C. E.

Leshock
Graduate Research Assistant.

Y. C. Shin

Investigation on Cutting
Temperature in Turning by a
Tool-Work Thermocouple
Technique

Professor.
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN

Tool-chip interface temperature is analyzed experimentally during turning of 4140

steel alloy and Inconel 718 with tungsten carbide tools using a tool-work thermocouple technique. The experimental results are compared with Loewen and Shaw's analytical results. Based on the experimental results, an empirical model relating the
tool face temperature to cutting conditions is established for 4140 steel alloys with
tungsten carbide tools. Finally, the tool-chip interface is investigated with flank and
crater wear to determine the effect of tool face temperature on these tool wear
mechanisms.

Introduction
Temperature is an important process condition in the analysis
and control of machining processes. Due to the high shear and
friction energies dissipated during a machining operation, the
temperatures in the primary and secondary shear zones are usually very high, hence affecting shear deformation and tool wear.
Therefore, it is desirable to determine the temperatures of the
tool and chip interface to analyze or control the process. Tool
temperature at the tool-chip interface is, however, not easy to
determine either experimentally or analytically. With the difficulty involved in theoretically determining the tool temperature,
many experimental methods have been developed over the past
century. Since the interface is a moving contact, experimental
techniques such as standard pre-calibrated thermocouples cannot be used to measure the interface temperature. Non-contact
measurement techniques are also difficult to use because the
surface of the tool is blocked by the chip.
A popular method that was developed early in the century
by Gottwein (1925), Shore (1925), and Herbert (1926) at
about the same time, is the tool-work thermocouple, also called
the dynamic thermocouple method (Barrow, 1973). This
method is based on the thermocouple principle that states that
two contacting materials produce an electromotive force (e.m.f.)
under temperature. This is the method Kitagawa et al. (1975)
used to measure local points on the interface. Since its inception
in the 1920's, the tool-work thermocouple method has inspired
much research as to the proper methods of calibration, and the
actual e.m.f. the method measures.
This study presents the results of the tool-chip interface temperature measurements by the tool-work thermocouple technique. Tool-chip interface temperature is analyzed under a wide
range of cutting conditions during turning of 4140 steel alloys
and Inconel 718 nickel based alloys with tungsten carbide tools.
The obtained experimental results are compared with the predictions based on the Loewen and Shaw's model (1954). In addition, an empirical model for the tool face temperature in terms of
cutting parameters is established. Finally, the tool chip interface
temperature is analyzed with both flank and crater wear during
machining of 4140 steel alloys.

Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the

JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received

May 1995; revised May 1996. Associate Technical Editor: D. A. Stephenson.

Tool-work Thermocouple Technique

The literature suggests that there are several problems associated with the method of measuring tool-interface temperature
using the tool-work thermocouple. They are:

the parasitic e.m.f.'s created by secondary junctions,

the proper calibration of the thermocouple,
the experimental setup required to isolate the thermocouple from the environment,
and the question as to what e.m.f. is being measured by
the thermocouple.

The first problem to be discussed, the calibration, is the most

important; even if all other problems are solved, the temperature
measured will not be correct if the calibration is incorrect.
The purpose in calibrating the tool-work thermocouple is to
develop a thermoelectric relationship between the cutting tool
material and the workpiece material. Many methods have been
developed to find this relationship. Bus et al. (1971) and Byrne
(1986) used the furnace calibration. Barrow (1973) adopted
the silver bead technique which involves the electrical heating
of a small bead of silver, in which the tool and work materials
are fused with a reference thermocouple. Other approaches are
based on inductance heating (Braiden, 1967) and resistance
heating (Alvedid, 1970). Shaw (1984) used a lead bath for
the heated junction medium in the calibration of the tool-work
thermocouple. After a lead bath is insulated and uniformly
heated, both the tool and workpiece chip are inserted into the
bath with a thermocouple for calibration.
As a result of the calibrations produced in a non-machining
environment, the resulting experimental setups are very complex. If the calibration is done with the cold junction at room
temperature, then the experiments must be done with the cold
junction at room temperature. It is also important to insulate
the circuit from the environment during experimenting, as well
as during calibration. These steps are necessary since parasitic
e.m.f.'s can originate anywhere two dissimilar materials are in
contact at elevated temperatures. This can occur in the moving
parts of a machine, and at the electrical connections to the tool
and workpiece (Barrow, 1973). Parasitic e.m.f.'s also occur at
the connection of the tool and lead wires. This is especially a
problem when indexable tools, such as cemented carbides, are
used instead of high-speed steel tools. The lead wire connection
point for indexable tools is too close to the cutting area, where
parasitic e.m.f.'s are large due to the high temperature. Different
attempts have been made to make the use of indexable inserts

