line

Presently in all EHV sub station

Three buses- Main-I, Main-II & Transfer Bus
Low initial & ultimate cost
Any breaker can be taken out of service, one at a time, for maintenance or in case of fault,
keeping the feeder in service
Requires one extra bay of Transfer bus with separate breaker for clearing the faults on transferred
load

Ques : 24: Difference between Type test & Routine test

Type test

Routine Test

Intended to check the design characteristics

Of one unit of equipment i.e. performed to
Confirm its performance as per design & ratings
Are performed on a single unit of equipment
Of one type, manufactured by a firm to a given
Specifications

Performed on each & every unit of one

type of equipment to confirm/ensure with
the type tests since identical in design
Are made on every unit before it leaves
factory to ensure that it is in accordance with
the specifications.

Ques : 25: Explain the principle of Power transformer

A transformer consists of a closed magnetic core and two or more windings

When one of the windings( primary) is connected to AC supply, AC magnetic flux is produced in
the core
The flux linkage of other winding on the same core changes due to alternating nature of the flux in
the core
Thereby e.m.f. is induced in the other winding called secondary winding
The e.m.f. is induced in the transformer by electromagnetic induction effect of alternating
magnetic flux.

Ques : 26: What is an auto transformer ? What are its advantages and its limitations?

In auto transformer, a single winding is used for primary and secondary circuits
The volt amperes of primary winding is equal to the volt amperes of secondary winding

Advantages:

Since the same winding is used for primary and secondary, it requires less material for the same
output than that required by two winding transformer
Used in 400KV class power transformers ( capacity 315 MVA/500MVA) and some time also for
220KV class power transformers
Used as a Variac in different electrical testing

Limitations:

Low impedance much lesser than that of two winding transformer. Hence, high short circuit
currents for short circuits on secondary side.
In auto transformer, if section of winding common to primary and secondary is opened, full
primary voltage will come across secondary, resulting in higher voltage on secondary causing
chances of accidents.

Ques : 27: What are the essential requirements for parallel operation of two or more power
transformers ?

The polarity should be the same

The voltage ratio should be the same
The percentage impedance should be the same
The phase sequence (rotation) should be the same
The vector diagram and the phase displacement should be the same

Ques : 28: Why should the voltage ratio of the transformers for parallel operation be same?

If voltage ratios are not identical, for the same primary voltage, the secondary voltage would be
different
It would result in circulating current within the secondary circuits and heating of transformer even
on no load

Ques : 29: Is it essential to have same rated KVA/MVA for two transformers for parallel operation?
OR
Why impedance of parallel transformers be the same?

No
But their % impedance should be nearly equal
If % impedance are equal , the loading of these transformers would be proportional to their KVA
rating

If % impedance not same, the load sharing will not be proportional to KVA ratings
As % impedance cannot be exactly equal, it is preferable to operate transformers of same rating in
parallel
As a general rule, ratio of KVA rating of transformer operating in parallel should be within 3:1

Ques : 30: What is the function of Conservator ?

The conservator is connected to the transformer tank by means of a pipe

During alternating load cycles, the oil of the transformer expands and contracts
The conservator volume is used as a cushion for accommodating expansion of oil during high
loads

Ques : 31: What is the function of Breather ?

Fitted between the air space of conservator and outside vent for power transformer
The breathing of transformer during load cycles takes place through breather.
Filled with silica gel
The silica gel absorbs moisture
When the load increases, the load expands and the air from the conservator is expelled
During reduced load, the oil level in conservator falls down and the atmospheric air is breathed in
This incoming air is taken through silica gel breather or activated alumina breather
Silica gel absorbs moisture
Dry silica gel is blue and turns pale pink as it absorbs moisture
Wet silica gel can be reactivated /regenerated by drying

Ques : 32: State the functions of tertiary

To suppress the third harmonic voltages which would other wise appear on the system
Provide a path for third harmonic currents to avoid interference with telephone circuits
Tertiary often used to provide station power requirements or tie with synchronous condensers

Ques : 66: What is polarity of transformer winding ?

Polarity of winding refers to positive and negative terminals with reference to induced voltage

Ques : 67: What are the main causes of insulation deterioration ?

Moisture contamination
Dirt
Excessive heat in contact with oxygen

Ques : 68: State the characteristics of transformer oil

Free of suspended particles, water soluble acids and bases, active sulfur and colloidal carbon
Free of moisture as it lowers the dielectric strength
Low viscosity has more fluidity and give better cooling, shorter opening time
High flash point (145C)

Ques : 69: What is the thermal time constant of a transformer ?

The time required for a transformer loaded at rated KVA and with constant temperature of cooling
medium to reach steady temperature is called time constant of the transformer
It is expressed in hours
For transformer capacity above 10 KVA,
For 11KV voltage class, it is 2.5 hours
For 33KV voltage class, it is 2.75 hours

For 66 KV voltage class, it is 3.0 hours

For 132KV and above, it is 3.5 hours

Ques : 70 : What is the impedance voltage ? What is its significance ?

The impedance of a transformer is expressed in terms of impedance voltage

It is defined as the voltage required to be applied to the line terminals of a winding to cause rated
current to flow through these terminals, with the terminals of other winding being short circuited
It is also called short circuit voltage (Vsc)
The value is related to reference temperature
It is determined by conducting short circuit test
Expressed as % of rated voltage
% impedance in the range of 4.5% to 15%

Significance :

Determines the regulation and efficiency of a transformer

Its high value means higher impedance, higher voltage regulation, higher losses and lesser
efficiency

Ques : 57: Explain transformer losses

(1)Iron losses:

Due to eddy currents and hysterisis

Iron losses can be reduced by using superior quality of cold rolled silicon iron sheets
No load/core loss/open circuit loss/iron loss is specified at rated voltage
Iron loss can be obtained from open circuit tests

(2) Copper loss :

I2R loss resulting in the windings

Can be reduced by using sufficient cross sections of copper for construction of winding/s
Load loss/copper loss/short circuit loss is specified at rated current
Copper losses can be obtained from short circuit test without operating the transformer on load

Ques: 58: Why core of transformer is laminated ?

OR
How eddy current loss is minimized ?

Core laminated to reduce iron losses

Eddy current circulating in the core is proportional to square of the thickness of lamination
If the thickness of lamination is reduced, eddy current losses and hence heating of core is reduced
Thin cold rolled grain oriented silicon iron sheets are used for core lamination

Ques : 59: How the hysterisis loss is minimized ?

By using laminated steel sheets of high grade grain oriented steel sheets
Laminated surface is subjected to in organic insulation treatment
The insulating varnish ensures insulation between the surface

Ques : 60: State the significance of no load circuit losses( iron losses)

The defects in magnetic circuit of the transformer, cause an increase in the no load current and
losses
Hence, efficiency reduces and may lead to excessive over heating and reduction in the life span

Ques : 61: What is the condition of loading for maximum efficiency of a power transformer and its
significance ?

Efficiency is maximum at a load factor at which iron losses are equal to copper losses
Efficiency changes with load factor
The average load factor of a typical power transformer used in distribution system is about 0.5
and those used in generating station and major sub station is 0.8
For maximum efficiency with 50% load factor, copper losses should be 4 times the iron losses
Even on higher loads, the efficiency would be above 96 %
The efficiency reduces rapidly at lower loads than the load for maximum efficiency
While designing a transformer, the weight of iron and copper are selected such that copper loss is
equal to iron loss for average transformer load factor. This ensures high during the operation

Ques : 62: State various losses occurring in a power transformer

Core loss : resulting from the alternating core magnetization

Dielectric loss : resulting in insulating material, oil & solid
IR loss: resulting in the windings
Load ( stray ) loss : largely the result of leakage magnetic field including the eddy currents in the
tank walls and conductors

Ques : 33: Explain Harmonics

A non sinusoidal waveform can be considered to be composed of several sinusoidal waveforms of

fundamental frequency and other harmonic frequencies
The frequency of nth harmonic is nth times fundamental frequency
Even harmonics, such as 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc.
Odd harmonics , such as 3rd , 5th, 7th, etc.
The r.m.s. value of nth harmonic is 1/nth of r.m.s. value of fundamental

Ques : 34: What are the causes of harmonics ?

Caused by the use of high flux densities in the core of the transformers
If the core is of insufficient cross section, the core gets saturated
Secondary waveform may be non sinusoidal because of magnetic core
Hence the primary requirement of transformer is to provide a sinusoidal secondary voltage
waveform which is achieved by
(a) providing sufficient cross section of core and
(b) Achieving operating point in the linear region of B/H curve.

Ques: 35: What are the disadvantages of harmonics ?

Harmonic currents cause additional I2R loss , core loss, magnetic interference with protective
relays and interference in communication circuits
Harmonic voltage causes increased dielectric stresses, interference with communication circuits
and resonance between inductance of transformer winding and the capacitance of the transmission
line.

Ques : 112: What is the function of circuit breaker ? Mention different types of circuit breakers

It is an automatic switching off device

It offers quick and reliable protection to the power system under fault conditions

Different types of circuit breakers :

SF6 circuit breakers

Air blast circuit breakers
Vacuum circuit breakers
Bulk oil circuit breakers
Minimum oil circuit breakers

Ques : 113: State advantages of SF6 circuit breaker

SF6 breakers gradually replacing the conventional oil & air blast circuit breakers especially at
voltage rating 132KV and above due to its following merits
(a) The closed circuit gas cycle coupled with low gas velocity gives noise less operation
(b) Outstanding arc extinguishing properties result in very short arcing times and hence less
contact erosion
(c) Drastically reduction in electrical clearances due to its excellent insulating properties
(d) As totally enclosed and sealed from atmosphere, practically suitable for use in coal mines or in
any such environments where explosion fire hazards exist

Ques : 114: Explain Vacuum circuit breakers

Vacuum is used as quenching medium

The interrupters are housed in vacuum jar VCB
At present, used only up to 22KV voltage class due to its limitations of vacuum interrupters
Vacuum bottle is hermetically sealed

Ques : 41: Why secondary circuit of C.T. should never be opened ?

With the secondary shorted:

The primary current of a C.T. is independent of its secondary loading

With the secondary shorted (directly or through the connected burden), the counter flux produced
by the secondary keeps the core flux below the saturation level

With the secondary open :

Secondary of CT should never be open circuited when current is flowing in the primary winding
If the secondary gets open circuited with the primary carrying current, the entire primary m.m.f.
(ampere turns) is spent in magnetizing the core, producing saturation
This results in increased secondary E.M.F. with the voltage shooting up to very high value
depending upon the primary current level and the working/saturation flux levels

Effects of open circuiting

This secondary voltage may be sufficiently high to puncture the insulation

The primary and the core also get over heated
It presents the hazard of a dangerous high voltage shock to anyone who may come in contact with
the open circuit secondary

Ques: 42: Define: VA burden of a CT

VA burden is the total secondary load expressed in VA at rated secondary current (IS -2705)
Burden imposed by secondary leads also be considered , if substantial

Ques : 44: Define: Instrument Security Factor

Instrument Security Factor (ISF) is the ratio i.e.

ISF= Primary current beyond which, secondary current has an error more than 10% on ve side

Rated Primary current

Ques : 43: Define: Knee point voltage
OR

Explain: Magnetizing characteristic curve of CT:

Saturation
Vk
Exciting
Voltage

Knee point

Linear region
Ankle point

Exciting Current

The magnetizing characteristic of a CT is a plot between the secondary applied voltage and the
corresponding magnetizing current taken by the CT
It is the voltage on the secondary excitation characteristic beyond which a 10 % increase in
secondary EMF, would cause 50% increase in exciting current

Ques : 45: How the polarity of CT is determined ?

Figure:

Battery

P1

P2

Ip
Is

S1

S2
A

Apply momentary battery voltage across P 1 & P2 as in figure

If the ammeter connected on the secondary shows deflection, then polarity will be S 1 & S2 on the
secondary side as shown in the figure

Ques : 115: Give classification of CTs

OR
State different cores of CT with application of each core
There are three types of CTs
Measuring CTs
Protection CTs
Protection CTs for special applications
Ques :116 : How measuring CT is specified?
Measuring CTs (Governed by IS 2705-1992, Part-II)

Specified in terms of
(a) Accuracy class ( 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 3 and 5)

(b) VA rating (15)

(c) ISF (Instrument Safety Factor) (3.0)
For metering ( 0.5 class for revenue metering)
Ques :117 : How Protection CT is specified?
Protection CTs (Governed by IS 2705-1992 Part-III)

Specified in terms of
(a) Standard Error class ( 5P, 10P, 15P): 5P10 means +- 5% error at 10 times rated sec currents
(b) VA rating (5, 10, 15, 30)
(c) ALF (Accuracy Limit Factor) (5, 10, 15, 20, 30)
For IDMT O/C and E/F relays , error class : 5P/10P
Ques :118 : How PS Class CT is specified?

Specified in terms of
(a) Knee point voltage(Vk) Say 100 Volts for CT ratio of 100/1
(b) Magnetizing current (Im) at Vk Say 30 milliamps at Vk/2
(c) CT secondary resistance (RCT) 1.0 ohm
For bus bar protection

Ques: 119: Why 5P/10P class CTs are not used for special application/ B/ B Protection ?

5P/10P class CTs are used for non balanced protections like IDMT O/C and E/F relays
For special application/ for balanced protection like circulating current differential (bus bar
protection), where balance is required between the associated CTs with close tolerance, amount of
error with 5P/10P Class CTs cannot be allowed

Ques : 121: How choice of CT secondary rating is decided ?

5 Amp Secondary:

Preferred where lead burden is insignificant

In indoor switchgear cubicle with closely located relays
Where primary ratings are very high, say 10,000/5 A
Comparatively low peak voltage when secondary gets open
Fine turns ratio adjustment is not possible particularly with bar primary CTs or low primary
rating(25/5 A)
1 A Secondary :

Preferred where CTs are out door and lead burdens are high
Comparatively high peak voltage when secondary is open
Fine turns ratio adjustment possible

Ques : 101 : Give difference between Dead tank C.T. & live tank C.T.

Dead tank CT

Live tank CT

The windings are mounted at the bottom

of the tank of CT
The tank of the CT is at dead potential

The windings are mounted at the bottom of the

tank of CT
The tank of the CT is at live potential

Ques :120 : Explain CBCT (Core Balanced CT ). Give its applications

CBCTs are used for sensitive E/F protections

With residual CT connections using phase CTs, unbalance is produced due to unequal error s in
the phase CTs
In CBCT, the core encloses all the 3 phases or also the neutral in case of 4 wire system
Hence high earth fault sensitivity can be obtained irrespective of the single phase unbalance
Figure :
Core

3 or 3 core cable

Secondary Winding
Relay
Applications:

Sensitive E/F protection of motors

Sensitive E/F protection of the non-effectively grounded systems
Sensitive E/F protection of ungrounded system (Based on unbalanced capacitive current detection)

Ques :122 : Give classification/types of PT. How PTs are specified ?

Classification of PTs:

Metering PTs: Governed by IS 3156 1992 Part-II: ( Class 0.1,0.2, 0.5, 1, 3 )

Protection PTs: Governed by IS 3156 1992 Part-III: ( Class 3P ,6P )
Residual PTs: class 5P, 10P

Specification of PTs:

Voltage ratio
Accuracy class
Rated VA burden
Rated voltage factor

Typical illustration:

11000/3 V/110/3 V, class : 1.0, VA : 50 , VF : 1.2 continuous/ 1.5 for 30 seconds

Ques: 123 : Name the various types of PT connections

V-V
Star/Star
Star/Open delta

Ques : 124 : Explain V-V connection of PT

Generally used for

(a) Measurement and

(b) For those protections which do not require phase to neutral voltage input
2 PTs are used
Primary of the PTs are connected in V with identical V-connection for the secondary
i.e one PT primary across R-Y phases and the other across Y-B phase
In this connections Zero sequence voltage cannot be produced

Ques : 125: Explain Star/Star connection of VT

Either 3 separate single phase VTs or a single 3 phase, 3 limb VT is used

Both primary and secondary are connected in star with both star neutrals are solidly grounded
Each primary phase limb is thus connected between phase to earth of the supply circuit and
replicated similar phase to earth voltage on the secondary
Enables both phase to phase and phase to neutral distribution of the connected burdens

Ques : 126: Explain : Star/Open delta connection of VT

Primary connected in star with star neutral solidly grounded

Secondaries are connected in series to form an open delta as in figure
Requires either 3 single phase VTs or a single 3 phase 5 limb VT
Figure:

R
Y
B

V1
V2

V2
V1
Relay

This type of residual connection is used for

(a) Polarising directional E/F relays
(b) For E/F detection in non-effectively grounded or isolated neutral systems

Ques : 116: Why CVT/CCVT are preferred for EHV system ?

Due to lower cost

It serves the dual purposes of a coupling capacitor for carrier communication as well as PT
It occupies less space compared to electro magnetic Potential Transformer

Ques : 117: State the different cores with their class of accuracy utilized for PT/CVT
Measuring core:

For measuring the voltage, the accuracy is to be kept within 80% to 120% of rated voltage with
class of accuracy under 0.5 and 1.0
For specified phase displacement to be maintained, class 3.0 is required

Protection core :

 With an accuracy of 3.0 or 5.0 between 5% to 10%

For ground fault relaying, an additional core connected in open delta
Ques: 46: Name the PLCC coupling devices. What is the main purpose of these elements ?

Co-axial cable
Line matching unit
CC/CVT
Wave Trap
Three element protective devices:
(a)Earth switch
(b)LA
(c)Drainage coil

Purpose of coupling element

To isolate the carrier equipment from high voltage

To provide low impedance path for carrier frequency

Ques : 47: Name equipments associated with Line Matching Unit

OR
Give functions of Line Matching Unit (LMU)

Following associated equipments are associated with LMU to give desired transmission
characteristic
(a) High frequency Transformer
(b) Additional coils
(c) Capacitors
The latest models are available with programmable frequency bands and impedances
The modulated signal from the carrier transmitter is led over low pass high frequency cable to the
Line Matching Unit
It matches the output impedance of the carrier set (75 to 125 ) with that of overhead
transmission line

Ques : 48: Give functions of wave trap/ line trap

The wave trap is connected in series with the line after the line isolator below the gantry
Its function is to confine the high frequency currents to the outgoing power line and block them
to enter into the station side equipment
Rated to withstand full load current and short time circuit current
It offers low impedance to 50 c/s power currents and high impedance to high frequency currents
Inductance of wave trap varies from 0.1 mH to 1.0mH
Up to 220KV suspension type and for 400KV pedestal type wave traps are used

Ques : 49: Give functions of CC/CVT

CC : Coupling Capacitor, CVT : Capacitor Voltage Transformer

The capacitance of CC varies normally between 4400PF to 6600PF
It has to withstand normal power line voltage and over voltage surges
It consists of oil impregnated paper elements connected in series
CVT is used for double purpose of CC(PLCC) plus voltage transformer
CC/CVT offers high impedance to 50 c/s current and low impedance to HF/carrier frequencies
current

Ques : 50: Name the protective devices used in PLCC. Give function of each

PLCC : Power Line Carrier Communication

Earth switch
LA
Drainage coil
Earth switch : Provided to ground the system whenever any work is to be done on coupling side
LA : Provided for protection against over voltage surges. It sets to operate at something less than
1 KV
Drainage coil : Used to bypass the 50 c/s charging current to earth. It offers low impedance to
power frequency and high impedance to high frequency

Ques : 52: What are the advantages of neutral earthing ?

Elimination of arcing ground

Lesser stresses on insulation during earth fault
Easy and reliable earth fault protection

Ques : 53: Why the power system grounding is needed ?

For providing an uniform electric potential in all non current carrying parts of the structure &
equipments
Ensuring that the operators and attendants are always working at the same electrical potential
Achieving the low uniform potential gradient through out the grounding system
This will reduce the chances of large potential difference between reasonable stride/distance
Avoid risk of electric shock or injury to attendants during short circuit or other abnormal
occurrences

Ques : 54: Mention the treatments applied for improving earth resistance

The common treatments adopted are

(a)Embedding the earth electrodes in coke or charcoal and injection of electrolyte such as salt
solution
This helps to improve the electrical conductivity of the soil surrounding the electrodes and reduce
their resistance to an appreciable extent
(b) Counter-poise earthing
(d) Application of interconnected grid
Ques : 55 : Give various forms of electrodes used for grounding

Driven rods
Buried conductors
Buried plates
Incidental grounding electrodes such as water pipes, penstocks, draft tubes, etc

Ques :56 : Give various earthing methods adopted for industrial generator/ electrical network

Solid earthing
Resistance earthing
High impedance earthing
Grounding transformer earthing

Ques : 55: What are the disadvantages of conventional method of improving the earth resistance by
injection of coke & salt solution ?

It sometimes adversely affect the ground system in so much as certain types of coke and salt
corrode the earth electrodes
The effect of treatment with salt solution is also not permanent as the salt would be gradually
washed away due to rains and soil erosion and hence require replenishment at intervals

Ques : 57 : Define : Ground mat

A Grounding mat is a metallic mat so constructed and connected to the grounding system as to
provide an operating area that is at the same potential as all nearby grounded structures and
equipments

Ques : 58 : Define : Counterpoise grounding system

A counterpoise is a grounding electrode system, installed at ground level or embedded in the earth
and connected to grounding system for the purpose of reducing the ground surge impedance of the
system

Ques : 56: Explain the method of artificial treatment of soil for reducing earth resistance with
Bentonite

Bentonite is a clay like material used for reducing earth resistance

It is generally used in foundries
Tremendous capacity to retain moisture
Quite economical as it is available at a cheap price
Application is simple
The treatment is of permanent nature, as the % reduction in earth resistance remains constant
through out the year
It is better to apply in cases where the soil resistivity is of the order of 300 or above
The reduction in earth resistance of earth electrode is substantial ( Average reduction is 50% and
as high as 80%)

Ques : 22: Is Earth wire essential for overhead lines ? Why ?

Yes
Earth wire protects the distribution and transmission lines from direct lightning stroke
It is placed above all the other line conductors and provide shielding from lightning strokes
It is connected to the earthed tower at each tower location
The lightning strokes strikes the earth wire first and is diverted to earth instead of striking the
transmission line.
A mesh of overhead ground wires is provided in s/s to protect the s/s equipment from direct
lightning strokes.

Ques : 23: What is the use of lightning masts vis a vis overhead earth wires ?

Lightning masts are used in sub stations as an alternative shielding wires against lightning strokes
Tall structures with a vertical rod on the top
This rod is connected to the earth mat
Zone of protection covers a certain part of s/s
Adequate nos. of masts are installed to entire s/s
Lightning masts system is costlier than overhead earth wires

Ques : 63: What is called Ferranti effect ?

When the line is on no load or low load, the receiving end voltage is generally higher than the
sending end voltage due to effect of shunt capacitance of the line called Ferranti effect
Shunt reactors or series capacitors are used to neutralize this ferranti effect while energizing the
of 400KV and above voltage class EHV lines

Ques : 64: What is shunt admittance of a transmission line ?

 The capacitance together with conductance forms the shunt admittance of the line
Ques :71: What are the points of special consideration for constructing EHV lines ?

Corona
Radio interference
Tele interference
Bundle conductors
Lightning protection
Line charging current
Clearances
Switching over voltages
Constructional aspects

Ques : 51: Explain function of arcing horns on transmission lines

The 220KV and above voltage class transmission lines are provided with arcing horns below the
insulator string
It is also provided on the power transformer below the bushing
In case of faults on the line, the gap between the horns sparks over, breaking the gap which causes
tripping of the line on earth fault
Thus the insulator string can be saved from flash over and damages on location of fault

Ques : 72: What are the applications of HVDC ?

Long distance high power high power transmission (say 1000 km ,1500 MW)
EHV submarine cable for power transfer across lakes or sea
Asynchronous the sub station between AC system

Ques : 73: What are the merits & demerits of HVDC ?

Merits
Economy
Reduced fault levels
Rapid power transfer
Cables
Voltage regulation
Asynchronous ties
Better control
Absence of skin effect
Tower size
Less number of conductors

Demerits
Costly & complex control
High cost of conversion
No intermediate stepping down or tap-off stations
Not suitable for distribution
Inverter (dc to ac )requires reactive power at leading power
factor as high as 50% of real power
DC circuit breaker not available
Parallel lines, Tee-off lines not practicable

*Ques : 74: What are the advantages of erecting EHV lines ?

Reduction in transmission loss as higher the transmission voltage lower will be the current, hence
less IR loss
With high voltage transmission, higher amount of power block can be transmitted
With high voltage, high power can be transferred for longer distances
Better voltage regulation
Improvement in quality of power for end users of particular area
Ques : 96 : Name the protection applied for line feeder protection

Distance protection
Back up protection- O/C & E/F

Ques:75 :Difference between Unit protection and Non unit protection

Unit Protection

Non unit protection

Zone of protection is not protection is not
correctly identified
The relay operates for particular fault only

A scheme where the zone of protection is

properly identified is called Unit Protection
The relay at one end may operate for any
faults in the feeder depending on its setting
No back up protection

e.g . Distance protection, O/C protection

Enjoys the advantage of having inherent

back up features
Bus bar protection, Restricted E/F

Ques : 77: Give brief details on Distance protection

Main protection generally provided on 132 KV and above lines

Working on the principle of impedance measurement
Compares local current with the local voltage at the relaying point
Local current provides the operating torque ( K1 I )
Local voltage provides the restraining torque ( K2V )
Under normal conditions, both these torques are equal
i.e K1 I2 = K2 V2 or
V2 / I2 = K1/K2 = K3
i.e. V/I = K3 =Z
Thus the relay operates for a constant value of V/I, which is an impedance Z
Since the impedance is proportional to the physical distance of the fault from the relaying point, it
measures distance to the fault, hence termed as distance relay
Figure: Impedance measuring with balanced beam relay
Zf
C.T.

Source
Breaker

Operating coil

Relay

VT
F
Fault
Vf= If Zf
Restraining coil

For a fault at far end, the relay measures Vf which is equal to the If Zf drop in the line
Therefore, the voltage to current ratio at the relaying point will be
If . Zf / If = Zf = impedance

Ques : 79: State the relays provided with typical distance protection scheme to obtain required
discrimination

Starter relays for fault detection

Impedance measuring relay
Time relays
Trip relays
The starting relays control the time relays for extending the reach of measuring relay into Z 2 or Z3
MHO types of starter are by far the best

Ques : 78: Why zone of protection ? State settings/reach for different zone of protection

Fault voltage changes gradually. Hence it is very difficult to measure voltage for the relay either
to trip or block
Further, there is always error in relay , CT , PT and actual measurement of line
Hence normal practice is to have zone of protection i.e, Z1, Z2, Z3, ZR

Setting/Reach of Zone protection:

Zone1 Reach: 80 % impedance of protected line

Time : Instantaneous
Zone2 Reach: 100% impedance of protected line+ 50% impedance of next adjacent shortest line
Time : 350 msec
Zone3 Reach: 100% impedance of protected line+ 100% impedance of next adjacent longest line
Time : 750 msec
Zone(R)Reach : Zone3 impedance x 0.1
Time : 750 msec

Ques : 97 : Name the types of distance protection applied in modern days

Impedance relay
Reactance relay
MHO relay
Quadrilateral characteristic relay ( Numerical relay)

Ques : 80 : Describe Impedance relay in brief

Dummy impedance in the relay is provided which is set equivalent to the line impedance (Z)
Fault current from secondary of CT is passed through this impedance
The voltage developed across the dummy impedance ( ZIf) is compared with the fault voltage (Vf)
If ZIf Vf , the relay operates
Its characteristic, if plotted on R-X diagram, would be a circle enclosing origin with radius equal
to the set line impedance (Z)

Figure:
+X

Z ZZ
Z
-R

+R

-X
Being non directional, also operates for faults behind the relaying point
So directional elements are added to operate it for faults in protected section, only
Figure:
+X
Relay operating area
with directional element
D
Z ZZ
Z
-R

+R
D

DD-Directional element

-X
Ques : 81: Describe MHO relay in brief

MHO relay can be applied for distance protection of all kinds of lines, except very short lines with
high fault current
In the electro mechanical version of the relay, an induction cup relay is used
Two pairs of opposite poles are provided in the induction cup unit
Two magnetic flux produced by the two pairs of poles generate eddy currents in the induction cup
When the fluxes are separated by both in time & space, either operating or restraining torque is
produced
Fault current I from CT secondary is fed through a dummy impedance set equal to protected line
impedance
The voltage developed across the dummy impedance is proportional to ZI
From this value, the fault voltage Vf from PT secondary is algebraically subtracted
The resultant voltage ZI ( Cos - ) Vf is applied to one pair of opposite poles and
The fault voltage Vf is applied to the other pair of opposite poles
The torque is proportional to Vf . ZI ( Cos - ) Vf
When it is positive, the relay operates in the trip direction
When it is negative , it operates in restrain direction
Under balance condition, the torque is zero
The operating characteristic would be a circle passing through the origin

Figure :

ZI cos (-)

X
I2

ZI
ZI

I1
I1 ZI-Vf

I1
I2
I2Vf

R
Vf

I2Vf
I1 ZI-Vf

- Fault voltage angle

1

- Angle of the line tan (X/R)

Ques : 82: Describe Reactance relay

Reactance relay is a better choice for protection of very short lines with high fault current
It measures a component of impedance Z i.e. Z Sin
It operates for constant value of X
Its characteristic is straight line parallel to R axis
The relay is polarized by fault current
It is practically independent of arc resistance in the fault impedance
But the relay is non directional and will operate even for small value of import of power
Hence the relay is bounded by MHO relay to give coverage for arc and directional discrimination
In the reactance relay, the torque is proportional to I . KI Vf cos ( -)
At balance KI2 = Vf . I cos ( - )
i.e. K= Vf / I . cos ( - )
= Z . cos ( - )
= Z sin

= X

( in the relay circuit V is shifted to make = 90 degree)

Figure :
Trip area
+X

+X

-R

+R
-X

Protected line

Zone-3
Zone-2
Zone1
A
60Zone1

+R

Ques : 83: Explain Quadrilateral Relay

It is nothing but a restricted reactance relay used in distance protection

In some of the static version of the quadrilateral relay, the reach of X and R direction can be set
independent of each other
Figure :

B- MHO relay

75

C-Quadrilateral relay

A- Under impedance relay with

directional element

Ques : 84: Explain Admittance MHO relay

It is used for distance protection of line

It operates for a constant value of component of Z i.e. Z/ Cos ( - )
Its characteristic is a circle passing through the origin having its diameter equals to setting
impedance Z/ Cos ( - )

Ques : 85: Explain Offset MHO relay

It is used for distance protection of line, particularly for zone-3
It is possible to get a characteristic that does not pass through the origin by mixing input quantities
to the MHO relay
Such a relay is known as Offset MHO relay
It is sometimes used as starters or carrier blocking relay
X
Figure :

Z1
ZR
o

R
Ques : 86: Define (1) Self polarized relay and (2) Cross polarized relay
(1) Self Polarized relay:

The relay with fault voltage as polarizing voltage is known as self polarizing relay
It is less prone to power swings/load encroachment due to its restricted coverage along the
resistive axis on the R-X plane

(2) Cross Polarizing relay :

The relay with the unfaulted phase voltage as polarizing voltage is known as cross polarizing relay
It provides increased tolerance to fault resistance since the characteristic expands along the
resistive axis for forward unbalance faults
Particularly suitable for short lines tied to weak sourceswhere the fault arc resistance is
comparable to line impedance

Ques : 87: Define (1) Under reach (2) Over reach

Under Reach:

Ques : 88: Describe the distance protection Numerical relay RELZ in brief :

Purely a numerical relay wherein 5 currents and 4 voltages are converted from analog to digital at
the rate of 40 samples per period and stored in memory
Every millisecond, the reactance and resistance are calculated from voltage and current signals and
compared with the settings stored in the memory
When the calculation values are lower than setting value, trip signal is released
However, a total of 15 such trip signals are required to release the final trip output
Each current and voltage is sampled 40 times per period
Eight microprocessors carrying out following functions
Processor 1: to calculate phase to earth loop impedance
Processor 2: to calculate phase to phase loop impedance
Processor 3: to check for direction
Processor 4: For phase selection, power swing direction, weak infeed, switch on to fault, fuse
failure protection, etc
Processor 5: for directional over current
Processor 6: For fault locator
Processors 7 and 8 : For additional zone protection

Advantage :

The data available can readily be utilized for calculation of distance to fault,
recorder & integrated SCADA function

disturbance

Ques : 75: Explain carrier protection

Distance protection applied in conjunction with signaling channel, provides selective and high
speed protection for the line

It also provides a time delayed backup to the adjoining lines through the second and third zone,
thereby, combining the advantages of a unit as well as non unit protection
Distance protection is interconnected at both the end of a line by a carrier link, the carrier
operating either in tripping or blocking mode
Fault in within 80% of the line section i.e in Z1, it is cleared instantaneously.
But the balance 20% of the fault is cleared after a time delay (about 350mSec)
In EHV system of 220KV and above, this delayed clearance of fault may create instability in the
system, particularly if the fault is three phase
Hence it is always better that the fault is cleared instantaneously at both the ends
To achieve this carrier aided distance protection tripping is employed to cnvert Z 2 fault in Z1
timing i.e. to make it instantaneous
The different methods of carrier aided scheme are:
(a)Carrier Inter-trip under reach
(b)Carrier Inter-trip over reach
(c)Carrier Acceleration
(d) Carrier Blocking

Circuit diagram
Wave Trap

Coupling capacitor

Protective tap

Filter circuit
Drainage coil
Co axial
cable
From control ckt
T R
To
output
circuit

Ques : 76:Give difference between Carrier Inter-trip under reach and carrier blocking scheme of
carrier protection
Carrier Inter-trip under reach

Carrier blocking

Pulse transmission takes place when

there is fault in the line section
Signaling is initiated and maintained for
internal fault
There is one relay for each zone (Z1, Z2, Z3)

Signaling arrangement:

Pulse transmission takes place when the line

section is fault free
Signaling is initiated and maintained for
external fault
In addition to the normal Z1, Z2 & Z3
Elements, one additional reverse looking
relay ZR is provided at each end
Signaling arrangement:

i.e signaling is initiated by Z1 element

Tripping is faster than blocking scheme

Problem of attenuation and need for more

Signaling is initiated and controlled by ZR

reverse looking relay
Tripping is slower as pick up of ZR is slow.
Problem of attenuation is less as signal is

transmission of power as signaling takes

place over a faulted line
Ques : 89: Describe Bus bar protection in brief

always to be sent over healthy line.

For internal bus fault

It has been found from experience that when a fault occurs on the busbars, it is cleared by the
inverse time O/C and E/F relays provided on LV side of the transformer.
Due to gradation with out going feeders , the busbar faults are cleared after a long time during
which the transformer may damage
A bus fault tends to be more severe with respect to safety of personnel, system stability & damage
B/B protection relays works on the principle of differential current
During no fault, the current entering and leaving the bus are equal and differential current is zero
In case of internal fault, the equilibrium is disturbed operating B/B protection isolating all the
connected feeders to the faulted bus
High speed of relay operation (within 2 msec) to avoid CT saturation (as fault current is high)

Ques : 90 : Explain : CT switching

Employed with bus bar protection

In case of multi bus (2 bus/3 bus) arrangement , CT secondary of incoming/outgoing circuits are
required to be switched to form a replica of the primary bus arrangement to achieve discrimination
Done by using the bus isolator auxiliary contacts of individual circuits or by using separate contact
multiplication relays

Ques : 90 : Give difference between bus bar protection scheme with only main zone and the scheme
with main zone and check zone
Scheme with only Main zone

Scheme with Main zone and Check zone

Busbar protection with only one core/zone

has inherent disadvantages with regard to
reliability & stability during through faults

Scheme with only one CT core/ main zone,

the basic sensitivity is poorer than the load
current.
The setting must be more than expected
load current on any feeder to avoid
mal operation
Current inputs from various feeders/
incomers is fed through CT switching
relay operating through auxiliary contacts of
bus isolator

Scheme involving two separate CT cores

one feeding the main zone and the other
feeding the check zone provides more
security and stability
Sensitivity will be high as check zone is
the supervising zone

With such scheme setting much lower

than the load current is possible
No CT switching is involved as Check
zone is common to the whole busbars

Ques : 91 : What are the benefits of providing check zone in bus bar protection

It enhances security in Multi-bus installation where CT switching becomes inevitable for zonal
discrimination
Provides sensitivity to internal faults and stability during through faults
It enables sensitive setting on the differential relay without the risk of mal operation with CT open
circuiting under maximum load condition
The contacts of main and check differential relay are connected in series so that tripping is
conditioned by simultaneous operation of both for an internal fault
The chances of open circuiting both the cores of CTs simultaneously is very remote.
Nuisance tripping can be reduced considerably by employing a check zone

No CT switching is involved in check zone. The check zone being common to the whole multi
bus, there is no need for switching the current inputs from various incomers/feeders

Ques :92: Explain brief on LBB protection

LBB : Local Breaker Back up protection

Provided with each circuit breaker, line or transformer
To take care of failure of mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic equipments in the circuit breakers ,
the link in the tripping chain which cannot be duplicated
LBB operates only if, the trip command from the associated trip relay fails to trip the associated
circuit breaker ( except manual tripping)
Subsequently, all the breakers connected on the concerned bus with defective breaker get tripped
with LBB operation
Figure : Basic LBB tripping arrangement :
+ve
Back
Tripping
supply

M-I

I/L

LBB

Link

-ve

2
2

M-II
B/B

LBB operated alarm

Other protection

2-1
Trip remote end
circuit breaker
Lock out remote end
circuit breaker
over two separate channels

As can be seen from above drawing, all protections that trip circuit breaker shall initiate LBB relay
The trip relay contact in series with the LBB contact will initiate timer 2
The auxiliary contact of timer 2 will energize the self reset contacts relay 2x
The auxiliary contact of 2x are used for alarm and for trip and lock out of remote end breaker
over two separate channels
The LBB protection consists of two basic component (1) O/C check relay and (2) a timer
The O/C check relay verifies the presence/absence of current in the faulted circuit after a trip
command has been issued to the circuit breaker
If the current persists for a preset time, it is a sure sign that circuit breaker has failed to trip
LBB relay time settings should be coordinated with zone-II setting of distance relay
LBB time should be less than zone-II time
LBB time setting should be greater than below
Breaker opening time + reset time for current detector+ Margin time+ over travel & safety margin
For 400KV lines LBB time is about 175 msec
For 220 KV lines, it is equal to zone-II time minus margin of 200 msec (200 msec)

Ques : 93: Describe Auto reclose scheme in brief

In EHV system, majority of faults occurring in over head lines are of transient in nature
70 to 80 % of faults are of transient nature i.e. fault is removed after some time
In case of transient fault, if the line is disconnected from both the ends for a very short period, say
about 1 sec, to allow fault arc to de ionize and regain its dielectric strength, the line can be
recharged at both the ends immediately afterwards
The security of the supply system is thus enhanced considerably and the stability of system is also
maintained

Presently, auto reclose feature is applied with all 400 KV lines of GEB and 400KVinter state lines
Selection for auto reclose can be 1 or 3
In Indian conditions, 1 auto reclose is adopted
1 auto reclosing produces very much less tortional fatigue than 3 auto reclose
The main advantage of 1 auto reclose is that during the de-ionization time, when one phase is
opened, power transfer takes place through the other healthy phases & neutral and thus
synchonization is maintained
In order to reduce arc de-ionization time in 400KV system, reactance of sufficient capacity is
provided at both ends of line in all 3 and neutral, particularly for line length more than 200 Km

Ques : 98 : Name the additional functions/ features provided with modern Numerical relay

LBB protection
Auto-reclose
Carrier protection
Switch on to fault (SOTF) protection
Open conductor protection
Power swing blocking
Fuse failure protection
Weak infeed protection
Back up protection
Fault locator
Event logger
Self test monitoring

Ques : 94: Explain power swing ?

Power swing is a balanced 3 phase phenomenon produced following system fault/s

They are produced when the induced voltage of generators at different locations in an
interconnected system, slip relative to each other to adjust to the changes in power transfers ( in
magnitude and direction) following system fault
It is characterized by cyclic changes in current, voltage and power
The detection of power swing is achieved by monitoring the rate of change of impedance
The tandem variations in voltage and current during a swing presents a changing impedance to a
distance relay with the impedance locus moving away from the load area towards the relay
characteristic
The distance relay, is therefore prone to operate during a swing
Hence, the relay required to be blocked to allow the power system to return to stable conditions,
during recoverable swings

Ques : 95: Explain Power swing blocking

Power swing blocking provision/ feature with distance relay

For radial lines there is no necessity to have power swing blocking
The detection of power swing is achieved by monitoring the rate of change of impedance
The tandem variations in voltage and current during a swing presents a changing impedance to a
distance relay with the impedance locus moving away from the load area towards the relay
characteristic
The distance relay, is therefore prone to operate during a swing
Hence, the relay required to be blocked to allow the power system to return to stable conditions,
during recoverable swings
Since power swing is a balanced 3 phase phenomenon there is no residual current during a power
swing
However, if there is an E/F following a power swing, residual current is detected using a Neutral
Current level Detector (NCD)
In that case the power swing blocking is inhibited

The blocking is effective as long as the impedance locus stays within the PSB characteristic or
until a set time delay as required
A careful study is to be carried out for different generating conditions to decide at which point in
the system and on which line the breaker is allowed to trip under power swing condition
If under severe power swing conditions, if the relays are blocked at all points in the system, then
generator may pull out
If the power swing enters in the first zone of distance relay, the system may not be stable and it is
better the relay is allowed to trip

Ques : 99 : Explain SOTF feature provided with distance protection

SOTF : Switch-on to fault trip logic

To guard against eventuality of inadvertently earthing left in position-with a close up 3 fault
When a dead line is energized with its earthing clamps left inadvertently in position, after a
maintenance shut down, the associated distance protection is fed from line voltage transformer/s
activate SOTF trip
SOTF is activated after a short time delay of about 20 msec

Ques : 100 : What happens to a line if the PT fuse has blown in distance protection ? What provision
is made to safe guard against such eventuality?

The line will trip on distance protection, if not provided with feature of Fuse failure protection
Distance relays are primarily voltage restraint relays
It would tend to operate on load in the event of loss of PT supply due to say blown off secondary
fuse
To prevent undesirable tripping of line on load, the PT supervision logic with Fuse failure relay is
provided

Ques :101: Explain Weak End Infeed (WEI) protection provided with Distance protection

WEI trip takes place when phase voltage is low and local directional detector does not operate
To avoid mal operation of WEI, the voltage setting should be 20% lower than minimum expected
voltage
E.g. If the 400 KV voltage can go down to 300KV, the voltage setting for WEI will be
300- (300 x 0.2) = (300-60) = 240 KV

Ques : 85 : Explain : Fuse failure relay

Relay operates for 1, 2 and 3 fuse failure in the supervised circuits and for an interruption in
any of the cables or their associated fuses
When a fuse blows, the relay operates fast enough to inhibit the undesired operation of high speed
distance relays that could otherwise occur
Uses the principle of instantaneous amplitude comparison of two voltages
This is achieved with two voltages , one before the fuse and the other after the fuse
Under normal operating conditions, the two voltages give rise to zero resultant voltage, thus no
operation of relay
When the fuse blows out, the neutralizing effect is lost, hence relay operates

Ques : 81 : What is the purpose of using trip supervision relay

Used to supervise the trip circuit and provides alarm for

(a) loss for DC supply
(b) Faults on the trip coil or cables independent of breaker position
(c) Faults on the breaker aux. Contacts
(d) Faults in the supervision relay, itself

Ques : 82 : What is meant for transducers in electrical system?

Used for converting sinusoidal AC current ( voltage/ power/ phase angle) into DC current
( voltage/ power/ phase angle) which is proportional to the measuring range
The output DC current is linear, proportional and independent of load
The output current can be connected to several indicating instruments, recorders and data
transmission system

Ques : 100 : Give difference between Disturbance recorder & Event logger

Disturbance Recorder

Event Logger

Gives fault analysis in wave form

It operates and bring out wave form
fault analysis only in case of event
of fault on the line
From the wave forms of currents,
voltages and kind of faults operated,
both the timings and magnitudes
of fault current/s and fault voltage/s
can be judged from the spikes/
slumps on the wave form
Details based digital signals

Gives sequential time stampings for the events

It operates and bring out details of sequential events
with their respective time of operation occurred both
in case of fault as well as in fault less conditions
Only sequential timings of events can be known . The
details of magnitudes are not given

Details based on analogous signals

Ques : 102 : Name different protections applied with power transformer

Differential relays- against phase to phase & phase to earth faults

Restricted earth fault protection i.e. restricted zone HV/LV winding
Buchholz relay
WTI: Winding temp high alarm & trip
OTI: Oil temp high alarm & trip
Over flux: Stg-1 alarm , Stg-II trip
Back up protection: O/C & E/F relays
PRV protection
B/B protection
LBB protection

Ques : 103: What are the probable causes of failure of power transformer ?

Insulation break down

Aging of insulation
Over heating due to over load or reduced cooling
Contamination of transformer oil
Over excitation

Ques : 104 : What are the probable causes for operation of Buchholz alarm/ upper float ?

Core bolt insulation failure

Short circuited core laminations
Bad electrical contacts
Local over heating
Loss of oil due to leakage

Ingress of air into the oil system

Ques : 105 : What are the probable causes for operation of Buchholz trip/ lower float ?

Short circuit between phase

Winding E/F
Winding short circuit
Puncture of bushings

Ques : 106 : Name the power transformer tests to be conducted before commissioning

Drying out of transformer

Measurement of winding resistance
Measurement of IR value
Measurement of Magnetizing current
Short circuit test
Voltage ratio / Turn ratio test
Magnetic balance test
Tan delta for transformer & HV bushings
Circuit breaker tests through protective relays

Ques : 107 : What are the function of protective relaying?

To sound an alarm for operator to take remedial actions in case of temp rise,under/over voltage,etc
To disconnect faulty part as quickly as possible so as to minimize damage to the faulty part
To localize effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part causing minimum disturbance to the
healthy system
To improve the system stability and service continuity

Ques : 108 : What are the requirement of protective relay?