502 / Vol. 119, NOVEMBER 1997

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450
400
~ 350

y-soo
3 250
200

&
I 150

alunel

100
50
0

lead

Potential (mV)

wire
Fig. 2 Calibration curve for carbide tool and 4140 steel workpiece

Work
K-Type thermocouple
Fig. 1 Tool-work thermocouple calibration setup

possible. Braiden (1967) inserted a long insulated rod made of

the tool material so that it makes contact with the tool insert.
Another major problem with the tool-work thermocouple is to
determine to what temperature the measured e.m.f. corresponds.
Some of the early theoretical studies which have been done by
Hughes and Gay lord (1960) and co-workers (Shu et al 1964)
concluded that the measured temperature is an area-weighted
average temperature. However, it has been generally assumed,
with no justification, that the temperature corresponds to an
average interfacial temperature. Stephenson (1993) investigated
this problem by considering the electrical potential distribution
in the tool due to a distributed e.m.f. He considered a twodimensional section through the tool-work contact and performed an analysis which concluded that the quantity measured
in the tool-work thermocouple technique is the average value
of e.m.f. at the interface. This average interface e.m.f. will
correspond directly to the average interfacial temperature only
when the thermoelectric e.m.f. varies linearly with temperature.
WC tools exhibit linear variation with most work materials
(Braiden, 1967; Alvedid, 1970; Bus et a l , 1971; Shaw, 1984,
Byrne, 1986), while high speed steels do not show linear variation. Stephenson (1993) discussed the implementation issues
in the tool-work thermocouple technique.

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

^&y

sr
0.5

1.5
2
Potential (mV)

2.5

Fig. 3 Calibration curve for carbide tool and Inconel 718 workpiece

contact during cutting. An oxygen-acetylene torch or a propane

torch applies the necessary heat for approximating the heat
generated during metal cutting. Measurements are taken after a
few minutes of heating to insure a quasi-steady state. Also,
only the cooling of the insert is used to maintain a consistent
calibration.
A plot of the measured electric potential for a given temperature during calibration is shown in Fig. 2 for the carbide tool
and 4140 steel workpiece, and in Fig. 3 for carbide tool and
Inconel 718 workpiece. In both cases, linear correlation between
the temperature and e.m.f. is observed. Although results from
the calibration varied slightly for each test, good correlation
was attained when regression was performed (R2 = .92-.97).
Results are presented in table 1 for Kennametal K313 grade
carbide inserts against 4140 steel and Inconel 718 (50-55%
Ni, 17-21 percent Cr), a nickel-chromium alloy with high
strengths at high temperatures.

Calibration of Tool-Work Thermocouple

The literature shows a wide range of calibration methods and
procedures. Most of these methods calibrate the tool and the
workpiece in an isolated environment, without consideration
to the machining experimental setup. This presents problems,
because the experimental setup is different than the calibration
setup. The calibration setup used in this study is close to the
experimental setup, and thus many factors such as parasitic
e.m.f. \s are included into the calibration. This setup is similar
to the one used by Stephenson (1991), in which the tool was
calibrated directly with the workpiece.
The experimental setup consisted of an electrically insulated
tool insert clamped into a tool holder. A K-type thermocouple
is spot welded onto the insert at the tool-chip interface, and is
secured further by a coating of ceramic cement. The alumel
lead wire, which measures the e.m.f. generated at the interface,
is electrically insulated by embedding it in several layers of
mica. A small aperture is cut on the top layer of mica to allow
the wire to contact the insert (see Fig. 1). During calibration,
the e.m.f. is measured, and the temperature is measured by a
K-type thermocouple at the point where the tool and chip would
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Experimental Setup
The experimental setup for temperature measurement in the
machining of either 4140 steel or Inconel 718 with carbide
inserts is nearly the same as the experimental setup for calibration. This is desired since the calibration conditions should be
Table 1 Calibration results for tool-work thermocouple with Kennametal K313 carbide insert