Reliability
Selectivity
Speed
Discrimination
Simplicity
Economy

Ques : 109 : Give classification relay on the basis of principle of operation

Electro- magnetic attraction relays

Induction type relays
Thermal relays
Static relays
Moving coil relays
Numerical relays

Ques : 110 : Give details of ZOA (Zinc Oxide Arrestor) in brief

ZOA: Zinc Oxide Arrestor

Presently, all conventional LA are replaced by ZOA due to its following superiority
(a)Absence of series gaps resulting in instantaneous response to surges
(b)Superior non linearity offers significantly increased degree of protection
(c)Much higher energy handling capacity
(d)Ease of parallel operation of several stacks

Its composition contained about 90 % of zinc oxide and a number of other metal oxides like
antimony, Bismuth, Cobalt, Chromium, etc
As all components are metal oxides, it is also referred as Metal Oxide Arrestors ( MOA)
Zinc oxide by itself is an n-type semiconductor
Its grains act as a source of electrons
The other oxides form a thin insulating film between the ZnO grains at very low current densities
At current density exceeding 1mA/cm2 , the electrical field in the inter-granular region is sufficient
to induce high field emission

Ques : 111 : Draw vector diagram for following

(1) Group1 connections of two parallel transformers (0 degree displacement- with 0 oclock )
(a) Yy0 (b) Dd0 (c) Dz0
(2) Group2 connections of two parallel transformers (180 degree displacement- with 6 oclock)
(a) Yy6 (b) Dd6 (c) Dz6
(3) Group3 connections of two parallel transformers (-30 degree displacement- with 1 oclock )
(a) Dy1 (b) Yd1 (c) Yz1
(4) Group4 connections of two parallel transformers (+30 degree displacement- with 11 oclock)
(a) Dy11 (b) Yd11 (c) Yz11

Answers:
(1) Group1: Connections of two parallel transformers (0 degree displacement with 0 oclock )
(a) Yy0 (b) Dd0 (c) Dz0

(a) Yy0
(b)Dd0
(c ) Dz0
A2
a2
A2
a2
A2
C
YN
C2

yn
B 2 c2

b2

C2

B 2 c2

c
B 2 c4

b2 C2

a
b

b4

(2) Group2: Connections of two parallel transformers (180 degree displacement- with 6 oclock)
(a) Yy6 (b) Dd6 (c) Dz6

A2

(a) Yy6
b1

(b) Dd6
A2 b1

c1

c1

A2

yn

c3
a

A a

YN
C2

(c ) Dz6
b3 b

B 2 a1

C2

B 2 a1

C2

B2 a a3

(3) Group3: Connections of two parallel transformers (-30 degree displacement- with 1 oclock )
(a) Dy1 (b) Yd1 (c) Yz1

(a) Dy1

(b) Yd1
a2

A2

a2

A2

c
c2

(c ) Yz1
A2
c4 c

a4
a
b

yn

yn

c2

YN

b
C2
C
B2
b2
C2
B2
b2
C2
B2
b4
(4) Group4: Connections of two parallel transformers (+30 degree displacement- with 11 oclock)
(a) Dy11 (b) Yd11 (c) Yz11

(a) Dy11
A2
A2

(b) Yd11
a2

a2

(c ) Yz11
A2
a4
a

b b4
c

b2
C
C2

A
B

B2

yn
c2

b2

YN
C2

a
B2

c2

YN
C2

B 2 c4 c

Ques :118: State sequence of operation for taking out the line under LC and bringing the line back in
service with respect to isolators, earth switch and breaker.
For line to be taken out of service under LC: (In consultation with opposite end of the line operator)

Switch off the circuit breaker

Open the bus isolator
Open the line isolator in consultation with opposite end of the line after confirming switching off
of the opposite end breaker
Close the earth switch provided with line isolator

For bringing back the line in service : (In consultation with opposite end of the line operator)

Open the earth switch provided with line isolator in consultation with opposite end of the line
Close the line isolator
Close the bus isolator
Close the line breaker

Ques : 119: Draw the layout of 5MVA, 66/11KV Power Transformer

66KV Bus
66kv bus isolator
66KV/110V PT
66kv breaker
66kv CT
66/11KV
5 MVA
Transformer
11kv indoor
breaker

11KV/110V indoor PT
11KV Indoor bus

Ques : 21: Give different methods of voltage control

Excitation control in generating stations

OLTC: On Load Tap Changer

Shunt reactor during low load while energizing long lines

Shunt capacitors during high loads and low power factor
Series capacitors in long EHV lines for compensation of series reactive inductance of the line.
( Also in distribution lines in certain cases of fluctuating loads)
SVC: Static VAR Compensators : For step less control of reactive power and voltage
Synchronous condensers: In receiving s/s for reactive power compensation
Ques : 120: Name the reactive power compensating equipments

Shunt capacitors
Shunt reactors
Series reactors
Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
Synchronous condensers

Ques : 121: Explain how shunt capacitors are used for reactive power compensation ?

During heavy loads/low power factor , the receiving end voltage is lesser than the sending end due
to higher voltage drop in inductive reactance of the line
Burden of reactive load under peak load conditions, further results in reduced voltage profile and
additional losses due to increased current in the network
Shunt capacitors to be installed between phase & neutral or between phases near load points for
improving power factor and for compensation of reactive power
They supply VARs of leading power factor improving power factor of the installation as shown in
figure below
Thereby the KVA loading of S/S transformer and current are reduced
Reduction in load current in the network results in reduction in transmission loss ( I 2R loss)
Reduction in IXL drop of the line improves voltage regulation
Thus line and transformer can supply more active power results in saving in MUs/ crores of rupees

Figure :

IC

KW

System voltage

2
1 KVA2
KVAR
KVA1
KVARL KVARC

KVARL= Inductive reactive power in the circuit provided by inductance of the line
KVARC= Capacitive reactive power provided by the capacitors
KVA1-KVA2= Saving in KVA demand after connecting capacitor
Cos ( 2-1)= Improvement in power factor
Limitation:

During low load, it may cause system voltage to shoot up damaging the insulation of the
equipments

Ques : 122: Explain how shunt reactors are used for reactive power compensation ?

Shunt reactors are used to control dynamic over voltages

(1) On both the ends of 400KV & above voltage class EHV lines having length greater than
equal to 200KM for compensation of shunt capacitance of the line during line energization /
low load and
(2) on 400KV and above voltage class bus for providing necessary reactive power support to the
line during sudden load rejection
The receiving end voltage of 400KV, 1000 km long line may be as high as 800KV
Shunt reactors provide a means of absorbing capacitive reactive power
Presently, line reactors are provided on 400KV Asoj-Amreli, Asoj-Indore ckt I&II, Kasor-Dhule
and bus reactors are provided on 400KV bus of all 400KV S/S

Figure:
291 km
400KV Indore( MP)

291 km
400KV Amreli

400 KV Asoj
R

Limitations :

Being fixed reactors, there is constant loss in the reactor as full feeder current flows through it ,
resulting in reduced power transfer on the line
Many reactors are required i.e. two per each 400KV & above line with length 200 KM

Ques : 123: Explain role of series capacitors in compensating reactive power

Used for 400KV and above long EHV lines for compensating series inductance of the line
Series capacitors neutralizes the effect of series inductance of the line
Power transfer ability of the line is increased
VS - VR
i.e P= ------------- x Sin
where XL = series inductive reactance of the line
XL XC
XC= reactance of series capacitors
= Power angle between VS & VR
Xc is usually 50 % of XL
Capacitor bank is installed in sub station in series with the transmission line

Figure:

Station A

Station B
Series capacitor bank

Transmission line

Limitations :

Not preferred and not very common. During short circuit, the short circuit current in the line flows
through the series capacitor causing high voltage drop and failure of capacitor unit

Instead of series capacitor, additional lines or lines of still higher voltage are generally preferred
However arrangement can be made using spark gap, by pass isolator, by pass breaker, etc. so that
voltage of capacitor bank does not rise to prospective peak during fault on the line
Ques : 124: Explain role of Static VAR Compensators (SVC) as reactive power compensator

One of the best methods to provide reactive power compensation and to provide stability against
transient tripping
Used in receiving sub station and distribution s/s for smooth & step less variations of
compensation of reactive power injected into the line
It has following features
(a) Thyristor control
(b) Capacitors brought into circuit during heavy or low power factor loads
(c) Inductor brought into service during no load/low load period

Limitations:

Pumping harmonics in the system

Ques : 125: Explain the role of Synchronous condensers/ Synchronous phase modifiers

Under excited Syn. m/c takes leading power factor current

By changing the excitation, the reactive power drawn/supplied by it is varied
During low loads, it operates with under excitation Synchronous condensers are load less
synchronous motors connected in receiving sub station to a line via a suitable transformer
It has wide variation of excitation control
During heavy loads, it operates with over excitation

Limitations :

Does not use in modern power system as

(a) It is power consuming
(b) It requires lot of maintenance

Ques : 38: Describe different protections applied for capacitor bank

External fuses (for 11KV) and Internal fuses (for 22/66/132 KV capacitor banks) of adequate
thermal capacity to take care of internal faults
IDMT over current & earth fault relay for over current and earth fault protection
Over voltage, instantaneous no voltage protection & power factor control
Neutral Current Transformer (NCT) for current unbalance detection in case of 22/66/132 KV
double star capacitor banks
Residual Voltage Transformer (RVT) for unbalance voltage detection of 11KV single star bank
as well as for quick discharge
Series reactors to limit parallel switching current and to reduce the effect of harmonics
Off load isolators/ load break switches to isolate capacitor banks
Capacitor switches for switching pole mounted capacitor banks
Discharge resistors to reduce residual voltage from crest value of rated voltage to 50 volts or less
within 05 minutes
Gapless ZOA (Zinc Oxide Arrestor) for protection against lightning
SF6 breaker for 66KV and vacuum circuit breakers for 11/22KV capacitor banks

Ques : 39: Explain RVT

RVT :Residual Voltage Transformer

For unbalance voltage detection of 11KV single star bank as well as for quick discharge

In case of failure of few capacitor cells, shifting of neutral voltage to appear across Neutral
Displacement Relay (NDR) higher than the set value tripping the breaker and isolating the
capacitor bank
For 22/66/132KV capacitor banks RVT protection is not provided as the current in that case, is
insignificant/insufficient to operate NDR

Ques : 40: Explain NCT

NCT: Neutral Current Transformer

For unbalance current detection in case of 22/66/132KV double star capacitor banks
NCT provided with turn ratio 1:1
NCT not provided for 11KV capacitor banks. Instead of it RVT is provided

Ques : 125: Name the critical parameters under KPI of Transmission

Operational/Management Indicators: Category-A:

Planning : Budget v/s Actual

System operation : % Availability of lines
% Availability of sub station
Network outages and faults
Efficiency : system losses
Safety

Category B:

Equipment failure
% availability of capacitor banks
Sub station inspection

Customer service Indicators

Number of new sub stations to be constructed

Number of new sub stations completed
Employee related

Ques : 65: Explain availability of transmission lines

It is an important operational critical parameter under KPI

Availability in relation to transmission system for a given period means the time in hours during
that period the transmission system is capable to transmit electricity at its rated voltage from
supply point to the delivery point
It is expressed in % of total hours in the given period
Presently under KPI availability of line is calculated as
(Total circuit.km.hours for the specified (Total non available ckt.km.hr
period )
for that period)
Availability of line= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x100
Total circuit -km-hours for the specified period
Non availability of lines caused due to grid disturbancy or high system voltage not to be
considered
Non availability of lines following contingencies due to acts of God and force majeure events
beyond the control of human being such as natural calamities are not to be considered
As per the norms of tariff for recovery of full transmission charges, the % availability of
transmission lines of voltage class 66 KV and above is 98 %.

Ques:

: How availability of transmission system is calculated as per CERC for fixation of tariff ?
% availability of the transmission system as per CERC for fixation of tariff
o x AVo + p x AVp + q x AVq + r x AVr + s x AVs + t x AVt
% availability = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ x100
o+p+q+r+s+t
Where o = Total no of AC lines
AVo= Availability of no of AC lines
p = Total no of HVDC Poles
AVp= Availability of no of HVDC poles
q = Total no of ICTs
AVq= Availability of no of ICTs
r = Total no of SVCs
AVr= Availability of no of SVCs
s = Total no of Switched bus reactors
AVs= Availability of no of switched bus reactors
t = Total no of HVDC back to back station blocks
AVt= Availability of no of HVDC back to back station blocks

GENERATION:
Ques: 01 : Explain Auxiliary Energy Consumption OR AUX. State its standard value for a thermal
Generating Plant.

It is an important operational critical parameter under KPI of Generation

In relation to a period, AUX means the quantum of energy consumed by auxiliary equipments of
the generating station
It is expressed as % of sum of gross energy in kWh generated at generator terminals

( Sum of gross energy in kWh generated at generator - (Energy in kWh delivered at the
terminals of all units of a generating station )
generating station switch yard)
i.e %Aux consumption = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ x 100
( Sum of gross energy in kWh generated at generator terminals of all units
of a generating station )

For a thermal generating plant, it should be less than 10 % as per CEA norms

Ques :02 : What are the values for Target Auxiliary consumption for recovering fixed cost as per
CERC ?

Target auxiliary consumption for tariff to recover fixed costs

(a) For coal based station:
With cooling tower
200 MW series
9.0 %
500 MW series( Electrical driven pumps)
9.0 %
500 MW series (Steam driven pumps)
7.5 %

Without cooling tower

8.5 %
8.5 %
7.0%

Note : For station with combined 200MW & 500MW series : weighted average of above value
(b) For Gas based & Naphtha based Generating station

Combined cycle : 3.0 %

Open cycle
: 1.0 %
During stabilization period , 0.5% more over &above the norms indicated at (a) & (b)

Ques : 03:What are the Benchmark value of Auxiliary consumption for different generating
station of GEB under KPI for the period April-04 to June-04 ?

Benchmark set for the quarter April-04 to June-04 for GEB generating stations on the basis of
performance level for the corresponding period of the previous year
Ukai 9.0%, GTPS- 10.15%, WTPS- 9.9 %, Sikka- 11.25%, KLTPS- 12.5%, Dhuvaran 10%
Utran(Gas)- 5.0%

Ques: 04 : Explain Plant Availability Factor (PAF). State its standard value for a thermal
Generating plant.

It is an important operational critical parameter under KPI of Generation

In relation to a thermal generating station for any period, availability means availability of
generating unit for generation during the specified period
It is the ratio of machine working hours by clock hours of the same period
It is expressed in % of MW hours/total hours
As per GERC norms, it is to be calculated as following

( Sum of average declared capacities for all time blocks during that period)
i.e. % PAF= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
(The rated installed capacity of the generating station)
Ques : 05 How Plant Availability Factor of a generating station is to be calculated as per CERC ?

( Sum of average declared capacities for all time blocks during that period)
i.e. % PAF= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
(The rated installed capacity of the generating station)
It is to be calculated in accordance with the following formula
n
Availability= { ( DCi ) + CL} x 100/n x { IC ( 1- AUXn/100 ) }
i=1
where
IC = Installed capacity of the generating station in MW
DCi = Average declared capacity of the ith time block of the period
n = Number of time blocks during the period
AUXn = Normative Auxiliary consumption as a % of gross generation
CL = Gross MW of capacity of units kept closed on account of generation
scheduling order
The availability in any period is limited to 100% if the worked value is above 100% based on
above formula

Ques : 06 : What are the value for Target Plant availability factor for recovering fixed cost as per
CERC ?

(a) All thermal generating stations : 80 %

(b) Lignite based generating stations : 72%

Ques : 07 : What are the Benchmark value of % Plant Availability for different generating stations
of GEB under KPI for the period April-04 to June-04 ?

Benchmark set for KPI for the quarter April-04 to June-04 of GEB generating stations on the basis
of previous year performance level of the corresponding period
Ukai-76%, GTPS-97%, WTPS- 92%, Sikka- 95%, KLTP-70%, Dhuvaran-62%, Utran-100%

Ques :8 : ExplainGross Station Heat Rate or GHR. State its standard value for a 200MW series
thermal generating plants ?

It is an important operational critical parameter under KPI of generation

GHR means the heat energy in Kcal input required to generate one kWh of electric energy at
generator terminals
Its unit is Kcal/kWh
Each unit of power station is designed at a specific heat rate
Heat rate higher than the design heat rate indicates poor performance of the unit
Heat rate is calculated from the quantity of fuel (coal/gas/oil) used and the total generation for that
period
{( Quantity of coal/gas used) x (C.V. of coal/gas)} +{( quantity of oil used x CV of oil)}

i.e. Heat rate= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Total generation of the generating station

As per CEA norms, over a period of service life, heat rate tends to increase at the rate of 0.2% per
year of design value due to various reasons like
(a) Condensed vacuum
(b) HP/LP heaters in service
(c) Mill performance
(d) % un burnt in Bottom ash & fly ash
(e) % O2 , etc.
Heat rate for 200MW series station is around 2380 Kcal/kWh

Ques : 09 : What are the value for Target GHR (Heat rate) for recovering fixed cost as per CERC ?

(a) Coal based thermal generating station

200/210/250 MW
(Kcal/kWh)
Stabilization period
Subsequent period

2600
2500

500 MW & above

(Kcal/kWh)
2550
2450

For electrical operated BFP, heat rate of 40 Kcal/kWh is to be reduced for 500 MW set
For generating station with both 200 MW & 500 MW series units, weighted average of above
value is to be taken

(b) For Lignite based plant

lignite with 50 % moisture : Multiplying Factor of 1.10 of above value under (a)
lignite with 40 % moisture : Multiplying Factor of 1.07 of above value under (a)
lignite with 30 % moisture : Multiplying Factor of 1.04 of above value under (a)
lignite with other value of % moisture : Pro rated Multiplying Factor of above value

(c ) For Gas & Naphtha based generating stations:

Open cycle : 2755 Kcal/kWh

Close cycle : 1900 Kcal/kWh

Ques :10 : What are the average operating heat rate value of GEB generating stations for the year
2003-04 ?

Benchmark set for Gross Heat Rate for different generating stations of GEB under KPI for the
period April-04 to June-04
Ukai-2645 Kcal/kWh, GTPS-2517 Kcal/kWh, WTPS-2500 Kcal/kWh, Sikka- 2756 Kcal/kWh
KLTPS-3500 Kcal/kWh, Dhuvaran- 2548 Kcal/kWh, Utran ( Gas )- 1956 Kcal/kWh

Ques : 11 : Mention the parameters affecting Heat rate along with their effect value compared to
design value for a 210 MW thermal generating set
Parameters

Effect( Increase in heat rate by) Design value

Aging effect as per CEA

0.2% of design value per year 2380 Kcal/kWh
Reduction in condenser vacuum by 1mm of Hg
2.25 Kcal/kWh
675 mm of Hg
Increase in excess air by 1%
20 Kcal/kWh
20 %
Increase in fly ash by 1%
20 Kcal/kWh
0.5 to 1.0 %
Increase in bottom ash by 1%
2.5 Kcal/kWh
1.5 to 3.0 %
Increase in flue gas temp at APH O/L by 1c
1.0 Kcal/kWh
140c

Drop in feed water temp at Eco inlet by 1c

Increase in DM water consumption by 100MT
Increase in coal rejection by 4MT
Change in turbine inlet pressure by 1kg/cm2
Change in load by 1 MW
Increase in S.H. spray by 7 T/hr.
Increase in R.H. spray by 6T/hr
Change in S.H. spray by 1c
Change in R.H. spray by 1c

0.5 Kcal/kWh
10 Kcal/kWh
1.5 Kcal/kWh
1.3 Kcal/kWh
0.7 Kcal/kWh
0.5 Kcal/kWh
5.0 Kcal/kWh
0.3 Kcal/kWh
0.5 Kcal/kWh

246c
165 to 250MT
15 MT
135 kg/cm2
210 MW
700 T/hr
590 T/hr
535c
535c

Ques : 12 : Explain Secondary Specific fuel oil consumption. State its standard value for a thermal
Plant

It is an important operational critical parameter under KPI

It means the quantity of supporting fuel oil like LHSH, FO used in milliliter during generation of
one unit of electricity in a coal based generating unit
Its unit is ml/kWh
The supporting fuel is normally used during starting and stopping of boilers
Sometimes, oil is also used during low load period or change over of coal mills for flame
stabilization
Oil consumption should be minimum to reduce cost of generation
Fuel oil is costly compared to coal
Its standard value for a coal based thermal plant is less than 5.0 ml/kWh as per CEA norms
For coal based thermal generating station of GEB, the average value of specific fuel consumption
is around 1.5ml/kWh

Ques : 13:State the target value of specific fuel oil consumption for recovering of fixed costs as per
CERC ?
Stabilization period
Subsequent period

Coal based thermal plant

Lignite based thermal plant

4.5 ml/kWh
4.5 ml/kWh

2.0 ml/kWh
3.0 ml/kWh

Ques :14:What are the normal operating value of Specific fuel oil consumption for different thermal
plants of GEB ?
The Benchmark set for Specific fuel consumption for GEB stations for the period April-04 to June-04

Ukai- 1.4 ml/kWh, GTPS-1.6 ml/kWh, WTPS-0.9ml/kWh, Sikka-1.5 ml/kWh, KLTP-3.0ml/kWh

Ques :15: Explain Specific coal consumption/ coal factor . State its standard value for a coal and
Lignite based plant ?
OR
Explain Coal Factor

It is defined as the quantity of coal in kg utilized for generation of one unit (1 kWh) of electricity
Its unit is kg/kWh

Heat rate in Kcal/kWh

i.e. Specific Coal consumption/ coal factor = --------------------------------C.V. of coal in Kcal/kg

Thus C.V. of coal does not make more difference as far as coal factor is concerned
The standard value of Specific coal consumption for coal based plant is 0.4 kg/kWh and for lignite
based plant, it is
kg/kWh

Ques : 16 : Explain Plant Load Factor (PLF)

In a given period, PLF is the % ratio of

(Sum of kWh generated at generator terminals of all the units
corresponding to scheduled generation)
%PLF=------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ x 100
(Installed capacity in MW )

( Number of hours in that period )

With the introduction of Availability Based Tariff (ABT), % PLF mainly depends on generation
schedule given by SLDC / RLDC

Ques : 17: Explain Gross Calorific value or GCV. State average GCV of washed coal, imported coal,
lignite and gaseous fuel utilized in GEB generating stations

GCV is defined as the heat produced in Kcal by complete combustion of one kg of solid fuel or
liquid fuel or one standard cubic meter of gaseous fuel , as the case may be

Average GCV of washed coal : 3361 to 4200 Kcal/kg

Average GCV of imported coal : 6800 to 7100 Kcal/kg
Average GCV of lignite at KLTP : 3000 Kcal/kg
Average GCV of Gas is
Kcal/kg
Average GCV of Naphtha is
Kcal/kg

Ques : 18 : Explain Scheduled Generation : SG

For any period or time block, SG means schedule of generation in MW ex-bus given by
RLDC/SLDC
Means the quantum of energy to be generated at the generating station over the 24-hour period, as
scheduled by the RLDC/SLDC
In case of gas turbine generating station or a combined cycle generating station, total scheduled
generation for the generating station is the sum of scheduled generation for gas fuel and liquid fuel
for the purpose of computation of PLF

Ques : 19 : Define : Deemed Generation

Means the energy which a generating station was capable of generating but could not generate due
to the conditions of grid or power system, beyond the control of generating station and results in
spillage of water

Ques :20 : Define : Infirm power

It is defined as electricity generated prior to commercial operation of the unit of a generating

station

Ques :21 : Define : Declared capacity OR DC

It means the capability of the generating station to deliver ex-bus electricity in MW declared by
the generating station in relation to any period or time block duly taking into account the
availability of fuel
In case of gas turbine generating station or a combined cycle generating station, the capacity to be
declared for units and modules on gas fuel and the liquid fuel separately

Total declared capacity for the generating station is the sum of the declared capacity for gas fuel
and liquid fuel for the purpose of computation of availability

Ques :22: Define : Additional capitalization

Means the capital expenditure actually incurred after the date of commercial operation of the
generating station and admitted by the Commission after prudence check

Ques : 23 : Define : Cut-off date

Means the date of first financial year closing after one year of the date of commercial operation of
the generating station

Ques :24 : Define : Date of Commercial Operation OR COD

In relation to a unit, COD means the date declared by the generator after demonstrating the
Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) or Installed capacity (IC) through a successful trial run and
In relation to the generating station, the date of commercial operation means the date of
commercial operation of the last unit or block of the generating station