Calibration Results for Tool-Work Thermocouple

with Kennametal K313 carbide insert
T -^temperature (C)

E ->e.m.f. (mV)

Work Material

Calibration curve

4140 Steel

T = 80.5 * E - 26.42

Inconel 718

T = 60.83 * E + 17.3

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Table 2

Machining conditions for tool temperature experiments

Workpiece: 4140 Steel (0.4% C, 0.95% Ni, 0.2% Cr)

Tool: Kennametal SPG-422 K313 Carbide

Fig. 4 Tool-work thermocouple data acquisition experimental setup

as close to actual conditions as possible. The differences are i)

measurement during machining is dynamic, and ii) the heat
source is a result of machining and not an externally applied
torch. The experimental setup is shown schematically in Fig.
4. All of the other parts of the setup are the same, except that
mica is inserted between the chipbreaker and the tool clamp.
This precaution is taken because without the mica, the chipbreaker becomes grounded to the tool clamp and to the tool
holder assembly. If the chip makes contact with the grounded
chipbreaker, as is usually the case, the circuit will become
grounded, resulting in an inaccurate measurement. One of the
problems that occurred during measurement was the short circuit when chips touched grounded surfaces.
A rubber mat was added to place over lathe ways to prevent
possible short-circuiting, a problem that occurred during measurement. For the machining conditions used, the chips were
continuous. If the continuous chips were to land on the ways,
or bunch up and make contact with the tool post or the workpiece, the electrical circuit used to measure the e.m.f. between
tool and chip would be short-circuited. With these precautions,
however, a clear signal was attainable and data was collected.
Experimental Results
The focus of the first part of the tool temperature measurement experiments was to determine the relationship between
machining conditions and fresh tool temperatures. To eliminate
the effect of wear on the experiments, the tool was replaced after
several measurements. Each measurement lasted only several
seconds, until a steady value of temperature was attained. An
example of the signal (electric potential converted to temperature) attained during a cutting experiment is shown in Fig. 5
along with corresponding cutting force. This example shows a
typical result for machining with a fresh tool. A number of

depth of cut (mm)

.508, .762, 1.27

feed (mm/rev)

.0787-.175

speed (m/s)

1.168-2.997

experiments were designed and conducted. The machining conditions used and the tool geometry are summarized in Tables 2
and table 3, respectively.
Measurements were taken at the designed machining conditions. The motivation for taking these measurements is to develop a relationship for cutting temperature as a function of
cutting conditions (i.e. feed, speed, depth of cut). This relationship can be easily verified with existing theory and experiments.
The measured data were compared to the results of an analytical temperature prediction method. The Loewen and Shaw's
method (1954) was found to be the best predictor according
to Stephenson (1991). The necessary data for computing the
analytical temperature are the three cutting forces and the chip
thickness ratios. The chip thickness ratio was determined by
using the chip length ratio from measured chips. The cutting
forces were measured using a Kistler 9257B 3 axis piezoelectric
dynamometer. Results of the machining experiments of 4140
steel show a clear trend, although there is a scatter in the measured data. Figures 6 through 8 show the measured cutting
temperatures as a function of cutting speed for various feeds
and depths of cut, as well as the Loewen and Shaw analytical
temperature predictions. The predictions by the Loewen and
Shaw model were obtained using the procedure described in
Elanayar and Shin (1996). It can be seen that the Loewen and
Shaw's model underestimates the temperature for small feed.
This can be attributed to the fact that their model did not account
for the size effect of chip, i.e., increasing specific cutting energy
with small chip thickness.
In order to generate a relationship between cutting temperature and cutting conditions, a comprehensive statistical analysis
was carried out using SAS software (SAS Institute Inc., 1985).
The resultant regression analysis and ANOVA study results are
shown in Table 4. Although high order polynomials provides
slightly better correlation, the equation below is the best fit in
terms of correlation and usefulness for comparison and analysis.
The average interface temperature, as measured by the toolwork thermocouple, is
(C) = 1700

v05d02f

(1)
where V is cutting speed (m/s), d is depth of cut (mm), and
/ is feed (mm/rev). Comparing this equation to the Shaw's
dimensional analysis result (Shaw, 1984) for orthogonal machining given by
' avg. interface

6T ~ VY'

(2)

it can be seen that the coefficients are similar (; is undeformed

Radial Force (N)

Table 3 Values for tool geometry (Kennametal, 1991)

Feed Force (N)

Tool geometry

Cutting Force (N)

Interface Temp (C)

Cutting side angle

Cs=15

inclination angle

i=0

rake angle

cc=5

nose radius

.079 mm

0.011 0.021 0.032 0.043 0.053 0.064

cutting time (min)

Fig. 5 Sample of experimental temperature measurement and corresponding force measurements (1.31 m/s, 1.27 mm, .124 mm/rev)

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1350
1150

Loewen Shaw Prediction

I 950
S.
a
u
i-

D Experimental Temperature Results

*=
750

350
1.5

2
2.5
Cutting speed (m/s)

3.5

Fig. 6 Cutting temperature versus cutting speed, depth of cut .762 mm, feed .079
mm/rev

n^SS

750

^ JI

Loewen Shaw Prediction

n Experimental Temperature Results

on g

350
1

1.5

2.5

3.5

Cutting Speed (m/s)

Fig. 7 Cutting temperature versus cutting speed, depth of cut .762 mm, feed .124
mm/rev

1350

On

950

I-

750

Loewen Shaw Prediction

T^z

&

d Experimental Temperature Results

550

350
1

1.5

2.5

3.5

Cutting Speed (m/s)

Fig. 8 Cutting temperature versus cutting speed, depth of cut .762 mm, feed .175 mm/
rev

Table 4 ANOVA table of temperature versus machining conditions

ANOVA Table
Dependent Variable -> InTEMP
Independent
Sum of Squares
Variable
4.5387
InFEED
1.2599
InDOC
InSPEED
5.6977
Variable
Constant
InFEED
InDOC
InSPEED

Parameter
Estimate
7.362
.4065
.2092
.4981

Mean Square
4.5387
1.2599
5.6977
Standard Error
207.5
25.9
13.0
28.1

F Value
629.07
174.63
789.71
T for H0:
Parameter=0
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0001

Pr>F
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
Prob> IT 1
.0354
.0157
.0160
.0177

Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

chip thickness, or feed), thus supporting the validity of the

experimental results. Note that the results in (1) are given in
terms of feed, not undeformed chip thickness. However, for the
lead angle of 15 deg used in the experiments, the difference
between feed and undeformed chip thickness is very small.
Temperature was also measured for machining of Inconel
718 with carbide tools. Due to the high cost of Inconel, a lesser
amount of experiments were performed, and the results are more
for a comparison to the cutting temperatures of 4140 steel than
for a complete analysis. The tests were done at several speeds
with a feed of .1245 mm/rev and a depth of cut of .762 mm.
Figure 9 shows the results from these tests in comparison with
those from the tests of 4140 steel under the same feed and depth
of cut.
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-Q--

a
1
H

4140 steel
950
Inconel 718

-ttr_

750
550
350
1

1.5

2
2.5
Cutting Speed (m/s)

3.5

Fig. 9 Experimental temperature results for two different materials, 4140 steel
and Inconel 718