Ques : 25 : Define : Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR)

In relation to a unit of the thermal generating station, MCR means the maximum continuous
output at the generator terminals, guaranteed by the manufacturers at rated parameters and
In relation to a unit or a block of a combined cycle thermal generating station, MCR means the
maximum continuous output at the generator(s) terminals, guaranteed by the manufacturer with
water/steam injection (if applicable) and connected to 50 Hz grid frequency and site conditions

Ques : 26 : Define: Installed capacity OR IC

Means the summation of the name plate capacities of the units in the generating station or
The capacities of the generating station as determined in consultation with the Authority(CEA)
from time to time considering the up- rating or de-rating as applicable

Ques : 27: Define : Block in relation to a combined cycle thermal generating station

Includes combustion turbine-generator(s), associated waste heat recovery boiler(s), connected

steam turbine-generator and auxiliaries

Ques : 28: Define: Unit in relation to a thermal power generating station

Means steam generator, turbine generator and their auxiliaries or

In relation to a combined cycle thermal generating station, Unit means turbine-generator and
auxiliaries

Ques : 29: Define : Capacity Index

Means the average of the daily capacity indices over one year

Ques : 30 : Define : Daily Capacity Index

Means percentage of the declared capacity to the maximum available capacity for the day

Declared capacity (MW)

i.e. Daily capacity Index= ------------------------------------ x 100
Maximum available capacity

Daily capacity Index so calculated to be limited to 100% in case it exceeds the limit

Ques : 31 : Define : Operation and Maintenance Expenses OR O &M Expenses

Means the expenditure incurred in operation and maintenance of the generating station, including
part thereof and includes the expenditure on manpower repairs, spares, consumables, insurance
and other overheads

Ques : 32 : Name the fuels used in Generating stations

Coal, Lignite, LHSH, FO, LDO, Gas & Naphtha

Ques : 33 :Name the main coal suppliers supplying coal to GEB

(a) SECL- South Eastern Coal fields Limited

(b) WCL- Western Coal fields Limited
(c ) SCCL- Singareni Coal fields Limited
(d) Washed Coal
(e) Imported coal

Ques : 34 : Name the power station wise coal supplier for different generating stations of GEB

Name of thermal station :Ukai

GTPS
WTPS
Sikka
Coal supplier
: SECL,WCL, Washed coal SECL, Imported coal SECL, SCCL SECL

Ques : 35 : Describe Washed coal in brief

Raw coal received from Main line of SECL from Dipka mines
Washed at ST-BSES Washry/ Aryan Washry
Quality improves from F grade to E grade

Ques : 36: Describe Imported coal in brief

Procured from MMTC A Central Govt Unit

A-grade coal
Average GCV is 6800 to 7100 Kcal/kg

Ques : 37 : Name the grade of coal with corresponding UHV(CV)

Grade of Coal
A
B
C
D
E
F
G

UHV ( CV) in Kcal/kg

> 6200
5600 to 6200
4941 to 5600
4201 to 4940
3361 to 4200
2401 to 3360
1301 to 2400

Ques : 38 : Describe fuel oil used at different power plants of GEB

Main fuel oil used are LHSH, FO & LDO

Supplied by IOCL
LHSH: As main fuel at Dhuvaran and as supporting fuel at other generating stations of GEB
FO: As supporting fuel at KLTPS
LDO: As starting fuel during cold start up

FO & LDO transported through road and LHSH through rail

Ques : 39 : What are the characteristics of different fuel oil used at GEB generating stations
Characteristic

Unit

LHSH

FO

LDO

CV
Kinetic viscosity
Sulfur
Flash point
Density at 15c

Kcal/kg
cst
% Mass
c
gm/cubic meter

10400
100 at100c
1.5
93
0.97

10400
180 at 80c
4.0
66
0.94

10500
15.7 at 38c
0.7
66
0.86

Ques : 40 : Describe Gas as a main fuel used in GEB generating stations in brief

Natural gas procured by ONGC

Supplied by GAIL & GSPC to Utran & Dhuvaran
At Utran, gas is used as a main fuel
At Dhuvaran, gas is used as additional fuel with LHSH as a main fuel
Gas supplied by GAIL is less than the agreed quantity and with less pressure due to reduced
production by ONGC

Ques : 41 : Give Gas based plant operation at Utran in brief.

Three gas turbines of 30MW capacity uses gas along with air as main fuel
The high temperature exhaust gases of the three gas turbines are supplied through heat recovery
boiler which generates steam sufficient to operate at 45 MW steam turbine

Ques : 42 : How lignite is supplied and used at KLTPS for generating power

Lignite is used as a main fuel at KLTPS for 2 x 70 MW + 1 x 75 MW units

Supplied by GMDC through conveyer belt from the mines adjacent to the power plant
Used in boiler after crushing through mills

Ques : 43 : Give specification of Lignite

GCV : 3000 Kcal/ kg

Total moisture : 35 to 40 %
Ash : 15%
Sulfur : 3 to 4 %

Ques : 44 : How UHV of coal is calculated ?

OR
Describe method for assessment of coal quality

UHV ( Useful Heat Value) is measured as per BIS specification on conditioned base
( i.e. 60% relative humidity & 40c temperature)
Coal samples collected from 17 to 18 wagons (sample about 350kg)
Sample of 212 micron size is prepared after properly size reduction, mixing( distribution) and
reducing ( conning & quartering)
Samples are tested on conditioned basis to determine % of ash and moisture
UHV is worked out in Kcal/kg using following empirical formula
UHV= 8900- 138 ( % ash + % moisture )
On evaluation of final grade , if UHV of grade follows in lower grade then claim for grade
difference is admissible and difference of price is payable by coal companies on total coal
consignments

Ques : 45 : Name the Sampling methods used for assessment of coal quality with different coal
Supplier

SECL : Joint sampling at both ends

WCL : Third party sampling
SCCL : Sampling done at loading end and analyzed at both the ends
Imported Coal : Sampling at unloading end by Internationally renowned third party

Ques : 46 : How coal quantity assessment is made for GEB generating stations ?

As per electronic weigh bridge print out of loading end for Indian coal
For Imported coal, as per weigh bridge of GEB end

Ques : 47 : What are the basic requirements of thermal power plant ?

Adequate land
Adequate water for cooling purpose
Fuel availability
System/ generation demand in the region
Availability of infrastructure for transportation of fuel

Ques : 48 : Give difference between Open & Close cooling system utilized at thermal stations of GEB

Open cycle cooling system

Closed cycle cooling system

Where adequate water quantity

is available
Water is drawn from inlet of canal/
River and the same water is discharged
to outlet canal for utilizing in irrigation
Cooling tower not required
Presently at Ukai & Sikka TPS

Where water availability not in

required quantity
Cooling water is cooled in the
cooling tower and circulation of
water is in closed cycle
Cooling tower is required
Presently at WTPS, KLTPS, GTPS

Ques: 49 : State the normal value overall efficiency of a thermal plant

Design thermal efficiency of a thermal plant varies for unit to unit. However normally
Overall = Boiler x Turbine
= 86.5 % x 42 %
= 36.5 %

Ques : 50:State the rated steam pressure and steam temperature for 210MW coal based
plant and 70 MW lignite based plant
Steam Pressure

210 MW
70 MW

Steam Temperature

135 kg/cm2
85 kg/cm2

540c
520c

Ques : 51: Name the parameters affecting Boiler efficiency

% un burnt : It should be less than 5% in bottom ash and less than 1 % in fly ash
Coal mill performance : Coarse particles need longer time for burning increases un burnt. Sieve
analysis : 200 Mesh, 70 % passing

% O2 : O2 analyzer at APH inlet & outlet. It should be less than 4 % at APH outlet. Heat loss
can be controlled by controlling O2
Heat loss : Soot deposition on boiler tubes. Soot blowing to increase heat transfer. D.M. water
chemistry within limits to avoid scale formation inside the tubes
Functioning of Economizer : Like heater
Apparent leakages : Plug all apparent leakages of fuel, steam and air

Ques : 52 : Give specification of lignite fired boiler at KLTPS

Natural circulation ( principle of change in density of water with change in temperature)

Tangential fired ( corner fired for fire ball to be at the center)
Two pass ( 1st pass boiler furnace, 2nd pass- Economizer, super heaters ( Latern, platen &final)
Dry bottom ash
Balanced draft
Steam flow 325 T/hr

Ques : 53 : Which are the parameters affecting Turbine efficiency ?

Condenser vacuum : It should be as per design ( around 700 mm/Hg). Reduction by 1 mm/Hg,
increases heat rate by 2.25 Kcal/ kg
Exhaust hood temperature : Higher temperature beyond the limit restricts generation.
HP &LP heaters in service: Regenerative water/ steam cycle resulting temperature rise in
condensate
Main steam parameters at turbine inlet : Change in turbine inlet pressure by 1.0 kg/cm2
increases heat rate by 1.3 Kcal/kWh and change in steam temperature by 1c increases heat rate by
0.5 Kcal/kWh
DM water consumption : Maximum 4 % is recommended. Increase in water consumption by 100
MT, increases heat rate by 10 Kcal/kWh
Apparent leakages : Plug the apparent leakages of steam and air

Ques : 54 : Name the Enviornment control measures adopted at coal/lignite based power
Plant

Providing micro processor based rapping control mechanism in ESP

Augmentation of ash handling system by filling and utilizing Dummy ESP fields in service
Replacement of hydro vector system by mechanical exhausters for ESP hoppers
Providing 2x 100 MT dry fly ash handling SILO
Providing gas tight isolators in the flue gas path at inlet & outlet of APH and ESP
Attending punctures in flue gas duct

Ques : 55 : Name the types of Hydro generating station

Pondage and storage type generating stations

Purely run-of- river type generating stations
Surface hydro power generating stations
Underground hydro power generating stations

Ques :56 : Define : Primary energy in reference to hydro generating stations

Means the quantum of energy generated up to the design energy on per year basis in the
generating station

Ques : 57 : Define : Secondary energy in reference to hydro generating stations

Means the quantum of secondary energy available for sale (ex-bus) after allowing for free energy
to the home state

Ques :58 : State the normative capacity index for Hydro generating stations decided by CERC for
Recovery of full capacity charges
During first year
After first year

Pondage and storage type hydro generating stations

Purely Run-of-river type hydro generating stations

80 %
85 %

85%
90%

Ques : 59 : What are the norms for Auxiliary Energy Consumption for hydro generating stations ?
With rotating exciters mounted on the generator shaft

Surface hydro generating stations :

Underground hydro power stations:

With static excitation system

0.2% of energy generated

0.4 % of energy generated

0.5% of energy generated

0.7% of energy generated

Ques :60: How much is the normal transformation losses from generating voltage to transmission
voltage?

0.5% of energy generated

Ques : 61: How much are the stabilization period for following type of generating stations ?
Generating station

Stabilization period in days

Coal based and lignite fired generating stations

Open cycle gas/ liquid fuel based generating stations
Combined cycle gas/liquid fuel based generating stations

180
90
90

Ques :62 : Explain landed cost of coal

The landed cost of coal for the purpose of computation of energy charges is to be arrived at after
considering normative transit and handling losses as percentage of the quantity of coal dispatched
by the coal supply company
The norms for normative transit and handling losses are
(a) Pit head generating stations : 0.3 %
(b) Rail Fed Non-Pit Head generating stations : 0.8 %

Ques :63: Name the measures to be taken to arrest heat loss

By controlling percentage of O2. It should be less than 4% at APH outlet

Proper heat transfer in boiler. Regular soot blowing( WB/LRSB) and DM water quality as per
designed chemistry
Increasing opening of APH from 50% to 70%
Replacement of corroded cold end as well as hot end heating elements (baskets)
Providing gas tight isolators in the flue gas path
Proper sealing of man holes in flue gas path

Ques : 64 : Name the protections applied for Steam turbine

Over speed
Low condenser vacuum
High exhaust hood temperature
Lub oil pressure low
Governing oil pressure low
Excessive wear out of thrust bearing/ High bearing temperature

Low temperature trip

High turbine vibration
High differential expansion
High axial shift
High eccentricity
High level in HP heater
Remote trip by means of solenoid valve
Trip to manual

Ques : 65 : Name the protections applied for Gas Turbine

High vibration
High Exhaust hood temperature
Spread
High filter differential pressure

Ques : 66 : Name the protections applied for Boiler of a coal based Thermal power plant

Drum level low trip

Drum level high trip
Furnace pressure high trip
Flame failure trip
Secondary air pressure low trip
Furnace draft positive trip

Ques : 67 : Give a list of protections applied for Generator protection

Class : A Protections
(a) Generator Protections

Generator differential
Generator inter turn
Reverse power
Generator stator E/F ( 0 to 95 %)
Generator stator E/F ( 100%)
Generator stator standby E/F
2nd rotor E/F
Generator dead machine
Low forward power ( Field breaker ON and turbine tripped)

(b) GT:

GT overall differential
GT buchholz
GT restricted E/F
GT PRV
GT over fluxing stg-II

( c ) UAT

UAT differential
UAT buchholz
UAT PRV
UAT OLTC buchholz

UAT O/C

Class -B Protections :
(a) Generator

Low forward power ( Field breaker is ON and turbine is not tripped)

Generator field failure
Negative phase sequence
Generator back up impedance
Generator under frequency
Stator water flow low

(b) GT:

GT winding temp high

GT oil temp high

( c) UAT:

UAT winding temperature high

UAT oil temperature high

Class C Protections :

GT standby E/F
GT O/C & E/F
Generator breaker pole discrepancy
Generator under frequency

*Ques : 68 : Name the protections applied for Steam Generator

Stator water flow low

Stator water conductivity high
Hydrogen purity low
Seal oil damper tank level low
Rotor temp high
Loss of excitation

Ques : 69 : Explain Loss of excitation protection

Failure of field system causes generator to run above syn. speed as an induction generator,
drawing magnetizing current from the system resulting in overheating of the rotor and over
loading of the stator
Mal operation of field breaker, fault with excitation system, open/short circuit of exciter field,
failure of rectifier bridges or transformer
Class A protection- direct tripping of the unit
Monitored by an under current relay in rotor circuit or by an admittance relay
Generally, an offset mho relay is used to trip instantaneously in case of simultaneous low voltage
or after a time delay if the relay operates alone
The offset is given to prevent operation of the relay for power swings and associated asynchronous
running

Ques : 70:Under what conditions the generator works as an induction generator ?What are its
implications?

Loss of excitation and failure of field system causes the generator to run the generator as an
induction generator.
The speed of generator will be above synchronous speed
Draws magnetizing current from the system
It will cause over heating of the rotor and over loading of the stator

Ques :71 : Under what condition does the generator run as a synchronous motor ? What provision
is made to safe guard against it ?
Motoring of Generator:

Failure of prime mover of a generator, while it is still connected to the system, will keep the
generator running as a synchronous motor drawing active power from the system
The effect of motoring and the amount of active power taken by the defaulting generator depends
upon type of prime mover

Safe guarding :

A reverse power relay with a time delay is used to detect motoring condition which trips generator
A sensitive relay with 0.5% power settings is required in case of steam turbine/ hydraulic turbines
in view of small motoring power requirement
In case of Gas turbine/Engine driven sets, a relay with a comparatively coarser setting (about 3%)
can be applied

Ques: 72 : What are the effects of motoring of generator in case Steam turbine is the prime mover?

Cooling effect of the steam is lost which may lead to overheating and softening and distortion of
blades
The motoring power is about 0.5% to 6% of the machine rating

Ques: 73 : What are the effects of motoring of generator in case Gas turbine is the prime mover?

Gas turbines may have gear problems when driven by the generator end
The motoring power is also high ( between 10 to 15%)

Ques: 74 : What are the effects of motoring of generator in case Diesel Engine is the prime mover?

Any un burnt fuel in the midst of combustion may cause fire and possibly explosion
The motoring power is also fairly high (15-25%), thereby imposing a sizeable loss of energy on
the supply source

Ques:75:What are the effects of motoring of generator in case Hydraulic turbine is the prime mover?

Heating of the blades is not serious as Hydro machines are low speed
However, loss of water may cause cavitations of the blades
The motoring power is small (about 2%)

Ques : 76 : Explain Generator pole slipping protection

Class A Protection directly to trip generator

Cause:
Pole slipping is caused by
(a) excessive load
(b) Insufficient field excitation
(c) Prolonged fault clearing times
(d) Low system voltage
(e) Some line switching operations
Can also occur if the generator breaker is closed out of synchronism
Effects:

It would cause rotor oscillations

Variation in voltage, current, power factor and torque reversals
The torque reversals produce torsional stresses on the shaft
Results in slowing down of generator and loosing synchronism

Protection

By this protection, generator is made to trip at the first slipping of the pole
A directional and a blinder relay in conjunction with a timer
An over current starter is used to start the relay
Relay operates when the pole slipping locus takes more time than the set time to pass between two
characteristics

Ques :77 : Explain Negative Sequence Current Protection for Generator

Class A Protection directly to trip generator

In case of external fault, the generator will feed negative sequence current till the fault is cleared
Relay operates, if the duration of fault exceeds the negative sequence withstand capability of the
generator to safe guard against such conditions
Two relays used, one to trip the generator breaker alone to cut off the external fault for generator
to run on house load with HP/LP bypass system giving alarm
The second relay is used to trip the unit, if the negative sequence current persists, in spite of
tripping generator breaker

Ques :78 : Explain Back up impedance protection of generator

For protection of generator from injurious effects of external faults

Give protection for phase to phase and three phase faults
Offset mho relay is used to prevent it from operation for the loss of excitation condition
Relay is set to pick up for a fault in the first section of the line tripping the generator breaker after
a time delay set to co-ordinate with line protection relays
If the fault persists, the generator will trip after a further time delay

Ques : 79: Explain : Generator low forward power protection

Protection against motoring of the generator

Condition of motoring is created in case turbine is tripped and the generator is still connected to
the grid
This motoring is sensed by low forward power relay
Simultaneous opening of generator breaker with steam valve closing on turbine tripping for a
fault, may cause over speeding of the set due to steam entrapped in the turbine
So for faults which do not call for isolation of generator from the grid immediately, the turbine is
tripped first and just before motoring starts , the generator also is tripped
Since the operation of low forward power is relevant only after closure of steam valves, these two
conditions are combined for tripping the generator

The permissible motoring load of the steam set is as low as 1%

The setting of the relay is of the order of 0.5% of rating of the generator
A time delay is used to prevent premature operation of the relay due to power swing coincident
with the low forward power relay operation

Ques : 80 : What are the damaging effects of motoring of the generator ?

Motoring of generator will cause damaging effects with the prime mover in the steam turbine
In a steam turbine, steam flow maintains the temperature of rotor blades
In case of motoring of generator, the turbine runs even after steam flow has stopped
This may cause over heating and subsequent distortion of the turbine blades
This effect is more for a back-pressure turbine

Ques : 81: Explain over fluxing protection

Applied with GT or on both the sides of the power transformers with voltage class 400/220KV
Measures ratio of V/f , alarm at ratio 2.4 and trip on further increasing in the value
Over flux relay operates during run-up or run down of the generator
Load shedding in system may cause excessive voltage rise operating the over flux relay
Flux developed in the core of a transformer is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to frequency
Thus the flux level will go up in case the voltage increases or frequency decreases
Increase in the flux level above than the design level, will tend to saturate the core which will
force the flux to cover those areas which normally dont carry any flux( non laminated parts)
This will create eddy current heating which in turn will damage the insulation

Ques : 82 : In what cases over fluxing of the Generator Transformer can occur ?

In case when the turbine speed is less than rated speed with excitation on auto mode, which will
try to keep the voltage to normal or
When the excitation level is high under manual control when the turbine speed is less than normal
due to high voltage required by the system condition
Over flux relay operates during run-up or run down of the generator
Load shedding in system may cause excessive voltage rise operating the over flux relay

Ques : 83 : What is meant by synchronizing?

Synchronizing means the connection of two parts of a grid network that are electrically isolated
from each other and which have a certain difference in frequency, voltage and phase angle

Ques : 84 : Explain : Check synchronizing relay

Used to prevent inter connection of badly synchronized supplies.

The relay contacts are normally connected in series with circuit breaker closing circuit ensuring
the difference in phase, voltage and frequency are matched
The relay compares the two voltages with respect to magnitude, phase angle and frequency
The two parts that are to be synchronized must have the same frequency, but relatively large
difference in voltage and phase angle

Ques:(13) Name the five major protection elements of MPR(Motor Protection Relay)

ITH
I STAL
I2
I1(t) and
I0

Ques : 85 : Give uses of ash

Cement raw material

Blended cement
Concrete addition
Concrete/ masonry blocks
Road construction
In fill for roads, mines, land reclamation, construction sites, etc
As plasticizer
Soil stabilizer
Absorbent in sewage treatment
As micro nutrient for increasing the yield in certain crops( Studies in progress)

Ques : 86 : How effectiveness of ash is controlled ?

Using better quality coal-imported coal/ washed coal with ash content less than 34%
On line Opacity meters for continuous monitoring of pollution levels
Regular internal Enviornment audit by Enviornment audit cell

Ques : 87 : What are the ways to reduce generation of ash ?

Installation of FGD ( Flue Gas De sulfurization ) plant-involves high cost

Reduce ash content in coal by washing or blending
Fluidized Bed combustion boiler which can handle high ash content

Ques : 88: Describe various methods of ash disposal applied at coal/ lignite based plant

Ash produced on burning of coal in boiler are (a) Fly ash- 80% and(b) Bottom ash-20%
Ash disposal mainly of two types: (a) Wet disposal and (b) Dry disposal

(a) Wet disposal: Fly ash

Through ESP & Economizer hoppers : Water is added with ash collected at the bottom of ESP
hopper and slurry so formed is disposed off in nearby ash dyke through pipe lines
Dual Flue Gas Conditioning System ( DFCS): NH3 & SO 3 with resistivity less than 10 ppm is
applied to enhance the efficiency of ESP 150 microgram/Nm

(b) Dry disposal:

Ash collected manually in the bottom ash hopper of 1 st pass of boiler is disposed off in the ash
dyke transporting it through truck/ tractor
For dry ash collection and disposal SILO of suitable capacity is provided

Ques : 89: What are the effluent disposal standards for condensate cooling waters ( once through
cooling system) for thermal power plants ?

Parameters

Permissible value

pH
Temperature
Free available chlorine

6.5 to 8.5
Not more than 10c higher than the intake water temperature
0.5 mg/l

Ques : 90 :What are the effluent disposal standards for boiler blow downs for thermal power plants ?
Parameters

Permissible value

Suspended solids
Oil and grease
Total copper (as Cu)
Total Iron ( as Fe)

100 mg/l
20 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
1.0 mg/l

Ques : 91: What are the effluent disposal standards for cooling tower water blow downs for thermal
power plants?

Parameters

Permissible value

Free available chlorine

Zinc (as Zn)
Hexavalent chromium (as Cr)
Total chromium (as Cr)
Phosphate (as P)

0.5 mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.1 mg/l
0.2 mg/l
5.0 mg/l

Ques : 92 : What are the effluent disposal standards for ash pond effluent for thermal power plants ?