The results of the flank wear experiments are consistent with

the results obtained by Olberts (1959). The average interface
temperature as measured by the tool-work thermocouple does
not increase with an increase in flank wear. Figure 10 shows
that regardless of the depth of cut (which has a minimal effect
on the measured temperature), the tool-work temperature does
not increase with increasing flank wear. Figure 11 shows that
under various cutting speeds, the same result can be expected.
In earlier studies, Thomsen et al. (1962) presented experimental
results showing that shear angle remains constant regardless of
flank wear, while Boothroyd et al. (1967) also pointed out that
shear plane angle does not change with flank wear. More recently, Elanayar and Shin (1996) reconfirmed these of earlier
observations by showing that the cutting force increase with
flank wear is due to the change of the interaction of tool flank
with the workpiece through modeling of ploughing behavior of
cutting tool flank during machining.
This experimental result shown in Fig. 11 is important when
considering the temperature effects on crater wear. Temperature
measurements in crater wear experiments can be confidently
assumed to be independent of flank wear.
Crater Wear. This portion of the study involves temperature measurement with crater wear measurement during cutting
of 4140 steel. The workpiece was turned for about 30 seconds or
more, depending on the cutting speed, while measuring average
interface temperature. Machining was then stopped to measure
crater wear off-line using the CMM and laser triangulation sensor.
Crater wear is not as simple to measure as flank wear, since
flank wear is measured by distance, while crater wear is measured by volume or depth. Due to the difficulty in obtaining the
depth of crater with a microscope, a different approach has been
taken for the volume measurement of the crater wear.

As expected, the tool-chip interface temperatures are much

higher for Inconel 718 than for 4140 steel alloys in the lower
speed range. However, it is worthwhile to note that in case of
Inconel 718, the temperature reaches high values even at a
relatively low speed and shows only a small increase with further increase in cutting speed while it increases more rapidly
for 4140 steel alloys. This can be attributed to the high strainhardening effect of Inconel 718 during plastic deformation. For
cutting speeds beyond 3 m/s, there was no significant difference
between the temperatures of both materials.
Effect of Tool Wear
Flank Wear. Next, tool-chip interface temperatures were
analyzed in terms of flank and crater wear. 4140 steel alloy was
used in this experimental study. The workpiece was turned for
a certain amount of time, while measuring average interface
temperature, and then machining was stopped and flank wear
was measured. The goal of this experiment was to determine
whether or not interface temperatures are affected by increasing
flank wear. This will be important information when dealing
with crater wear effects, as flank wear is also present at higher
cutting speeds where crater wear is the dominant wear mechanism.
The flank wear measurements were done at lower speeds
(1.29-2.49 m/s) so that crater wear, whose formation is minimal at low cutting speeds, does not influence the temperature
measurements. Experiments were continued until the tool flank
wear became too high (approximately 0.5 mm) for the toolwork thermocouple technique to measure temperature accurately. After a fairly high value of flank wear was attained,
the tool would fail and the tool temperatures were no longer
measurable.

depth of cut 1.27 mm

750

*s, '

OQ

depth of cut .762 mm

550
350
0.1

0.2
0.3
flank wear (mm)

0.4

0.5

Fig. 10 Temperature versus flank wear for two depths of cut at 1.295 m/s, and
feed of .175 mm/rev

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Temperature Measurement at 2.49

m/s

O Temperature Measurement at 1.91

m/s

950

I
I-

Temperature Measurement at 1.29

m/s

750

350 +
0.1

0.2
0.3
flank wear {mm)

0.4

0.5

Fig. 11 Temperature versus flank wear for three speeds, with depth of cut 1.27
mm, and feed of .175 mm/rev

The method used is based on laser triangulation with the

equipment consisting of the laser sensor and a coordinate measuring machine (CMM). The laser range sensor is a Renishaw
OP2 with 25 fim resolution, which is mounted on a Brown &
Sharpe Microval CMM. The laser measures the depth during
scanning while the CMM provides the x-y coordinate information. The crater surface was scanned along 12 or more parallel
lines, with at least 30 measurements per line. The measurement
principle of the laser triangular technique is schematically
shown in Fig. 12.