Parameters

Permissible value

pH
Suspended solids
Oil and grease

6.5 to 8.5
100 mg/l
20 mg/l

Ques : 93: What are the effluent disposal standards for combined effluent for thermal power plants ?
Parameters

Permissible value

pH
6.5 to 8.5
Suspended solids
100 mg/l
Oil and grease
20 mg/l
Zinc (as Zn)
1.0 mg/l
Hexavalent chromium (as Cr)
0.1 mg/l
Total chromium (as Cr)
0.2 mg/l
Phosphate (as P)
5.0 mg/l
Total copper (as Cu)
1.0 mg/l
Total Iron ( as Fe)
1.0 mg/l
Ques :94 : Name the different components of ground water & surface water with their average value

Components

Ground water(mg/l)

Surface water(mg/l)

pH
Total solids
Hardness
Conductivity
Alkalinity
Manganese
Iron
Phosphorous(PO4)
Chloride
COD
BOD3 at 27c

3.2
367
262.2
0.49 ( m mho)
86
0.14
0.91
0.5
10.5
0.6
0.3

5.2
184
102.9
0.2 (m mho)
33
0.06
0.29
0.62
2.0
1.2
0.35

Ques : 95 : What are the major sources of water pollution in a TPS ?

D. M. plant effluent
Boiler blow down
Cooling tower blow down
Ash dyke over flow
Power house gravity drain

Ques : 96 : Name the measures to be taken to prevent water Pollution in a TPS

Purifying the effluents before disposal to water basins

Using water in recycling process mixing with ash for pumping it to ash dyke
Neutralization of regeneration waste of DM plant before disposal by providing pits for pH
correction
Settling of ash slurry in ash bunds where ash settles and disposed off by trucks for land
reclamation
Effluent treatment plant
Boiler blow down drain to be diverted to ash slurry sump
Settling tanks are to be provided for controlling suspended solids

Ques : 97 : How SOx and NOx are formed in case of a TPS ?

Sulfur dioxide is formed with the oxidation of sulfur content of the fuel while burning
NOx is formed in the primary flame zone of the burner when reacts with atmospheric nitrogen
The reaction depends upon the temperature

Ques : 98 : Name the different gases emitted with their limiting value in case of a TPS

Gas

Limiting value as per PCB( gm/m)

SOx
NOx
CO
CH4
NH3
Cl2

100
120
5000
160
850
100

Ques :99 : What is the Emission standards of Particulate Matter for a Thermal power plant ?
Power generation capacity

Emission standards

Less than 210MW set

350 mg/ Nm
210 MW and above
150 mg/Nm
As per EPA act 1986, its emission value is 150 mg/Nm, irrespective of generating capacity

*Ques :100: What are the stack height limits for Thermal power plants?

Power generation capacity

Stack height in meters

500 MW and above

200/210 MW and above
( but less than 500 MW)
Less than 200/210MW

275
220
H= 14 (Q), H= Height of stack in meters
Q=emission rate of SO2 in Kg/hr

Ques: 101 : Which are the methods for reduction of emission of NO x and SOx ?
SOx

No way to prevent formation of sulfur dioxide

FGD ( Flue Gas Desulphurisation) plant can be installed, but expensive
Central Pollution Control Board guidelines for control of SO2 by dispersion by increasing height
of chimney
SO2 permissible limit of 100 ppm set by GPCB

NOx:

NOx is controlled utilizing low NOx burners in boiler

Coating/layer of steam and DM water surrounding the tip of burner to prevent its contact with
atmospheric nitrogen
It can be reduced through Selective Catalyst Reduction (SCR) venodrum or through Non Selective
Catalyst (NSCR) venodrum

Ques : 102 : Give name of various statutory sanctioning authorities related with granting permission
for erection & commissioning of boiler

Chief Boiler Inspector, Ahmedabad : Hydro test

Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar : various emission levels
Aviation authority, Gandhinagar : Stack height
Explosive license authority, Nagpur : Safety of boiler
Enviornment and Forest authority, Gandhinagar : Enviorment clearance
Ministry of Energy & Forest ( MOEF), Delhi : Clearance in case of capacity 500MW

Ques : 103: Name the contents to be measured in sample of condensate with their permissible limit

Content

Permissible value

pH
Conductivity
TDS ( mho/ )
SiO2 ( ppb)
Cl - (ppb)
Na+ (ppb)
Iron (Fe+2 )
Copper ( Cu+2 )
Dissolved O2
Residual N2

8.8 to 9.2
2.5 to 3.0
0.3
0.02
Nil
Nil
As low as possible
As low as possible
Nil
0.02

Ques 104: Name the contents to be measured in sample of feed water at Eco Inlet with their limit
Content

pH
Conductivity
SiO2 ( ppb)
Cl- (ppb)
Iron (Fe+2 )
Copper ( Cu+2 )
Dissolved O2
Residual N2

Permissible value
8.8 to 9.0
2.7 to 3.1
0.02
Nil
As low as possible
As low as possible
Nil
0.02 to 0.06

Residual PO4 -

10 to 20

Ques : 105: Name the contents to be measured in sample of boiler drum with their permissible limit
Content

Permissible value

pH (Pressure 100 kg/cm2)

9.8 to 10.2
pH ( Pressure 100kg/cm2)
9.4 to 9.7
Conductivity(Pressure 100 kg/cm2)
200
Conductivity( Pressure 100kg/cm2)
100
TDS ( mho/ ) Pressure 100 kg/cm2
100
TDS ( mho/ ) Pressure 100kg/cm2
50
SiO2 ( ppb)
Depend upon pressure
Cl- (ppb)
As low as possible
Na+ (ppb)
As low as possible
Residual N2
0.02 to 0.06
Residual PO43 to 8

Ques :106:Name the contents to be measured in sample of Saturated steam with their permissible
limit

Content

Permissible value

pH
Conductivity
SiO2 ( ppb)
Cl- (ppb)
Na+ (ppb)

8.8 to 9.2
2.8 to 3.0
0.02
Nil
Nil

Ques : 107: Name the contents to be measured in sample of Superheated steam with their permissible
limit
Content

pH
Conductivity
SiO2 ( ppb)
Cl- (ppb)
Na+ (ppb)
Iron (Fe+2)
Copper ( Cu+2)

Permissible value
8.8 to 9.0
0.02
Nil
Nil
0.01
0.05

Ques :108: Name the basic units of DM plant in a TPS

Cation unit
Anion unit
Mixed Bed unit
Degassing tower ( to remove dissolved CO 2 gas)

Ques : 109 : What are the main functions of DM plant department in a TPS?

Maintaining quantity & quality of DM water

Assessing of quantity & quality of coal/lignite
Blow down operation and chemical dozing
Sample testing of bottom ash un burnt and coal fine ness

Sample testing of condensate, Eco inlet feed water, boiler drum, saturated steam, super heated
steam, etc

Ques : 110 : Explain chemical dozing applied in a TPS

Hydrazine and Phosphate dozing through separate pumps

Phosphate feeding pump discharge directly to boiler drum
Hydrazine pump discharge directly goes to discharge pipe of CEP header/ BFP suction

Ques : 111 : What treatment/ water quality and its implications in case of
(a) Boiler/LRSG (b) Condenser (c) Turbine (d) Cooling water

Ques : 112 : Name the activities covered under R&M of GEB thermal plants

Replacement of excitation system by digital excitation system

Replacement of condenser tubes
Replacement of tube nest of HPH
Replacement of water wall tubes
Replacement of turbine supervisory instrumentation system
Retrofitting of visible flame scanner
Replacement of C&I equipments
Modification of seal air system in bowl mills
Modifications in annunciation and SER system, etc

Ques : 113 : Draw feed water cycle for a coal/lignite based thermal plant
Steam
Turbine

Condenser

D M plant

CST

Hot well
make up
pumps

C.W.

Hot well

CEP

GSC

DC

LPH-1

LPH-2

BFP
Economiser

Left

FCV

HPH-2

HPH-1

Dearator

Right

Boiler
Drum

Ring Headers

Boiler tubes (First Pass & Second pass)

Ques : 114 : Draw steam water cycle for a coal/lignite based thermal plant
(Spray to control main steam temp)
De super heater

Boiler Drum
separators

Latern
super heater

Platen
super heater

PRDS
Right

Final
super heater

Boiler MSSV
M

Turbine

Turbine
MSSV

ESV

Main steam
Line

Left

Ques : 115 : Draw the flue gas path for a thermal power plant

Economiser

Chimney

APH inlet

ID outlet

APH outlet

ESP inlet

ID inlet

ESP outlet

Ques : 116 : Draw secondary air path for a thermal power plant

Corner-1
Left

Gun 1-2
Corner-3

FD fan

APH inlet

APH outlet
Right

Corner-2
Gun 3-4

Corner-4
Ques:117: Name the steps involved in synchronizing the generating unit and in tie operation.
What are the implications in case of wrong operation?
(a) Synchronising of the unit with grid

Make Field Breaker ON (after 3000 R.P.M) and build up the generator voltage by raising the
excitation
Make the Syn. selection switch of GT breaker ON.
Make the Synchronous scope ON.
Both the Incoming voltage and running voltage as well as incoming freq and running frequency
will appear on the synchronous scope with indicator rotating in clock/anti clock wise direction
Adjust Generator voltage to 11KV through excitation. Keep incoming voltage 4 to 5 KV higher
than running voltage( grid voltage)
Adjust the speed of turbine with speeder gear such that the indicator on the synchronous scope
starts rotating slowly and smoothly in clock wise direction i.e Incoming freq should be kept
slightly higher than running frequency
Make Synchronizing Relay in service/ON

On matching the two voltages and two frequencies simultaneously, the check synchronizing relay
permits the green Synchronizing in limit lamp to glow exactly at 12 Oclock position of indicator
on the synchronous scope.
At the instant of appearing of the green lamp, close the generator breaker through GT breaker
control switch
The breaker will close and thus the unit is synchronized with the grid

(b) Tie operation ( 6.6KV Tie SS to US)

Auto operation:

With the tripping of the unit, the above two 6.6KV tie breakers will come in service on auto
keeping the 6.6 KV US-1A & US-1B buses in charge condition, provided
(a) The opposite end 6.6kv breaker on 6.6 KV SS-1A &1B bus are in ON condition
(b) The trip selection switch on generator panel in C.R. on US-1A/1B position

Manual Operation: ( Unit is running but US-1A/1B breakers are to be taken out of service)

Make Syn selection switch of 6.6KV tie SS-1A/1B ON

Auto/Manual selection switch of tie breakers on Manual
Trip selection switch on 6.6KV US-1A/1B incomer
Match running voltage and incoming voltage through OLTC of Station Transformer, if required
Make the synchronous scope ON
Keep the Synchronizing Relay in Service
If the parameters are matching, the green lamp of Syn in limit will glow at 12 Oclock position
on the syn. scope
Close the tie breaker SS-1A/1B through breaker control switch
The tie breaker will ON with simultaneous tripping of us-1A/1B breaker
The above operation to be carried out one by one separately for each SS-1A/1B tie breakers

Implications for wrong synchronizing :

Operation of Generator pole slipping protection in case generator breaker is closed out of
synchronism
It would cause rotor oscillations
May cause torsional stresses on the shaft
If the unit is synchronized with insufficient excitation i.e. Incoming ( Generator) voltage less than
the running voltage, it may lead to generator slowing down and loosing synchronism
If unit if synchronized with turbine speed (incoming frequency) lower than the grid (running)
frequency, the turbine will be pulled to achieve the difference of speed which may cause damages

Ques : 118: Name the operational steps involved in bringing 6.6KV US incomers of UAT in service

Make Syn, selection switch of US-1A incomer ON

Keep selection of US-1A on Manual
Keep Trip selection on Tie SS-1A to US-1A
Adjust running voltage and incoming voltage by OLTC operation of ST and UAT, if required
Make Synchronous scope ON
Make Synchronizing relay ON
If the incoming voltage and running voltage are matching, Syn. in limit green lamp will appear at
12Oclock position on the synchronous scope
Close the control switch of US-1A incomer breaker
The corresponding Tie will trip at the instant of closing US-1A incomer breaker
Similar operation for the other US-1B incomer

Ques : 119: What are the causes of water wall tube failure? What will be the plant

response and operator actions in such cases?

Causes :

Starvation
Sustained flame impingement
Soot blower steam impingement
Blocked, eroded, pitted tubes, salt deposition, etc
Steam pocketing ( short term over heating)
pH corrosion
Open low point drains affects circulation

Plant Response :

Hissing steam leakage before situation becomes serious

Un stable flame
Fluctuating draft
Higher feed water consumption
Over loading of ID fan

Operator Actions:

Reduce load immediately on diagnosis of tube puncture and trip the unit before damage becomes
serious
Low point drains should be ensured for full closing in every shift
Furnace flame should be checked for impinging on water walls in every shift
Listen carefully for the hissing steam noise
Try to locate burst tube with reduced load and oil firing as it would help in attending repair early

Ques : 120 : What are the causes of Re-heater, Super heater tube failure? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Creep failure ( Sustained high metal temp due to water wall slagging on hot start)
Erosion due to excess air, dislocated tubes, soot blowing, etc
Blocked tubes
Salt deposition due to drum level high, poor quality of spray
Inadequate flow due to open super heater drains

Plant Response :

Noticeable hissing noise

Abrupt drop in flame temp in affected region
Overloading of ID fan
Draft losses
Higher feed water consumption
High super heater/ re heater metal temperature

Operator Response:

On detection of leakage reduce the load and trip boiler at the earliest
Try to locate leakage from manholes before boiler is de pressurized

Ques : 121 : What are the causes of Economizer tube leakage? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?

Causes:

Ash erosion
Building up of ash in economizer hopper
Erosion due to LRSB nozzle
Tubes at the bends thinned out due to pitting or corrosion

Plant Response :

Increased draft loss/ ID fan over loading

Drop in flue gas temperature in post economizer
Hissing noise in the economizer zone
Water leakage from economizer hopper
Ash solidification in economizer hopper
High feed water consumption

Operator Response :

Check for water leakage in economizer hopper in every shift

Check for steam noise

Ques :122 : What are the causes of high turbine vibration? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes /Plant Response:

Abrupt change in steam inlet pressure & temperature

Too high or too low lube oil temperature and pressure may destroy bearing oil film
Low gland sealing temperature
Temperature difference ( 50c) between top and bottom during start up
High ,differential expansion, over all expansion, axial shift of turbine
High eccentricity of rotor
Low condenser vacuum
High exhaust hood temperature

Operator Response :

Maintain steam parameters as per design

Check lube oil pressure and temp. Maintain 42c temp after cooler and 1.0 kg/cm2 pressure at
bearing inlet
Maintain gland steam temp between 130c to 150c
Do not maintain high dearator level if gland steam is fed from dearator
Listen bearing sound with acoustic probe
Cross check parameters by portable instrument or by touching
Fully open the drains during start up
Low and uniform warm up maintaining parameters
For high differential expansion, check for flange, stud and rotor heating
Do not roll turbine when eccentricity exceeds 0.07 micron on bearing. Trip the turbine if it
exceeds 0.2 micron

Ques : 123: What are the causes of high stator winding temperature? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?

Causes :

Inadequate flow of stator water

High stator water inlet temperature
Hot spot on inter turn slots on stator

Plant Response :

High stator winding temperature ( 105c). Permissible limit is 85c

(There are 72 points in all spread over the length &circumference of the stator)
High temp in a few points indicate localized hot spots which are dangerous

Operator Actions:

Hourly checking for any abnormal reading of stator temperature

Check stator water inlet temperature ( 40C)
Increase cooling(inlet) water flow by increasing opening of discharge valve
Immediate maintenance is advisable in case of hot spot point

Ques :124 : What are the causes of loss of excitation? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Field flasher circuit unhealthy while closing of field breaker

Fault in excitation system

Plant Response:

Field breaker will not close while synchronizing the unit

Generator breaker trips with tripping of the unit if loss of excitation appears in unit running
Motoring action if the generator breaker does not open

Operator Actions:

Check for excitation system if announciation of alarm is not resetted

If loss of excitation appears in running unit, see that generator breaker has not opened. If not, trip
the unit immediately by manually
Ques :125 : What are the causes Over fluxing? What will be the plant response and operator actions
in such cases?
Causes:

High V/f ratio (flux V/f). i.e. if voltage increases and frequency decreases
Turbine speed is less than rated speed with excitation on auto, which will try to keep the voltage to
normal
When excitation level is high under manual control when the turbine speed is less than normal due
to high voltage required by the system condition.
Over excitation during run up or run down of the generator
Load shedding in system may cause excessive voltage rise

Plant Response :

Alarm for V/f ratio at value 2.4 and delayed tripping of the unit at its value 2.6
Generator trips at 115 % over voltage. Tripping is from voltage regulator circuit of excitation
system with a back up from PT of the generator busbar

Operator Actions :

Maintain rated generator voltage with a variation of +- 5%

Watch MVAR, cos on generator panel and see that they are within the limits w.r.t. load
Excitation current should not increase 2500 A, in any case.

*Ques : 126: What are the causes Rotor Earth fault? What will be the plant response and operator
actions in such cases?
Causes:

Earthed rotor winding

Plant Response:

Alarm for 1st rotor E/F. set can be allowed to run with careful watch over generation and excitation
parameters
In case of 2nd rotor E/F, the generator trips

Operator actions :

On appearing 1st rotor E/F, check the spill current and keep the selection switch on 2nd rotor E/F
allowing the generator to run with close watch
Call for advice of maintenance staff and run the unit as per their instructions

Ques : 127 : What are the causes of Drum level low? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Tripping of one of the working feed pumps

Mal operation of feed auto/feed regulation/ scoop on auto
Sudden reduction of load
Sudden tripping of one or more mills, oil burners, etc.
Water wall tube failure
Inadequate opening of drum emergency drain/low point drain, etc

Plant Response :

Drum level low alarm

Drum level when falls below the visible range of guage glass, may affect flow through down
comer and may lead to starvation

Operator Actions:

Check the tripped feed pump and give clearance for restarting, if no fault
Check boiler for tube leakage
Check drum drain and low point drain
Check feed water auto control
Start reserve feed water pump on auto or manual with discharge in limit to avoid tripping on over
load
Switch over failed scoop from auto to manual
Check water flow recorders to verify rate of feeding for a given load to decide possible tube
leakage in the boiler or open drains

Dont bypass the drum level low protection for tripping of unit
When drum level disappears from guage glass, it is safe to trip unit

Ques :128: What are the causes of Drum level high? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Mal operation of feed control/scoop on auto

Over feeding
Sudden increase in load
Sudden increase in firing rate

Plant response:

Drum level high alarm

Emergency drum drain opens if set on auto
Super heater temp drops sharply at drum level extremely high

Operator Actions :

Change over feed control from auto to manual

Open drum emergency drains
Open main steam line drains
Reduce load for controlling water level ( if high water level is due to upward load surge)
Check up for stuck up scoop/ feed regulator
Watch out hammering in main steam line
Open all drains in the system between boiler main steam stop valve and turbine control valves

Ques :129 : What are the consequences of drum level high and drum level low?
Drum level High:

Potential source of instantaneous damage to turbine, super heater, main steam line, turbine control
valve, etc
Possible source of salt deposition on turbine blade

Drum level low:

Drum level low below the visible range of guage glass may affect flow through down comer and
may lead to starvation

Ques : 130: What are the causes of low super heater/ re heater temperature? What will
be the plant response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes :

Inadequate air flow

High spray
Tripping of higher elevation mills
Lower burner tilt
Too high feed water temperature
Dirty super heater/ re heater

Plant Response :

Unit may trip if S/H temp drops suddenly

Negative expansion of turbine

Operator Actions :

Increase air flow if necessary

Reduce spray if necessary on manual mode
Tilt burner upwards if required
Operation of S/H soot blower
Change over top elevation mills
Avoid sharp increasing of load ( lead to drop in boiler pressure)

Note: Action for low S/H & low R/H temp are similar except reheat temp is not affected
by feed water temperature
Ques : 131: What are the causes of high super heater/ re heater temperature? What will
be the plant response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes :

Inadequate spray
Use of top elevator mills on loads
High burner tilt
High excess air
Low feed water temp
Furnace slagging
Sudden raise in firing leading to spurt in boiler pressure

Plant Response :

Alarm for high R/H or S/H temp

Alarm for high metal temp
Rise in +ve turbine expansion

Operator Actions:

Check feed water temp and bring heaters in service

Tilt burner downwards, if necessary
Reduce air flow , if necessary
Initiate water wall soot blowing
Change over to lower elevation mills, if possible
Slow down firing rate
Check spray control valves for open position

Caution: (1)Feed water differential pressure should be at least 5 atg.

(2) If safety valves operated, watch for their re seating. If not re seating then take
actions to reseat
Ques : 132: What are the causes of high steam pressure? What will be the plant response
and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Sudden drop in generator load

Mal operation of steam pressure controller

Un controlled coal flow through mills

High firing rate

Plant Response:

Super heater or drum safety valves may blow

Auxiliary steam pressure may shoot up
Water level fluctuation expected
Generator load may increase

Operator Actions:

Switch over steam pressure controller to manual

Reduce coal feeding
Reduce oil firing, if high
Decrease coal firing rate to control the steam pressure. Furnace stability may disturb with tripping
of oil burners
Increase generator load, if possible
Switch-off one or two coal feeders for a short while, if necessary
Check coal feeders for uncontrolled coal delivery
Keep close watch on water level fluctuations in water level
Normalize firing rate as soon as pressure starts dropping

Ques : 133: What are the causes of low steam pressure? What will be the plant response
and operator actions in such cases?
Causes :

Sudden increase in generator load

Tripping of one or more mills
Mal operation of steam pressure controller
Coal hang up in mills
Disturbed combustion conditions in furnace

Plant Response/ Operator actions:

Check combustion conditions in boiler furnace. Introduce oil support . if necessary

Start another mill, if combustion conditions permits
Reduce generation, if possible
Change over steam pressure controller to manual and control steam pressure
Confirm coal hang up in mills with mill instrumentation . If hang up, stop the mill
Watch drum level during this disturbance
Check coal feeders for proper coal delivery

Ques : 134: What are the causes of both feed pump failure and the reserve pump does not start?
What will be the plant response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes :

Low suction pressure

Tripping of feed pumps on suction pressure low or discharge pressure low
Failure of cooling water to seals
Working oil high trip
Power failure
Mal function of feed regulator loading both the feed pumps beyond permissible discharge rate
causes tripping on high feed discharge

Plant Response :

Simultaneous failure of both the feed pumps with reserve also not starting would certainly cause
drum level to fall and subsequent tripping of the unit

Operator Action:

Tripping of unit
Check feed pumps and restart attending the defects , if possible

Ques : 135: What are the causes of high furnace pressure? What will be the plant response
and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

One of the two ID fan tripping

Mal operation of regulating vanes of ID fan
Closing of dampers on the flue gas side
Un stable coal flame
Low wind box pressure
Improper air distribution at elevations. Too much or too low fuel air
Sudden starting of mill
Loss of ignition energy
Un equal burner tilt at corner
Burner tilt in extremes ( up or down)
Gradually building up of fouling in air pre heater
Furnace water sealing broken
Opening of man hole/s in flue gas path
ID fan/ PA fan air out of control ( excession)

Plant Response :

Tripping of unit on high furnace pressure ( 200mm)

Possibilities of major/ minor furnace explosion
Unstable combustion in the furnace
Escaping of flue gas from man holes/peep holes
Dropping in boiler pressure
Tripping of igniter with associated problems
High suction reading after ESP on one side indicates less flue gas flow on that side

Operator Actions :

Check for draft readings

Check any damper for closing
Check damper open indication and correct for the defects, if any
Check vane control mechanism of ID fans, motor current, etc
Switch over to Manual vane control
Reduce load if one ID fan has tripped
Check air regime for correct air flow
Check combustion regime (opening of auxiliary air, fuel air damper, wind box, etc)
Marginal high furnace pressure can be handled by reducing secondary and primary air output
slightly
See that cold/hot air entry to idle mills is closed(Except low amount cooling air)
See that air heaters are rotational. Re start air heaters , if tripped
Check furnace seal. ( Seal may break by sudden slag, low/interrupted water supply)

Check auto control of ID fans. Choked impulse line disturbs auto control
Check burner tilt at corners. All corners must have equal tilts
Check for open manholes and close them
Check air pre heater for re starting
Confirm dampers for open position
Check ID fan vane mechanism links for shearing or keys worked loose
Check furnace seal over flow
Check burner tilt
Check burner for proper combustion

Ques: 136: What are the causes of low furnace pressure? What will be the plant response
and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

ID fan auto control failure

ID fan vane control mechanism failure causing vane to open wide
Sudden load thrown off
Sudden decrease in input or tripping of one FD fan

Plant Response:

Tripping of unit ( 200mm)

Unstable flame conditions
Blow out flame from working igniter / oil guns

Operator Action:

Switch over ID fan control to manual

Check ID fan vane control mechanism
Check air flow. Correct, if necessary
Restart FD fan, if tripped

Ques:137: What are the causes of Flame failure? What will be the plant response
and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Closing of trip valves on heavy oil/ worm up oil/ igniter when fuel oil is used as support/main fuel
Sudden decreasing of feeder speed of mill/s to minimum
Loss of igniter support energy
Sudden closing of Aux fuel air dampers to burner nozzles
Too low or too high wind box pressure causing un stable combustion
Water wall tube failure (water jet may extinguish flame)
Mal operation of soot blower nozzles
Mal function of flame scanners due to supply failure of scanner air fan, slag soot on scanner
lenses, etc
Burner tilt negative extreme due to air failure to power cylinders
Sudden coal hang ups in any one or two mills

Plant Response :

Tripping of unit on flame failure

Immediately prime to flame failure

(a)Fluctuations in furnace draft

(b)Flickering of flame scanners
(c )Tripping of PA fans or low primary pressure
(d)High coal air temp after mill
(e)Failure of oil burner/igniter

Operator Actions :

Check flame scanner systems (outputs, cooling, etc)

Re light oil burner if disturbance is not severe. But if heavy fluctuations, introducing oil burners
may cause explosion
Trip the unit if the flame scanner is found defective
Stop the mill/s having no/pulsating coal flow ( low current of mill motor, high air temp after mill,
no coal flow alarm)
Introduce oil support adjacent to working mills
Check burner tilt (+- 10). If some corner nozzle have slipped, bring them to uniform action
Do not attempt soot blowing at low loads, un stable combustions or when ID fan is over loaded
Check furnace for flame condition
Check furnace for steam leakages ( tube puncture)

Ques: 138: What are the causes of fall in condenser vacuum? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Reduced gland steam pressure

Failure of sectors due to low aux. steam pressure or high level in condenser
Failure of CW pumps
Opening of vacuum system drains
Vacuum system air leakage from loose flanges, instrument tapping points, etc
Failure of GC-I ejector, siphon to condenser
Failure of gland sealing water to valves with sealing arrangements
In adequate condensate flow through GC-I and ejector
Opening of vacuum breaker valve

Plant Response :

Low vacuum increases exhaust hood temp. Higher exhaust hood temp further deteriorate vacuum
Tripping of unit ( < 540 mm of Hg)

Operator Actions :

Check GC-I and ejectors for performance

Check and maintain sealing steam pressure and temperature
Maintain auxiliary steam pressure and temperature
Check ejector & GC-I siphons to condenser (Check by hot lines)
Check CW pump for adequate flow. If low, start additional pump or increase opening of the valves
Reduce generator load if vacuum is falling and bring reserve ejector in service
Check vacuum breaker valve for proper closing. Check water to valve seals
Check hot well level and maintain it within the visible range
Check open drains from heaters, re heaters of boiler and possible air leakages

Check flange joints with a candle to locate sources of air leakage

Ensure adequate condensate flow through ejector and gland coolers
If vacuum has dropped below 540 mm of Hg and unit not tripped, hand trip it immediately
without waiting for improvement

Ques:139: What are the causes of High turbine eccentricity? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Improper heating of turbine rotor during start up

Improper draining of steam lines and turbine cylinders causes entry of water to the turbine
Abrupt drop in main steam temp due to water carry over in gland steam
Deformation of cylinders
Engaged Barring gear

Plant Response :

Increasing turbine vibration

Unusual noise from turbine

Operator Actions:

Follow start up procedure for maintaining parameters, draining of steam lines and cylinders,
soaking times, etc , strictly
Before rolling the turbine see that eccentricity has not exceeded 0.07 micron and while running it
should not be more than 2
See that lube oil temp is maintained between 40c to 45c
Check quality of lube oil, bearing temp of turbine, etc
Keep spray control valves of bypass system properly isolated

Ques:140 : What are the causes of turbine over speed? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes :

Failure of stop valve and control valves

Emergency governor failure
Extraction NRVs not closed fully,resulting steam admission in case of turbine trip
High grid frequency

Plant Response :

Turbine likely to damage on over speeding causing serious damage to men & machine in the
vicinity

Operator Actions:

Check over speeding mechanism periodically as per recommendations

Check actual over speed trip by simulation at least once in three months and must after major
overhauling of turbine
Check forced closing of NRVs on extraction lines every month at lower loads/when turbine is
tripped/during start up

Ques:141: What are the causes of high turbine bearing temp? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?

Causes:

High lube oil inlet temperature

Excess vibration of bearings
Bearing failure/ Excessive bearing clearance
Contaminated lube oil ( high moisture, dirt, etc)
Inadequate oil flow/low lube oil pressure

Plant Response:

Bearing failure and turbine failure in case of operation for long periods at high bearing
temperature

Operator Actions:

Maintain correct lube oil flow, pressure and temperature to bearing

Periodically analyze lube oil for moisture, contamination, etc
Check axial shift, if thrust bearing temperature are higher
Check bearing for vibrations
If temp continues to be higher than 75c, reduce generator load to see if situation improves,
otherwise trip the unit manually

Ques:142 : What are the causes of HP/IP/LP differential high(-ve)? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?
Causes:

Rolling and loading of turbine too slowly during hot start up

Boiler steam temp is less than turbine metal temperature
Low condenser vacuum

Plant Response :

Seal rubs expected at extreme value

Metallic sound from turbine when interference exists
Increase in turbine vibration

Operator Actions :

Apply rotor heating to affected cylinder (HP/IP)

Improve condenser vacuum in case of LP cylinder
Increase boiler steam temperature and load turbine fast
During rolling, if possible, choose lower steam pressure

Cautions :

When turbine differential at extreme negative after rolling , tripping would not be an ideal solution
as it would worsen the situation
Rotor heating, boiler parameter correction, rapid loading, etc are better alternatives
It is essential not to roll turbine with negative mismatch of steam parameters or when negative
expansion is pre dominant
However, if, turbine is tripped, break vacuum immediately to reduce possible damages

Ques:143 : What are the causes of HP/IP/LP differential high(+ve)? What will be the plant
response and operator actions in such cases?

Causes:

Too high steam temp before rolling

Too fast rolling or too fast loading of turbine
Inadequate soaking during rolling as well as turbine loading
High gland steam temperature

Plant Response :

Seal rubs expected at extreme value

Metallic sound from turbine when interference exists
Increase in turbine vibration

Operator Actions :

Resort to flange and stud heating for HP & IP cylinders

Reduce vacuum in case of LP cylinder
Reduce boiler steam temperature
Hold turbine loading ( soaking)
Control gland steam temperature
In case of high +ve turbine expansion, tripping turbine will help in reduction of expansion of HP
& IP cylinders
Break vacuum to reduce damage

Ques:144: What are the causes of sparking in brushes? What will be the plant response and
operator actions in such cases?
Causes

Dirt in brushes
Worn brush/ carbon deposition
Lack of adequate spring pressure

Plant Response:
Sparks leads to damages of commutation
Some times leads to spurious E/F
Operator Actions:

Cleaning in m/c running condition following laid down procedure

Adjust spring calling maintenance help, if sparking is persisting

Ques:145 : Name the operational steps involved in Cold Start of the unit

Start BCW pumps and achieve the required level in over head tank
Start compressors and achieve rated air pressure
Start CW pumps
Start BCW booster pumps
Start Air pre heaters
Start ID & FD fans maintaining ve draft (-10 mm WC)
Start boiler purging ( takes about 10 minutes)
Light up the boiler with LDO guns, provided boiler drum level is O.K and SH, Eco vents and S/H
drains are opened
Close the S/H & Eco vents on achieving 2.0 kg/cm2 boiler drum pressure

Open the start up drains (S-25, S-26)

Charge PRDS & its gland steam, FO heating and atomizing lines
On achieving boiler drum pressure of 40 kg/cm2, charge the main steam line, provided the drains
(MS-49 &50) are opened
Open dynamic separators
Achieve main steam pressure of 40-60 kg/cm2 and temp of 400c at turbine end
Start Nash pumps and achieve rated vacuum
Open loop and casing drains
Open turbine end MSSV
Achieve main steam temp higher than the casing temperature at least by 50c
Close the start up valve
Close JOP & OPTD at turbine speed of 360 R.P.M
Start turbine rolling and achieve speed of 1000 R.P.M through starting device and keep it on soak
charge for 15 to 30 minutes
Increase the turbine speed and achieve speed of 3000 R.P.M , not stopping at critical speeds.(After
the turbine speed of 2400 R. P.M, speed to be increased through speeder gear)
Make field breaker ON. Build up the generator voltage through excitation, match the incoming
and running voltage and frequencies.
On achieving 12 Oclock position on synchronous scope with Syn. in limit green lamp, close the
generator breaker.
Thus the unit is synchronized with the grid
After synchronizing switch off AOP, open H2 cooling valve, close the dynamic separator and
close the S/H drains (7 Mtr.)

Ques : 146 : Name the operational steps involved in Hot Start of the unit

Hot start with main steam temp from 380c to 480c

Maintain Hotwell and dearator level
Charge gland sealing line after charging PRDS
Open dynamic separators and open turbine end MSSV
Reset all annunciations and relays
Open ESV and start rolling of the turbine and achieve speed up to 1000 R.P.M
Achieve speed up to 3000R.P.M
Make field breaker ON. Build up the generator voltage through excitation, match the incoming
and running voltage and frequencies.
On achieving 12 Oclock position on synchronous scope with Syn. in limit green lamp, close the
generator breaker.
Thus the unit is synchronized with the grid
After synchronizing switch off AOP, open H2 cooling valve, close the dynamic separator and
close the S/H drains (7 Mtr.)

DISTRIBUTION
Ques : 1 : State the advantages of static meters

Correct assessment : 0.5 class of accuracy compared to 2.5 class of electro-mechanical meters
No moving part, hence no problem of wear & tear in long run
Availability many parameters in a single meter :
V, I, Cos , kWh, kVArh, kVAh, Maximum demand,Time & date, Phase sequence, separate
Energy registration for peak & night hours, etc
Prevention of Theft : Permanent LED in case of reversal or connection on earthing
Data storage & retrieval : Data of last 12 months billing period, load survey,etc
Better display facility : Digital
Easy installation : Not necessary in plumb unlike in case of electro-mechanical meters

Ques : 2 : What are the disadvantages of Static meters ?

High cost : Rs 8,000/- to 10,000/- for 3 meters

Many manufacturers with different design with regard to connection and parameter reading
( ABB/ Duke/ Secured)
Different retrieval techniques and instrument required
Different software programmes. For eg Smart-2K software package for SEMS meters
Lack of knowledge & not repairable
Display stops in case of power failure- on battery mode
Failure of any component in its electrical circuits, the meter stops working

Ques : 3 : Explain construction of Static energy meters

Working on the principle of electro-magnetism and Faradays law

Electronic circuit mounted on PCB
Current coils & Voltage coils along with packed recording mechanism
Without moving disc, so high accuracy
Arrangement for protection against theft
- Permanent LED in case of reversal of connections or connection on earthing
- Auxiliary current coil for neutral by pass detection
Digital current & pressure sensor
Calibration in pulse/kWh-impulse test
MRI- memory for last 62 working days- 0 to 24 hrs. chart for each day

Ques : 4: Why current coil guage is more and number of turns less ?

Current coil has to be of low resistance to handle load current

As per Ohms law , Resistance R= V/I
Also, resistance R= l / A
Where = resistivity of the conductor
l= length of the conductor
A= Cross sectional area
Thus, to have low resistance value, length should be less and cross sectional area should be large
So, the guage (A) of current coil is large and number of turns ( l ) should be less

Ques :5 : Why pressure (voltage) coil guage is less and number of turns more ?

Pressure coil has to be of high resistance to handle working voltage

As per Ohms law , Resistance R= V/I
Also, resistance R= l / A
Where = resistivity of the conductor
l= length of the conductor
A= Cross sectional area
Thus, to have high resistance value, length should be more and cross sectional area should be less
So, the guage (A) of voltage coil is less and number of turns ( l ) should be more

Ques :6 : State mode of operande for theft of energy

By passing of energy meter

Providing link in the terminal of meter
Cutting service line and using two way switch
Direct cable from the transformer center
Reversal/less recording of meter by changing sequence in terminal connections
Tempering of glass
Inserting x-ray film strip
Gap in the glass
Re fixing of glass, etc

Hole in meter body and inserting thin rod to stop disc rotation
Opening and tempering recording mechanism-reversing reading /changing gears, etc
Changing CT ratio and reducing the recording
Un authorized extension of load

Ques : 7 : What is T&D losses ? State the value of T& D losses during 2003-04 in GEB system as per
GEB and survey of different agencies

Energy losses in the process of supplying electricity to consumers is termed as T&D lossed
Energy is dissipated in the conductor and in equipments used for transmission, transformation
(through transformers), sub transmission and distribution of power
T&D losses categorized as
(a) Technical losses
(b) Commercial losses

Present value of T&D losses

GEB- 23%
TERI- 50%
SBI, Capital market for DVB : 58%

Ques : 8 : Explain Technical T&D losses

Technical T&D losses is the energy dissipated

(a) in the conductor and
(b) in equipments used for transmission, transformation( transformer), sub transmission and
distribution of power
Technical losses are inherent in the system
It can be reduced to an optimum level
It can be sub grouped as Transmission, Sub transmission and Distribution depending on the
Stage of power transformation and transmission system
Figure:

Generation

GT
11/400-220-132KV

Step down to
220-132-66KV

22-11KV/440V
Step
down
66/33-22-11KV

Dist.
Transformer
Transmission losses
Sub Transmission
Dist losses
Ques :9 : What are the standard value of stage wise T&D losses as per the study made by EPRI
USA ?
Stage of power transmission

Minimum Maximum

Step up from Generating station and transmission through EHV lines

0.5 %
Transmission losses (400/220/132/66KV)
1.5 %
Sub transmission losses ( 33/22/11KV)
2.0 %
Distribution losses ( LT system of 440 Voltage)
3.0 %
Total= 7.0 %

Figure:

0.5 to 1.0%

GT

1.5 % to 3.0%
Step down to
220-132-66KV

2.0% to 4.5%

1.0 %
3.0 %
4.5 %
7.0 %
15.5 %

3.0% to 7.0%

22-11KV/440V
Step

down

Generation

11/400-220-132KV

66/33-22-11KV
Transmission
losses

Dist.
Transformer
Sub Trans.
Dist.
losses
losses

Ques : 10 :What are the reasons for high Commercial T & D losses ?

Pilferage
Defective meters
Errors in meter reading and
Errors in estimating un metered supply of energy

Ques : 11 : On what does the T&D loss of the system depend ?

The pattern of energy use

Intensity of load demand
Load density and
Configuration of the transmission and distribution system that vary for various system elements

Ques :12: Why Regulatory Commission is concerned about T & D losses ?

OR
Mention the significance of correct assessment of T&D losses with induction of Elect Act-03

With the setting up of Regulatory Commission under Electricity Act 2003, accurate estimation of
T& D losses has gained importance
The actual level of losses directly affects the sales and power purchase requirements
It has a bearing on determination of electricity tariff
In the absence of realistic estimates of T&D losses, it is not possible to correctly estimate the
revenue requirements which in turn will be the basis off tariff design

Ques : 13 : What is the significance of un metered energy assessment in Agriculture ?

Estimation of un metered supply has a great bearing on estimation of T&D losses

Higher the estimation of un metered consumption, lower will be the T&D losses and vice-versa
On account of inherent errors in the estimation, most utilities deliberately over estimate it either to
get higher subsidy or to project reduced T&D losses

Ques : 14 :What are the different methods of assessment of un metered supply of electricity in
Agriculture ?

Load factor based estimation

Estimate based on feeder wise theoretical T&D losses
Estimation based on reading of meters installed at all the dist. transformers located on a feeder
However, none of the methods provide the correct estimation

Ques :15 : Can it be possible to have regional base tariff ? What should be the factors involved ?
OR
Mention the factors governing energy consumption in Agriculture ?

Cropping pattern
Ground water level
Seasonal variation
Hours of operation

Ques :16 : What are the main reasons of high T&D losses ?

Not clear understanding on magnitude of technical & commercial T&D losses

System of inaccurate energy accounting
Theft of power

Ques : 17 : What are the reasons for high Technical T&D losses ?

Overloading of distribution system due to inadequate investment on transmission& distribution

Haphazard growth of sub transmission & distribution systems
Large scale rural electrification through long 11KV and LT lines
Too many stages of transformation
Improper load management
Inadequate reactive compensation
Poor quality of equipment used in agriculture pumping, cooler, air conditioners and industrial
loads

Ques :18 : Mention the short term measures for reducing Technical T&D losses ?

Identifying & strengthening of the weakest areas in the distribution system

Reducing the length of LT lines by re location of distribution sub station or installation of
additional distribution transformers
Installation of lower capacity of distribution transformers in stead of cluster formation
Replacement of dist. transformer with amorphous core transformer having lower no load losses
Installation of shunt capacitors for improvement of power factor

Ques : 19 : What are the long term measures for reducing Technical T&D losses ?

Formulation of comprehensive System Improvement (SI) scheme

Estimation of financial requirements for SI works
Plan for phased strengthening and improvement of the distribution and associated trans. System
Detailed studies of distribution system considering the expected load development in future
Compilation of data with regard to existing loads, operating conditions, fore casting of loads, etc
Mapping of complete primary & secondary distribution system depicting with relevant parameters

Ques :20 : What are the measures for reducing non-technical / Commercial losses ?

Installation of tamper proof energy meters

Adequate meter testing facility
Introducing energy audit fixing personal responsibility
Setting of benchmarks for yearly reduction of T&D losses
Stringent measures and severe penalties for theft of power
Setting up of vigilant squad to check and prevent pilferage of energy
Measures for overall satisfaction to consumers

Ques: 21: What is Load factor, Diversity factor & Demand factor ?
kWh consumed
= --------------------------------Peak KW x Nos of hours

(a) Load factor

(b) Diversity factor =

Maximum demand
(c ) Demand factor = -----------------------

Maximum demand of the installation

-------------------------------------------Sum of individual maximum demand

Connected load
Ques : 22 : What is Tariff ? Explain two part tariff and flat rate tariff

Tariff means the rate by which the electrical power consumption is charged to the consumer

Two part Tariff :

It has two parts ; Charge based on KVA & charge based on kWh consumption
i.e. Part-I : KVA charges per month ( say Rs 60/- per KVA per month)
Part-II : kWh charges per month ( say Rs. 3/- per kWh per month )

Flat rate Tariff :

Applied for small domestic, commercial consumers & HP based Ag. Tariff
The charges are based on kWh consumed or HP based
It is in Rs / kWh or slab wised for HP based tariff

Ques :23 : How KVA demand is measured ?

KVA maximum demand is recorded by maximum demand indicator in KVA meter

In this meter, a pointer is arranged to indicate the maximum KVA demand during the month
The demand during successive 15 / 30 minutes is averaged and the pointer shifts to the highest
average value during the month

Ques :24 : What is the significance of Maximum KVA demand ?

KVA maximum demand should be met by supply company, particularly during peak load periods
when generation is in adequate
For same KW load, higher KVA means more current through supply transformer, etc
Higher current is not advisable as it causes higher temperature stresses and reduce life of
equipment

Ques :25 : What are the methods for reducing maximum KVA demand ?

Installation of shunt capacitors for power factor improvement

By staggering the load in time so that peak load is reduced

Ques :26 : Define Maximum demand

It means twice the largest amount of kWh or the KVAh as the case may be , delivered to the point
of supply of consumer during any consecutive period of 30 minutes each in the month

Ques :27 : Explain GIS in distribution

GIS : Geographical Information System

Provides various information which includes
(a) GPS survey
(b) GIS mapping
(c ) Asset management
(d) List of consumers
(e) Energy Audit & Accounting
(f)Latest figure of fault management
Consumers complaints can be reduced
Electricity bills & complaints effectively attended
Quick services to the consumers

Less expense with reduced fault

Faster releasing of new connections
Increasing revenue and Boards income
Introduced in Vadodara City

Ques : 28 : What are the types of detection of Theft of energy ?

Theft of power
Mal practice
Slow/stop meter
Multiplying Factor (M.F.) ignored/wrong/ missing
Re sale of energy

Ques :29 :Explain ABCD formula for assessment of bill in case of Theft by LT consumers

The quantity of units consumed per month to be worked out as per ABCD formula specified
under Condition of supply , clause No 34,35 &36
Ax C x D
Consumption units per month = ---------------B

A=Total connected load found at the

time of detection of theft of energy
B=Diversity factor
C=Average load factor
D=Number of hours in a month

Ques : 30: Explain how Period is to be considered for assessment of bill in case of theft of energy ?

For calculation of Period for assessment of theft bill is to be derived as per Condition of
supply clause No 33(A) &33(B)
Past six months from the date of detection ( For seasonal industries, it is last six working
months), excluding off-season period declared by the consumer
Actual period from the date of commencement of supply up to the date of detection
Actual period from the date of replacement of component of metering system in which evidence
is detected within six months from the date of detection and up to the date of detection
Actual period from the date of previous installation checking (resulted into supplementary bill)
under provision of clause within six months period of the date of detection under consideration
and up to date of detection

Ques :31 : Explain MHC formula for assessment of bill in case of Theft by HT consumers

Where M= Demand in KW (KVA x Cos )

H= No of hours in the month
C= Load factor
The actual maximum demand to be considered an equivalent to 70% of the total connected load at
the time of detection subject to a minimum of the contracted demand
Assessment of units per month= M x H x C

Ques : 32 : State the value of Diversity Factor and Load Factor under ABCD formula in case of
following categories
Category

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Residential Lighting & Fans

Non residential- Lighting & Fans
Cinema
Floor mill

Diversity Factor(B) Load Factor(C)

(%)
(%)
2.5
1.0
1.5
1.0

30
35
60
30

(e) Textile processing Industry

(f) Direct connection in Agriculture- un metered tariff
- metered tariff
(g) Direct connection For category other than Agriculture
(h) Temporary power supply

1.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

70
50
40
100
50

Ques : 33 : State the value of load factor for following category HT consumers
Caregory
(a) Hotels
(b) Large Commercial Complexes
(c ) Paper mill
(d) Oil mill
(e) Cement
(f) Cinema
(g) Direct connection

Load Factor ( C )
(%)
65
60
85
70
70
60
100

Ques : 34 : What are covered under Mal practice of energy

Supply of electricity to any person whose supply has been disconnected

Exceeding the contracted load without permission
Un authorized addition, alteration and/or extension in electrical installation without permission
Using supply from disconnected service
Supply to any other person without permission

Ques :35 : Explain briefly Jyoti Gram scheme

Honble CM has come out with a unique scheme, named Jyoti Gram intended to give 24 hours
power supply to rural public
With the present system of load shedding with Ag. load on rural feeders, it is not possible
Hence a separate feeder is to be laid
Any village can join the scheme by paying 30% of the expense
Balance 70 % of the amount is to be borne by the Government of Gujarat
In return, the village panchayat is to ensure loss on the feeder not more than 15%
Failing which the village shall be deprived of this facility
Efforts are made to cover as many villages as possible

Ques : 36 : Explain briefly Kutir Jyot scheme

As a social responsibility, the Govt. has prepared an unique scheme, named Kutir Jyot intended
to supply to a family having income less than Rs 11000/Financed by the State and REC
But not encouraging result, so far
The beneficiaries are not even in a position to pay the monthly electric bill

Ques : 37 : Write short note on APDRP scheme

APDRP: Accelerated Power Development and Reform Project

Scheme initiated by the Power Ministry, Govt. of India in 2000-01 and continue till the end of 11th
plan, i.e.2012
Provision of 1000 crores made in the Expenditure budget
The central theme are
(a) to utilize the existing generation capacity by R&M of existing power plants
(b) to strengthen the transmission & distribution system, including the system of energy
accounting and metering for reducing T&D losses

Finance is sanctioned as 25 % grant and 25% loan by MOP and the balance 50% to be arranged by
beneficiary from FIs/REC/ PFC

Ques :38 : List the R&M activities under APDRP scheme for reduction of distribution losses

Strengthening of distribution & sub transmission system by creation of new s/s, link lines,
revamping of existing s/s, augmentation/ replacement of deteriorated conductors, etc.
Implementation of SI scheme
Installation of tamper-proof, quality static meters for correct energy accounting
Installation of quality 3 meter on Ag. installation
DTC review for elimination of over loading on existing transformer, using amorphous core
transformer
Procurement of testing equipments

Ques : 39 : What are the actions to be taken for prevention of distribution transformer failure ?