The experiment was designed so that crater measurements

were made at several depths of cut and several speeds, while
keeping the feed constant. Table 5 shows the experimental conditions used. Figure 13 shows a sample result of measured crater
profile using the laser triangulation sensor. Crater volume was
numerically calculated from this measurement. Figure 14 shows
that with increased cutting time, the crater wear volume increases linearly, (or the crater wear volume rate is constant),
for a given cutting condition. This is consistent with existing
studies. In Trigger and Chao (1956), this relationship was also
found, although the methods of finding the crater volume were
different. The authors computed the crater volume by cutting

Laser
Source

tor

Fig. 13 Crater three dimensional grid (Time = 1.683 min,. V = 2.49

m/s, d = 1.27 mm, f = .175 mm/rev)

Fig. 12 Schematic of laser triangulation theory

Table 5

0.5
2.49 m/s, 1.27 mm d.o.c.
2.49 m/s, .762 mm d.o.c.
2.92 m/s, 1 .27 mm d.o.c.
2.92 m/s, .762 mm d.o.c.
3.3 m/s, 1 .27 mm d.o.c.
.1.^5 m/s, .762 mm d.o.c.

Cutting conditions for crater wear experiments

Workpiece: 4140 Steel

Tool: Kennametal SPG-422 K313 Carbide
feed (mm/rev)

.175

depth of cut (mm)

.762
1.27
2.49

speed (m/s)

2.92
3.3

Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Fig. 14 Crater experiment results: Crater volume wear versus time for
various cutting conditions at .175 mm/rev.

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with a coordinate measuring machine yielded excellent results

for the crater volume measurement.
For many cases where the exact temperature distribution of
the tool is not required, the tool-work thermocouple is a viable
option for temperature measurement. The benefits of using the
tool-work thermocouple are its ease of implementation and its
low cost.

0.6 r
c

0.5

0.4

OJ

eu_

I) .<,

References

i
CD

0.2

D
O

QJ

n1

O
U

0.0
1120 1140 1160 1180 1200 1220 1240 1260 1280 1300
TerriDerature (C)

Fig. 15 Crater experiment results: Crater volume wear rate versus temperature for all cutting conditions at .175 mm/rev.

one or two sections of the carbide tool and measuring the crater
cross section. The cross section measured was the plane perpendicular to the main cutting edge.
Subsequently, the volume wear rate can be compared with
the measured temperature. This comparison was first done by
Trigger and Chao (1956) for various feeds and speed, with
constant depth of cut. In the present study, however, the feed
was constant and depth of cut was varied. As a result, the range
of measured temperatures is smaller (recall from equation 1
that depth of cut has a smaller effect on temperature than feed).
The results obtained in Fig. 15 show a trend similar to those
obtained by Trigger and Chao (1956). The results obtained
show that crater volume wear rate is a quadratic function of
temperature. This is because crater volume wear is a diffusion
wear mechanism, which is temperature dependent.
Conclusions
In this study average tool-chip interface temperatures have
been experimentally studied using the tool-work thermocouple
technique. Based on the parametric study, an empirical model
of the interface temperature has been developed for turning of
4140 steel alloy with tungsten carbide tools. Also, tool-chip
interface temperatures were measured during turning of Inconel
718 with tungsten carbide tools and compared with the 4140
steel alloy case.
The developed empirical relation agrees well in velocity with
the Shaw's nondimensional model, but shows that feed has a
stronger effect on temperature that his model shows. Also depth
of cut is shown to affect the tool rake temperature but to a
lesser degree.
The study also presented the analysis of the relationship between tool wear and temperature by applying the tool-work
thermocouple technique. Flank wear appears to have no effect
on the average temperature. On the other hand, the temperature
measured by the tool-work thermocouple method shows that
temperature has a strong effect on the crater volume wear rate,
as is expected since crater wear is dominated by diffusion. The
measurement method using a laser triangulation sensor coupled

508 / Vol. 119, NOVEMBER 1997

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