Elimination of overloading on transformer

Proper protection on HV and LV side of the transformer
Proper maintenance of the line
Providing line spacers on the line to reduce line short circuit faults
Providing Distribution box of suitable capacity on the transformer

Ques : 40 : Name the kind of protections applied for

(a) Transformer
(b) 11KV HT line
(c) LT line
(a) Transformer :

Drop Out (DO) fuse on HT side for earth fault and phase fault protection
Distribution box with either Kit kat fuse or MCCB on LV side
For transformer having capacity 500KVA, over load
protection

(b) 11KV line

Over current and Earth fault relay protection

(c ) LT line

Kit kat fuses of suitable rating

Line spacers to avoid short circuiting

Ques : 41 : Explain categories of demand for LT connections ?

Category-A : Can be connected by laying only service line

Category-B : Can be connected by laying LT lines + service line
Category-C : Can be connected by augmentation of transformer +laying LT lines + service line
Category-D : Can be connected by erecting new T/C + HT line + LT line + service line

Ques :42 : What are the guiding factors in deciding category of application ?

Capacity of existing network with regard to capacity of the transformer and capacity of the LT line
Voltage regulation of the LT line should not be more than 8%, including the demanded load

Ques : 43 : Name the Appellate Authority deciding theft cases with regard to amount of

supplementary bill

Supplementary bill amount

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Up to 1 lac SE (Appellate)
Up to 3 lac ACE (Zone)
Greater than 3 lac at HO
Up to 10 lac- CE (Appellate)
Greater than 10 lac- Member of the Board/ Ex.Director (T&D)

Ques :44 : State the Power of Delegation for releasing new HT connection with respect to load
Demanded

Load demand
(a) 100 KVA to 275 KVA SE (O&M) , Circle
(b) 276 KVA to 500 KVA ACE (Zone)
(c) Above 500KVA GM( Commerce) , HO

Ques : 45: Describe the steps involved in the process of giving new HT connection

Registration of demand
Survey by field office
Issuance of the estimate
Execution of agreement by HO
Execution of work by field office or by the applicant on turn key basis
Allocation of Metering equipment by HO
Releasing of connection

Ques : 46 : State different category of consumers as per tariff

LFD-I
LFD-II
LFD-III
LTP-I
LTP-II
LTP-III
LTP-IV
LTP-IV (A)
HTP-I

HTP-II(A)

HTP-II (B)

HTP-III
HTP-IV
Agriculture
Street Light
Temporary
1/3
Water works and Suez pump

Residential
Non residential
Educational institute & Charity organization
Less than 125 HP Industrial
Educational institute, Laboratories ( R&D)
20 KW to 80 KW
Less than 125 HP ( but night hours from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. )
20KW to 80KW ( but night hours from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. )
More than100 KVA ( resort, water park, cinema , aerodram, auditorium, hotel,
Railway, Military, amusement, park, bank, studio, office, film production, etc
More than 100 KVA
100 KVA ( Residential colony, town ship, cantaurment, Govt. educational,
Institute, etc
Temporary ( 100KVA)
100KVA ( but night hours from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. )
Metered/ Un metered

Ques : 47 : Explain Load Shedding

It is necessary to interrupt some load to save system from loss of stability , particularly when
generators are over loaded beyond the maximum mechanical power input, called load shedding

During over load, the system frequency decays proportional to the generator inertia and amount of
over load
Frequency relay is utilized for load shedding
The greater the rate of decay of frequency, faster the relay operation
Load is disconnected in steps/stages
Load shedding is carried out at distribution level and not at transmission level

Ques : 48 : Give five important commandants for imparting services to the consumers

Quality of supply and consumers satisfaction should be at center

Redress the public grievances by making the administration public oriented
Courteous attitude of the officers and employees towards consumers
Achieve high level of operational efficiency and financial viability
Regular meetings at Panchayat/ Taluka/ District level with Officials/ Non Govt. organization, etc
in various forum discussing grievances and explaining Boards limitations such as load shedding,
maintaining grid frequency, cascading, etc.

Ques : 49 : Give Category wise consumer strength as on 31-03-2003

Consumer category
Numbers
% of category
Domestic-1
5728203
98.47
Domestic-3
89263
1.53
Total
5817466
Commercial-1
801 984
94.24
Commercial-3
49013
5.76
Total
850997
Industrial (L&M)
150760
Industrial ( HT)
4677
St. Light
16686
Agriculture Unmetered
519685
85.4
Metered
25103
4.13
Tatkal
63744
10.48
Total
608532
Water works
27676
Electrical rail
10
Military
16
Licensee
4
Total
7476724
Ques :50 : Give Feeder wise T&D losses and Unit sold out

% of total
76.61
1.19
77.81
10.73
0.66
11.39
2.02
0.06
0.22
6.95
0.34
0.86
8.14
0.34
0
0
0
100

Category Total Feeders % T&D loss(Sep-03) Unit sold(Sep-03) % of total unit Sold
HT Ind
11
LT Ind
195
GIDC
1252
Urban
960
Rural
84
EHT Exp 2502
EHT Ind 2699

0.68
7.96
3.5
27.5
11.07
13.92
10.71

590.614
1990.38
953.324
3802.584
7714.015
15050.92
19130.19

Ques :51 : Give Category wise MUs sold with respect to Number of consumers as on
Category

% of MUs sold

Number of consumers

Domestic
Commercial
LT Ind

9.91
2.71
7.67

57 lacs
8.3 lacs
1.54 lacs

3.92
13.32
6.33
25.26
51.25

HT Ind
Ag

19.38
49.045

4678 Nos
6 lacs

Ques : 52 : Name components involved in Revenue Accounting of GEB

Revenue Income

Sale of electricity
Miscellaneous
Govt. subsidy

Revenue Expenditure

Cost of power generated

Cost of poer purchase
Repair & maintenance
Employee cost
Administrative & General expense
Interest on loans from financial institutions
Depreciation

Ques : 53 : Classification of installation as per load demanded

1, 2 Wire, 230 Volts : Load not exceeding 25 Amps

Motive power not exceeding 2HP in aggregate
3, 4 Wire, 400 Volts : Exceeding 25 Amp( 6KW)
3, 3 Wire, 400 Volts : Exceeding 2 HP in aggregate
3, 3 Wire, 11/22 KV : 100KVA/100KW and above but less than 2500 KVA
3, 3 Wire, 66/132/220 KV : 2500 KVA

Ques :54 : List of documents required with application for HT connection

Land documents
Partnership deed
Power of attorney
NOC from Gujarat Pollution Control Board
1
Ques :55 : Name the critical parameters of KPI ( Key Performance Indicator) for distribution
Operational/ Management Indicators

Planning : Budget v/s Actual

Line breakdowns at 11KV
Transformer failure
Number of network maintenance staff
Safety
Meter testing

Financial Indicators

Theft of energy
T&D losses
Specific consumptions
Consumption
Arrears
Procurement of stores

Disconnection
Replacement of defective meters

Customer Service Indicators

Efficiency ratio
Application received during the period
Connection released during the period
Customer complaints

Ques :56 : How distribution loss and SFSL ( Surrogate Factor for System Loss) are calculated under
KPI ?

(Total energy input to the distribution system-Total energy sale to the consumers)
% Distribution loss =-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x100
( Total energy input to the distribution system)

(Total energy input to the distribution system-Total energy sale metered to the consumer)
% SFSL = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------x 100
(Total energy input to the distribution system)

Ques :57 : What are the concept and repercussions behind reducing T&D losses?
Concept

Strengthening of financial position

Improvement in quality of power
Determination of tariff by GERC
Proper load management

Repercussion

More power purchase -Revenue loss

Adverse effect on the image of the organization
Dissatisfaction among consumers by way of un balance tariff and poor quality of power
Effect on implementation of planning

Ques : 58 : What are the concept and repercussion in measuring Specific consumption ?
Concept

Monitoring on quantum of energy used by individual category of consumers

Increase in sale/revenue
Optimum per capita consumption
Identifying area of attack/attention for reducing T&D losses

Repercussion

Lower per capita consumption

Reduction in revenue

Ques :59 : Name two Efficiency ratios pertaining to revenue. How they are calculated under KPI ?
Efficiency ratios
Monthly energy sold (metered)

(a) % of receiving energy which is billed = -------------------------------------- x100

Total energy received in the unit
Revenue collected during the month in Rs
(b) % of revenue collected by revenue billed=---------------------------------------------------- x100
Monthly energy assessment of the unit in Rs
Ques :60 : What are the concept and repercussion in measuring Efficiency ratio ?
Concept

Monitoring of each activity

Proper energy accounting
Better services to the consumers
Reduction in cost
Making organization strong

Repercussion :

Financial weakening
Damage to the image
Increase in expenditure

Ques :61: Give the difference between Revenue arrears and debit arrears

LAWS RELATING TO ELECTRICITY:

Ques : 1 : Define Wheeling

It is defined as the operation whereby the distribution system and associated facilities of a
transmission licensee or the distribution licensee, as the case may be, are used by another person
for the conveyance of electricity on payment of charges to be determined under section :62 of
Electricity Act-2003

Ques : 2 : Define : Open access

It is the non-discriminatory provision for the use of transmission lines or distribution system or
associated facilities with such lines or system by any licensee or consumer or a person engaged in
generation in accordance with the regulation specified by the appropriate commission as per
Electricity Act-2003

Ques : 3: Define : Franchisee :

A person authorized by a distribution licensee to distribute electricity on its behalf in a particular

area within his area of supply.

Ques : 4 : Define : Dedicated Transmission lines :

It means any supply lines for point to point transmission which are required for the purpose of
connecting Captive Generating plant or Generating stations or the load center, as the case may be

Ques : 5 :Define : Grid

It is the high voltage backbone system of interconnected transmission lines, sub stations and
Generating plants

Ques : 6 : Define: Grid code

It means the Grid code specified by the Central Commission under clause (h) of sub section (1) of
section 79 of Electricity Act 2003

Ques : 7 : Define : State Grid Code:

It means the Grid code referred under clause (h) of sub section (1) of section 86 of Electricity Act
2003

Ques:8 : Define : Grid Standards:

It means the Grid Standards specified under clause (d) of section 73 of Electricity Act-2003 by the
Central Electricity Authority

Ques : 9 :Define :Electricity Supply Code

It means the Electricity supply code specified under section 50 of Electricity Act-2003

Ques : 10 : Define :Real Time Operation

It means actions to be taken at a given time at which information about the electricity system is
made available to the concerned Load Dispatch Center
Ques : 11 : Define : Stand alone System

It means the electricity system set up to generate power and distribute electricity in a specified
area without connection to the grid
It includes those based on renewable sources of energy and non conventional source of energy for
rural area

Ques :12 : Define : Area of Supply

It means the area within which a distribution licensee is authorized to supply electricity by his
licence

Ques : 13 : Define : Captive Generation Plant

A power plant set up by any person or by any co-operative society or association of persons
to generate electricity primarily for his/their own use is known as Captive Generation Plant

Ques : 14 : Define : Co generation

It means a process which simultaneously produces two or more forms of useful energy including
electricity

Ques :15 : Define : Distribution licensee

It means a licensee authorized to operate and maintain a distribution system for supplying
electricity to the consumers in his area of supply

Ques : 16 : Define : Electricity Trader

It means a person who has been granted a licence to undertake trading in electricity under section
12 of Electricity Act 2003

Ques : 17 : State the objectives of Electricity Act-2003

To consolidate the laws relating to Generation, Transmission, Distribution & Trading

For taking measures conducive to development of Electricity industry
Promoting competition therein
Protecting interest of consumers
Supply of electricity to all areas
Rationalization of electricity tariff
Ensuring transparent policies regarding subsidies
Promotion of efficient & environmentally benign policies,
Constitution of Central Electricity Authority, Regulatory Commissions and establishment of
Appellate Tribunal

Ques : 18 : State the Salient features of Electricity Act-2003

Central Govt. to prepare a National Electricity Policy in consultation with State ( Section 3)
Transmission utility at the center as well as at state level to be Govt company ( Section 38,39)
Dist. licensee is free to undertake generation & generating co. is free to take up dist( Sec 7,12)
Trading of electricity with ceiling on trading margin to be decided by Reg. Comm. (Sec- 12,79,88)
An Appellate Tribunal to hear appeal against the decision CERC & SERC ( Sec-111)
Provision relating to theft of energy made more stringent (Sec- 135 to 152)
Ombudsman scheme for redressal of consumer grievances ( Sec 42-6 )
Provision for safe guarding consumer interest ( Sections 57 to 58, 166)
Provision for continuance or re organization of GEB ( Sec 131, 172)
Ques :19 : Describe Ombudsman scheme

A scheme for redressal of consumers grievances as per clause 42( 5,6&7) of Electricity Act-2003
A forum to be established by dist. licensee within 6months as per guidelines of State Commission
Ombudsman to settle the grievances within such time &manner as specified by State Commission

Ques : 20 : Describe Appellate Tribunal

An Appellate Tribunal to hear appeal against the decision of CERC & SERC ( Sec 110,111)
Consists of Chair person & 3 other members
Chair person to be appointed by Central Govt. & members by Selection Committee ref. in Sec 78
Person aggrieved to deposit the amount of penalty while filing the appeal
Appeal to be filed within 45 days from the date of copy of order received
Endeavor to be made to dispose the appeal within 180 days from the date of receipt of appeal

Ques :21: What provisions are made to appeal to the Appellate Authority ?

Person aggrieved by a final order may appeal to the Appellate Authority within 30 days
One third of the assessed amount to be deposited while filing the appeal

The Appellate Authority to pass order after hearing the parties

The order of Appellate Authority shall be final

Ques : 22 : Describe Central Advisory Committee

Central Commission to establish an Advisory Committee as per Section 80 of Elect Act 2003
Consists of not more than 31 members to represent interest of commerce, industry, transport,
agriculture, labor, consumer, non government organization and academic & research bodies
Chair person of the Central Commission shall be the ex-officio Chairman
Members of the Central Commission be the members of ex-officio members of the Committee

Ques :23 : Describes objectives of Central Advisory Committee

Major questions of policy

Matters relating to quality, continuity & extent of service provided by licensees
Protection of consumers interest
Electricity supply & overall standards of performance of utilities

Ques : 24 : Describe the Electricity Supply Code

As per Section 50 of Electricity Act-2003, the State Commission to specify Electricity Supply
Code to provide for
(a) recovery of electricity charges
(b) intervals of billing
(c) disconnection of supply
(d) tampering, distress or damage to electrical plant, electrical lines or meter
(e) entry of licensee or any other person acting on behalf for disconnecting supply and
removing/replacing the meters, altering or maintaining lines/electric plant/meter
Ques :25: Under what conditions the license of a distribution licensee can be suspended ?

As per Section 24 (1) of Electricity Act-2003, the license of dist. licensee can be suspended
for a period not exceeding one year , if at any time the Appropriate Comm. is of the opinion that a
distribution licensee
(a) has persistently failed to maintain un interrupted supply of electricity
(b) unable to discharge the functions or performing the duties imposed on it
(c) has persistently defaulted in complying with any direction given by Appropriate Comm.
(d) has broken the terms and conditions of license
Ques : 26 : Explain Grid Standards

As per clause (d) of section 73, Grid Standards are to be specified by authority
The appropriate Govt. to issue directions to the RLDC/ SLDC, as the case may be, to take such
measures as may be necessary for maintaining smooth and stable transmission and supply of
electricity to any region or state.

Ques :27 : What are the duties of a Generating company ?

As per Section 10(1), Generating Company is to establish, operate & maintain generating stations,
tie lines, sub stations and dedicated transmission lines connected therewith

Ques : 28 : What are the functions of Regional Load Dispatch Center(RLDC) / SLDC ?
As per Section 28(3) / Section , the functions of RLDC/SLDC are
Optimum scheduling & dispatch of electricity within the region/state as per the contracts
To monitor grid operation
To keep account of the quantity of electricity transmitted through the regional/state grid
Exercise supervision & control over the inter/intra state transmission system

Real time and secure &economic operation of grid in accordance with Grid standards & Grid code

Ques :29 What are the functions of Central Transmission Utility (CTU)/ State Transmission Utility
( STU) ?
As per Section 38(2) of Electricity Act 2003, the functions of CTU/STU are
To undertake transmission of system through inter/intra state transmission system
To ensure development of an efficient, coordinated & economic system of transmission
To provide non discriminatory open access to its transmission system
Planning & coordination relating to inter/intra state transmission with all concerned
Ques :30 : What are the functions & duties of Authority ( CEA: Central Electricity Authority) ?
As per Section 73(a) of Electricity Act 2003, the functions of CEA are
To advice Central Govt. on matters relating to National Electricity Policy
To advice the Appropriate Govt. & Appropriate Commission on all technical matters
To specify Grid Standards for Operation & Maintenance of transmission lines
To specify Technical Standards for construction of lines, connection to the grid, etc
To specify safety requirements
To collect record & data concerning generation, transmission, distribution & trading of electricity
Ques :31 : What are the functions of CERC/ SERC ?
As per Section 79(1) / Section 86(1) of Electricity Act 2003, the functions of CERC/SERC are
To regulate tariff of Generating companies owned & controlled by Central/ State Govt.
To regulate & determine tariff for inter/ intra state transmission of electricity
To fix margin on inter/intra state trading of electricity
To levy fees for the purpose of this act
To issue license to person to function as Transmission licensee for inter/ intra state transmission
To adjudicate upon dispute Generating Companies & Transmission licensee
Ques : 32 : Explain Inter state/ intra state transmission system
It includes
Conveyance of electricity by trans. lines from territory of one state to other state
Transmission within the state territory on system owned,operated,maintained &controlled by CTU
Conveyance across the territory of intervening state incidental to such inter state transmission
Transmission system not covered under the above inter sate transmission is intra state transmission system
Ques : 33: Explain Licensing

As per Section 12 of Electricity Act 2003, no person shall transmit, distribute on undertake
trading in electricity unless license is issued under Section 14 or exempted under Section 13
As per Section 13, for local authority, panchayat institutions, users associations, co-operative
socities, non government organization or franchisees provision of Section 12 shall not apply

Ques : 34 : What provision is made for receiving supply from a person other than the licensee of his
area ?

As per Section 42(4), the State Commission permits such consumer or class of consumers to
receive supply, provided they are liable to pay specified additional surcharge on the charge of
wheeling to meet the fixed cost of the distribution licensee arising out of his obligation to supply

Ques : 35 : What provision is made with respect to undertake trading in Electricity ?

As per Section 12 of Electricity Act 2003, no person shall undertake trading in electricity unless
license is issued under Section 14 or exempted under Section 13

As per Section 52(1&2), the Appropriate Commission may specify the technical requirements,
capital adequacy requirement and credit worthiness for being an electrical trader

Ques : 36 :

Ques :37 : How the standards of Performance of Licensee is decided ?

As per Section 58 &59 of Electricity Act 2003, the Appropriate Commission may after
consultation with the licensee and persons likely to be affected, specify standard of performance of
a licensee or a class of licensees

Ques : 38 : What is meant by repealed laws ?

Means following laws repealed by Section 185 of Electricity Act 2003

(a) Indian Electricity Act, 1910
(b) The Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 and
(c) The Electricity Regulatory Commission Act, 1998

Ques :39 : Explain Un authorized use of electricity

Under Section 126(1) of Electricity Act 2003, it means the usage of electricity
(a) by any artificial means or
(b) by means not authorized by the concerned person or authority or licensee or
(c) through a tampered meter or
(d) for the purpose other than for which the usage of electricity was authorized

Ques : 40 : What is the provision made for determination of different tariff ?

Under Section 62(1) of Electricity Act 2003, the Appropriate Commission shall determine tariff
(a) For supply of electricity by a generating company to a distribution licensee
(b) For transmission of electricity
(c) For wheeling of electricity
(d) For retail sale of electricity
Ques : 41: What are the factors to be considered in deciding tariff ?
Tariff to be determined according to
Consumers load factor
Power factor
Voltage
Total consumption
Geographical position of area
Nature and purpose of supply, etc
Ques : 42 : What provision is made with regard to subsidy by State Govt. ?

Under Section 65 of Electricity Act 2003, if the State Govt. requires the grant of any subsidy to
any consumer or class of consumers in the tariff, the State Govt. shall pay within in advance the
amount to compensate by grant of subsidy as specified by the State Commission

Ques : 43 : What provision is made under the Act for cutting tree on overhead lines ?

Under provision Section 68(5) of Electricity Act 2003, where any tree standing or lying near an
overhead line, interrupts or interferes or likely to interfere/interrupt in conveyance or transmission
of electricity, an Executive Magistrate or authority specified by the Appropriate Govt. cause the
tree to be removed as it thinks fit awarding compensation.

Ques : 64: State the non- conventional energy sources

Geothermal power plants

Wind power stations
Solar energy
Photo voltaic generation (Direct conversion of electricity)
Wave energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion ( OTEC)
Bio fuels

FORMULAS :

(1) Relation between power transfer & transmission voltage

Vs . VR
P = ----------- x Sin
X

Where P= Power transfer per phase in watts

Vs= Sending end voltage per phase

VR= Receiving end voltage per phase
= Power angle between Vs & VR
X= Series reactance of the line

(2) Inductance & Capacitance of over head line

Inductance of over head line L= o / 2 ( + loge S/r ) Henry/meter
Capacitance of overhead line C= 2 o / log e S/r Farad/ meter
Where o= Permitivity of free air (8.85 x 10 raise to minus- 12 farads / meter)
o= Permeability of air ( 4 x 10 raise to minus 7- Henry/meter

S =Deq= 3 Dab . Dbc . Dca

r = radius of conductor

(3) Multiplication Factor for energy meter in sub station

Multiplication Factor (M.F.)=

CT ratio (switch yard) / CT ratio ( on panel) X PT ratio ( switch yard) / PT ratio ( on panel) x Dial M.F.

(4) Efficiency of Transformer

Output
% = ----------- x 100
Input

Where % = % efficiency at fractional load

K = P L / Pf, PL = fractional loss
Pf = full load
V2 I2 Cos2
Pc= Full load copper loss
--------------------------------- x 100
Pi= No load loss
V2 I2 Cos2 + losses
V2= Rated secondary voltage
I2= Rated secondary current
Cos 2 = Power factor
V2 I2 Cos2
--------------------------------- - x 100
V2 I2 Cos2 + Pi + K2 Pc

(5) % Voltage Regulation of Power Transformer

V2 Rated - V2 Actual
--------------------------- x 100
V2 Rated

% Regulation = % V =

(6) Inductance L = / I
= N/ I

Inductive Reactance = 2 f L

(7) Capacitance C = Q / V

Capacitive Reactance = 1 / 2 f C

(8)
V = I. Z = I . R2 + ( XL Xc ) 2
(9) Voltage gradient at the surface of conductor of A. C. line
V

Where V = Transmission voltage

Es =-------------------

ro . log e S/ ro

ro=

Radius of the conductor

S = D ab. D bc . D ca
3

( 10 ) Sending end voltage Vs = ( VR Cos + IR ) 2 + ( VR Sin + IX )2

(11) Active power

P = VI Cos
Reactive power Q = VI Sin

(12) A , B , C , D constants of a transmission line

Vs= A VR + B IR
Is = C Vs + D IR
AD = BC=1

Depends on R, L, C parameters of the line

(13) Loading of a transmission line

Pn = VI = V2/ Zs

(14) E. M. F. induced in a transformer

E1 = 4.44 f N1 m volts
E2 = 4.44 f N2 m volts

(15) Relation between currents, voltages & turns of primary & secondary of a transformer
E1
N1
I2
---- = ----- =----E2
N2
I1

(16) Relation between voltage/ frequency with flux density and flux
V/N Bm
V/f = 4.44 N . m
V/f m
V/f Bm

(16) Sag of a transmission line

S = Wo l2 / 2T

Where l = span length of the line

T= Tension of the conductor
Wo= Weight of the conductor

(17) CT burden
(a) In VA
Example : A CT of rated secondary current of 5Amp is feeding an indicating ammeter (
1.0 VA), a recording wattmeter (5.0 VA) and an over current relay ( 6.0 VA). If the
resistance of the connecting leads is 0.2 , what would be the total burden of that CT ?
Solution:
Burden of the connecting leads= Is2 R = (5)2 x 0.2 = 25 x 0.2 = 5.0 VA
+ Burden of ammeter = 1.0 VA
+ Burden of wattmeter = 5.0 VA
+ Burden of the relay = 6.0 VA
Total Burden = 17 VA
(b) CT burden can also be expressed in terms of impedance in
Zb = B/ Is2

(18) PT burden in
Zb = Vs2 / P
Rb= Zb Cos
Xb= Zb Sin

B= burden of CT
Is= secondary rated current
Zb= Impedance of CT in

Answer

Zb = Rb2 + Xb2

(19) Relation between resistance and resistivity

R = l/A

Where R= Resistance of the conductor

= Resistivity
l = Length of the conductor
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor

(20) Per Unit (p.u.)voltage

p.u. voltage= Actual voltage/ Base voltage

(21) Fault MVA & Fault current

Normal MVAn = 3 . Vn . In
Fault MVAf = 3 / V . If
Transformer MVA
Fault MVA= ------------------------- x n
Per unit reactance

n= No of transformers connected in a sub station

Base MVA
Fault MVA = ------------------- x 100
% reactance
Fault current= Fault MVA/ KV
Fault current= VA/3 V

(22) % availability of line

(a) For calculation under KPI in GEB

n
( Total ckt. km.hours for the
- ( (non available ckt. km) x (hours of outage)
specified period say month)
i=1
% Availability of line=--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Totak circuit km hours for the specified period ( say month)
(b) % availability of line as per CERC for fixation of tariff
o x AVo + p x AVp + q x AVq + r x AVr + s x AVs + t x AVt
% availability = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ x100
o+p+q+r+s+t
Where o = Total no of AC lines
AVo= Availability of no of AC lines
p = Total no of HVDC Poles
AVp= Availability of no of HVDC poles
q = Total no of ICTs
AVq= Availability of no of ICTs
r = Total no of SVCs
AVr= Availability of no of SVCs
s = Total no of Switched bus reactors
AVs= Availability of no of switched bus reactors
t = Total no of HVDC back to back station blocks

AVt= Availability of no of HVDC back to back station blocks

(23) Most economic voltage for transmitting given power

KV= 5.5 KM x 0.6 + KW/100
An approximate rule is 1 KV/Mile or 0.6 KV/KM

(24)Calculate PS, PSM and TMS in case of following

Maximum running load current of bus, I bus = 600 Amp
Full load current of biggest motor, I FL= 145 Amp
Starting current of the biggest motor, I STA= 870 Amp
Starting time of motor=3.5 sec
Fault level at MCC, I FLT=20 KA
CT ratio= 1000/1

Solution:

I fault= 20KA
415V

1000/1
MCC

51
I bus=600 A
IFL=145A
I STA=870A

Thus, in order to over ride starting transients, the Plug Setting (PS) will be
PS ( I bus-IFL+ I STA)/CT ratio
( 600-145+870)/1000
1.325
Thus, set PS= 1.5
Answer-1

For PSM:
Primary Operating Current(POC)= 1000 x 1.5
= 1500A
PSM= 20,000/1500 = 13.3

Answer-2
For TMS:
For faults on outgoing motor feeder, the fuse will operate in, say, 0.01 sec
Considering coordination margin of 0.15 sec between fuse and relay, the desired operating time
(DOT) of relay is 0.16 sec
For NI characteristic, Operating Time(OT) at any Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) is given by
OT=( TMS x 0.14) / (PSM 0.02 1)
Set TMS= 0.07 with PSM=20 and OT= 0.16 sec
Thus, TMS= 0.07
Answer-3
Explanation:

Set the plug based on maximum running load current of bus or say with 20% margin
PS= 600 x 1.2/1000 = 0.72
Set PS=0.75
The corresponding Primary Operating Current (POC)= 0.75 x 1000 = 750 A
Plug Setting Multiplier( PSM)= fault current/ POC= 20,000/750 =26.7
For IDMT relays, the characteristic flattens out for PSM greater than 20

For faults on outgoing motor feeder, the fuse will operate in, say, 0.01 sec
Considering coordination margin of 0.15 sec between fuse and relay, the desired operating time
(DOT) of relay is 0.16 sec
For NI characteristic, Operating Time(OT) at any Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) is given by
OT=( TMS x 0.14) / (PSM 0.02 1)
Set TMS= 0.07 with PSM=20 and OT= 0.16 sec
Thus, TMS= 0.07
Suppose TMS is increased from 0.07 to 0.3, keeping PS same(0.75), so that the relay does not pick
up during motor starting
Increase of TMS shifts the relay characteristic curve vertically upwards
The motor starting characteristic does not intersect with relay characteristic and the relay will not
pick up with starting of the biggest motor on the bus
However, the Operating Time (OT) for fault current (20KA) increases from 0.16 to 0.68 sec
Since the operating time of MCC incomer has increased, the operating time of upstream relays
will also correspondingly increase to obtain co ordination
This is not desirable, as electrical faults shall be cleared within the shortest possible time.
Thus, in order to over ride starting transients, the Plug Setting (PS) will be
PS ( I bus-IFL+ I STA)/CT ratio
( 600-145+870)/1000
1.325
Thus, set PS= 1.5
For PSM:
Primary Operating Current(POC)= 1000 x 1.5
= 1500A
PSM= 20,000/1500 = 13.3
For TMS:
Increase in PS shifts the relay characteristic curve horizontally to the right
The motor starting characteristic does not intersect with relay characteristic and the relay will not
pick up during starting of biggest motor on the bus
The operating time for fault current also remains low at 0.16 sec
The operating times of up stream relays also will not increase beyond acceptable limits
Thus , PS is to be selected on the basis of running load current and considering possible transients
TMS setting shall be done with utmost caution, as relay operating time for fault current also
increases proportionately
Thus PS is set corresponding to POC of 1500A , even if, running load current is far below at 600A

ABBREVIATIONS :

SCADA :
WAN :
BIL :
LBB :
SIL :
IR :
PI :
OLTC :
SVC :
RVT:
NCT :
CVT:
CC :
PLCC :

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition

Wide Area Network
Basic Insulation Level
Local Breaker Back up protection
Surge Impedance Loading
Insulation Resistance
Polarizing Index
On Load Tap Changer
Static VAR Compensator
Residual Voltage Transformer
Neutral Current Transformer
Capacitor Voltage Transformer
Coupling Capacitor
Power Line Carrier Communication

APDRP :
GIS :
HDPE :
RPVC :

Accelerated Power Development and Reform Project

Geographic Information System
High Density Poly Ethelene (pipes)
Rigid Poly Vinyl Chloride (pipes)

MULTIPLE CHOICE :

(1) Sag of a transmission line of span 150 meter is 2Mtr. If the length of the tower is
increased by 20%, the sag will be
(a) Increased by 10%
(b) Increased by 20%
(c) Decrease by 10%
(d) None
Answer : (d) None
Because Sag, S Wl2/T i.e. Sag is directly proportional to weight of conductor & span length
Thus sag has no relation with height of tower

(2) In case of bundle conductors in transmission line

(a) Capacitance will increase
(b) Inductance will decrease
(c) Corona loss will decrease
(d) None
Answer : (b) Inductance will decrease
Because with bundled conductors, the self GMD will be increased , reducing line inductance
Considerably with the incidental advantage of increased power transmission capacity of the line

(3) If the error in voltmeter at 100 volt is 5%, the error of voltage at 50 volt will be
(a) 10%
(b) 2.5%
(c) 7.5%
(d) 5.0%
Answer : (d) 5.0 %
Because the error will remain the same. The error in voltmeter has no relation with
Magnitude of voltage

(4) In 2000 KVA load, the system voltage is 400V, the value of impedance is
(a) 0.2
(b) 2
(c) 4
(d) 40
Answer (a) 0.2
Because

(5) Switching surges are more predominant in

(a) LT lines
(b) HT lines

(c) EHT & UHV lines

(d) None
Answer : (c ) EHT & UHV lines
Because switching surges are directly proportional to voltage of transmission

(6) The number of insulators in a string provided with 66KV transmission line is
(a) 5 for suspension and 6 for tension
(b) 6 for suspension and 7 for tension
(c) 9 for tension and 10 for suspension
(d) None
Answer : (a) 5 for suspension and 6 for tension

Note: Similarly, for 132KV, it is 9 for suspension and 10 for tension, for 220KV, it is 14 for
suspension and 15 for tension and for 400KV, it is 23 for suspension and 24 for tension

(7) The overload and over current region is typically between

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Overload between 110% to 140% and over current region is above 200%
Overload between 100 % to 120% and over current above 150%
Overload between 110% to 150% and over current above 150%
None

Answer(a) Overload between 110% to 140% & over current is above 200%

(8) The 130% load withstand time for generator and transformer is
(a) 10 minutes for generator and 1 hour for transformer
(b) 01 minute for generator and 2 hours for transformer
(c) 10 minutes for generator and 2 hours for transformer
(d) None
Answer: (b) 01 minute for generator and 2 hours for transformer

(9) For motor overload protection

(a) Bi metal for LT motors and thermal element of MPR(Motor Protection
relay) for HT motors
(b) Fuses for LT motors and over current relay for HT motors
(c) Starter for LT motors and over current relay for HT motors
(d) None
Answer: (a)
Bimetal for LT motors and thermal element of MPR (Motor Protection Relay) for HT
motors

(10) Every power transformer has built in overload protection through

(a) Overload relay
(b) Over current relay
(c) OTI and WTI
(d) None
Answer: (c) OTI and WTI

(11) Which of the following can cause large thermal stresses

(a) Positive sequence current
(b) Negative sequence current

(c) Zero sequence current

(d) None
Answer: (b) Negative sequence current

(12) The motor current during starting/stalling condition is about

(a) 110% to 140%
(b) 400% to 700%
(c) 550% to 600%
(d) None
Answer: (c) 550% to 600%

(13) The effect of temperature rise in case of motor, transformer and generator is
(a) reduction in IR value
(b) reduction of moisture
(c) reduction in insulation life
(d) None
Answer: (c) Reduction in insulation life

(14) Loss of life of insulation is negligible in case of transformer, if the winding temperature is
maintained less than
(a) 80c (b) 70c (c) 75c (d) None
Answer: (a) 80c

(15)Under no circumstances, the winding temperature and oil temperature of transformer shall
exceed the following limits
(a) Winding temperature 80c and oil temperature 75c
(b) Winding temperature 140c and oil temperature 115c
(c) Winding temperature 100c and oil temperature 90c
(d) None
Answer: (b) Winding temperature 140c and oil temperature 115c

National average of per capita power consumption- 360 units

Bihar the lowest- 153 units

(16) Poor power factor results in

(a) Poor voltage control, higher T&D losses and poor utilization of equipment rating
(b) More power supplied from power transformer
(c) Lower current for the same voltage
(d) None
Answer:(a) Poor voltage control, higher T&D losses and poor utilization of equipment rating

(17) For good effective earthing, the earth resistance should be of the order of
(a) 2 to 5
(b) 0.5 to 2
(c) 1 to 5
(d) None
Answer: (b) 0.5 to 2

(18) IR value reveals

(a) quality of insulation of the equipment and degree of dryness/moisture
(b) effectiveness of earthing
(c) healthiness of the equipment
(d) None
Answer: (a) quality of insulation of the equipment and degree of dryness/moisture

(19) Insulation Resistance (IR) measured for 60 seconds compared to IR value measured in
starting is
(a) More (b) Less (c) Same (d) None
Answer :(a) More

(20) PI ( Polarizing Index) value less than one indicates

(a) deterioration in earthing
(b) deterioration in functioning of insulation
(c) information about quality of insulation and a need for immediate reconditioning
(d) None
Answer:(c ) information about quality of insulation and a need for immediate reconditioning

(21) The following effect is absent in DC

(a) Proximity effect
(b) Skin effect
(c) Ferranti effect
(d) None
Answer: (b) Skin effect

(22) In order to minimize the difference of voltage drops in all three phases on the
EHV lines
(a) Capacitor bank is used at receiving sub station
(b) Reactors are used on both the ends of the line
(c) Transposition tower on the line is used to change relative position of three
conductors
(d) None
Answer: (c ) Transposition tower on the line is used to change relative position of three conductors

(23) Corona is triggered due to

(a) high voltage on the line
(b) high current on the line
(c) localized high electric fields which ionize air and leads to discharge
(d) None
Answer: (c) localized high electric fields which ionize air and leads to discharge

(24) The phenomenon of corona discharge is actuallyhappening during

(a) Night hours
(b) Day Time
(c) Both during day and night
(d) None
Answer: (c) Both during day and night

(26) The corona discharge on the transmission line causes

(a) increase in voltage
(b) increase in current
(c) reduction in the dielectric properties of the insulator leading to eventual failure
(d) None
Answer: (c ) reduction in the dielectric properties of the insulator leading to eventual failure

(27) SVC (Static VAR Compensator) is used in sub station for

(a) step less control of reactive power and voltage
(b) increasing power transfer on the line
(c) reducing power factor
(d) None
Answer: (a) step less control of reactive power and voltage

(28) Which of the following is not applicable for parallel operation of two transformer
(a) Polarity be same
(b) Voltage ratio be same
(c) Phase sequence be same
(d) MVA (capacity) be same
Answer: (d) MVA (capacity) be same
(29) Which of the following is used as a cushion for accommodating expansion of oil during high
loads in case of power transformer
(a) Conservator
(b) Breather
(c) PRV
(d) None
Answer: (a) Conservator

(30) Series reactors in a capacitor bank is used for

(a) detection of unbalance in current
(b) detection of unbalance in voltage
(c) limiting parallel switching current and to reduce the effect of harmonics
(d) None
Answer: (c) limiting parallel switching current and to reduce the effect of harmonics

(31) Arcing horns on EHV transmission lines are provided to

(a) Dissipate the heat of arc produced in case of fault
(b) Save the insulator string in case of lightning stroke
(c) Trip the line on earth fault breaking the spark gap of arcing horns in case of fault
(d) None
Answer: (c) Trip the line on earth fault breaking the spark gap of arcing horns in case of fault

(32) In which of the following scheme of carrier protection, problem of power attenuation is less
(a) Carrier inter trip under reach
(b) Carrier inter trip over reach
(c) Carrier acceleration
(d) Carrier blocking

Answer: (d) Carrier Blocking

(33) Eddy current circulating in the core of the transformer is

(a) directly proportional to current
(b) inversely proportional to voltage
(c) directly proportional to square of the thickness of lamination
(d) None
Answer: (c) directly proportional to square of the thickness of lamination

(34) The defects in magnetic circuit of transformer causes in increase in no load current and
increase in
(a) Iron loss
(b) Copper loss
(c) Stray loss
(d) None
Answer: (a) Iron loss

(35) For maximum efficiency of a power transformer

(a) Copper loss is 4 times the iron losses
(b) Iron loss is 4 times the copper loss
(c) Iron loss is equal to copper loss
(d) None
Answer: (c) Iron loss is equal to copper loss

(36) For maximum efficiency in case of distribution and power transformer of generating station
and major sub station, the average load factor is
(a) For distribution transformer it is 0.58 and for GT & major S/S, it is 0.8
(b) For distribution transformer it is 0.8 and for GT & major S/S, it is 0.5
(c )For distribution transformer it is 0.8 and for GT & major S/S, it is 0.75
(d)None
Answer: (a) For distribution transformer it is 0.58 and for GT & major S/S, it is 0.8

(37) Iron and copper loss can be calculated from

(a) Iron loss from short circuit test and copper loss from open circuit test
(b) Iron loss from open circuit test and copper loss from short circuit test
(c) Iron loss from magnetic balance test and copper loss from magnetizing current test
(d) None
Answer: (b) Iron loss from open circuit test and copper loss from short circuit test

DISTRIBUTION : MULTIPLE CHOICE :

(1) HT connection is given for demand load

(a) up to 99KW
(b) below 99KW
(c) beyond 99KW
(d) none
Answer : (c ) Beyond 99KW

(2) 66KV supply is needed for HT connection having demand load

(a) 2250 KVA
(b) 2250 KVA
(c) 1000 KVA
(d) none
Answer : (a ) 2250 KVA

(3) No load loss can be reduced by using

(a) Power transformer
(b) Distribution transformer
(c) Amorphous core transformer
(d) Service transformer

Answer : (c ) Amorphous core transformer

(4) The details of amount of theft of energy bills, litigation against theft are obtained from
(a) PRT- 117
(b) PRT-135
(c) PRT-125
(d) None
Answer : (c ) PRT-125

(5) Diversity factor in ABCD formula for assessment of supplementary bill stands for
(a) A (b) C (c ) D (d) B
Answer : (d) B Stands for Diversity factor

(6)

(1) Group1: Connections of two parallel transformers (0 degree displacement with 0 oclock )
(a) Yy0 (b) Dd0 (c) Dz0

(a) Yy0
(b)Dd0
(c ) Dz0
A2
a2
A2
a2
A2
C
YN
C2

yn
B 2 c2

b2

C2

B 2 c2

b2 C2

A
c
B 2 c4

c
a
b

b4

(2) Group2: Connections of two parallel transformers (180 degree displacement- with 6 oclock)
(a) Yy6 (b) Dd6 (c) Dz6

(a) Yy6
(b) Dd6
(c ) Dz6
A2 b1
c1
A2 b1
c1
A2
b3 b
c3
yn
a
c
C
A a
c
b
YN
c
C2
B 2 a1
C2
B 2 a1
C2
B2 a a3
(3) Group3: Connections of two parallel transformers (-30 degree displacement- with 1 oclock )

(a) Dy1 (b) Yd1 (c) Yz1

(a) Dy1

(b) Yd1

(c ) Yz1
a2

A2

a2

A2

B
C

yn
YN

B2

b
a

yn

c2
C2

b2

a4
a

c4 c

c2
A

A2

C2

c
b

B2

b2

C2

B2

b4

(4) Group4: Connections of two parallel transformers (+30 degree displacement- with 11 oclock)
(a) Dy11 (b) Yd11 (c) Yz11

(a) Dy11
A2
A2

(b) Yd11
a2

a2

(c ) Yz11
A2
a4
a

b b4
c

b2
C
C2

A
B

B2

yn

b2

c2

YN
C2

a
B2

YN

c2

C2

B 2 c4 c

Ques: 2 Explain one and a half breaker scheme of bus bar arrangement

Schematic drawing:
Circuit-I

Circuit-II
Breaker-3

Bus-I

Bus-II
Isolator Breaker-1

Isolator

Generally utilized in EHV sub stations (400KV and above)

Needs three breakers for two circuits
The number of breakers per circuit is 1 . Hence the name is given as one and a half breaker
scheme.
breaker is more per circuit
Such arrangement is particularly suitable for switchyard in large generating stations where very
high power block is to be handled by individual circuit ( say 500MW)
In GEB, one and a half breaker arrangement scheme is at Wanakbori TPS on 400KV circuits.
In PGCIL, it is at Dehgam S/S.
The higher cost is justified because of higher security and bypass facility.
Either of the two buses (Main bus I or Main bus II) can be taken out of service for maintenance
Any circuit can be switched off for the purpose of maintenance without the provision of bypass
Bus failure does not remove any circuit from service.

Ques: 3 Explain Three bus system of bus bar arrangement

Breaker-2

schematic Arrangement

Transfer Bus
Main Bus-I
Main Bus-II

Isolator-89A

89B

89C

Breaker

89D

Line

Presently in all EHV sub station

Three buses- Main-I, Main-II & Transfer Bus
Low initial & ultimate cost
Any breaker can be taken out of service, one at a time, for maintenance or in case of fault,
keeping the feeder in service
Requires one extra bay of Transfer bus with separate breaker for clearing the faults on transferred
load

Ques : 43: Define: Knee point voltage

OR

Explain: Magnetizing characteristic curve of CT:

Saturation
Vk
Exciting
Voltage

Knee point

Linear region
Ankle point

Exciting Current

The magnetizing characteristic of a CT is a plot between the secondary applied voltage and the
corresponding magnetizing current taken by the CT
It is the voltage on the secondary excitation characteristic beyond which a 10 % increase in
secondary EMF, would cause 50% increase in exciting current

Ques :120 : Explain CBCT (Core Balanced CT ). Give its applications

CBCTs are used for sensitive E/F protections

With residual CT connections using phase CTs, unbalance is produced due to unequal error s in
the phase CTs
In CBCT, the core encloses all the 3 phases or also the neutral in case of 4 wire system
Hence high earth fault sensitivity can be obtained irrespective of the single phase unbalance
Figure :
Core

3 or 3 core cable

Secondary Winding
Relay

Applications:

Sensitive E/F protection of motors

Sensitive E/F protection of the non-effectively grounded systems
Sensitive E/F protection of ungrounded system (Based on unbalanced capacitive current detection)

Ques : 126: Explain : Star/Open delta connection of VT

Primary connected in star with star neutral solidly grounded

Secondaries are connected in series to form an open delta as in figure
Requires either 3 single phase VTs or a single 3 phase 5 limb VT
Figure:
R
Y
B
V1
V2

V2
V1
Relay

This type of residual connection is used for

(c) Polarising directional E/F relays
For E/F detection in non-effectively grounded or isolated neutral systems

circuit diagram

Wave Trap

Coupling capacitor

Filter circuit
Drainage coil
Co axial
cable

Protective tap

From control ckt

T R
To
output
circuit

Figure: Impedance measuring with balanced beam relay

Zf
C.T.

Source
Breaker

Relay

VT
F
Fault
Vf= If Zf
Restraining coil

Operating coil

Figure :
I2

ZI

I1
I1
I2
X

Figure: