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I. INTRODUCTION
As a result of increasing environmental concern, the impact of
conventional electricity generation on the environment is being
minimized and efforts are made to generate electricity from
renewable sources. The main advantages of electricity
generation from renewable sources are the absence of harmful
emissions and the in principle infinite availability of the prime
mover that is converted into electricity. One way of generating
electricity from renewable sources is to use wind turbines that
convert the energy contained in flowing air into electricity. Up
to this moment, the amount of wind power integrated into large
scale electrical power systems only covers a small part of the
total power system load. The rest of the load is for the largest
part covered by conventional thermal, nuclear and hydro
power plants.
Wind turbines hardly ever take part in voltage and frequency
control and if a disturbance occurs, the wind turbines are
disconnected and reconnected when normal operation has been
resumed. Thus, notwithstanding the presence of wind turbines,
frequency and voltage are maintained by controlling the other
The financial support from the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research
(NWO) is greatly acknowledged.
The authors are with the Faculty of Information Technology and Systems,
Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5031, 2600 GA, DELFT, The
Netherlands.
Corresponding author: J.G. Slootweg
E-mail: j.g.slootweg@its.tudelft.nl
Tel : +31-15-27 86219
Fax: +31-15-27 81182
power plants as would have been the case without any wind
turbines present. This is possible, as long as wind power
penetration is still low. However, a tendency to increase the
amount of electricity generated from wind can be observed.
Therefore, the penetration of wind turbines in electrical power
systems will increase and they may begin to influence overall
power system behavior. In that case, it will no longer be
possible to run a power system by only controlling large scale
power plants. It is therefore important to study the behavior of
wind turbines in an electrical power system and their
interaction with other generation equipment and with loads.
Further, a tendency to concentrate turbines in wind farms can
be observed in order to use regions with a good wind resource
efficiently and to concentrate the visual impact of modern
wind turbines, that can easily reach heights of more than 100
m, at certain locations. These wind farms are connected to the
high voltage transmission grid and therefore directly influence
the dynamic behavior of an electrical power system. This
increases the need for adequate models.
In this paper, aggregated models of wind parks with both
constant and variable speed wind turbines are presented. The
advantage of an aggregated model is that it eliminates the need
to develop a detailed model of a wind park with tens or
hundreds of wind turbines and their interconnections, and to
calculate the wind speed signal for each individual turbine in
advance. As will be shown, the response of the aggregated and
the detailed models shows a high degree of similarity, both
during normal operation as well as during disturbances.
The topic of aggregated wind park modelling has been treated
earlier, both by the authors of this paper, as well as by other
authors [1-4]. Nevertheless, it has not been treated extensively
in the existing literature, because so far:
& For wind parks with variable speed wind turbines, only the
response to wind speed changes been investigated [1].
& For constant speed wind turbines, only the fault response
has been investigated [2-4].
In this paper, the response of detailed and aggregated models
of wind parks with constant and variable speed wind turbines
to both wind speed changes and faults will be compared. This
is important, because presently it is not clear whether
aggregated models adequately represent a wind park both
under normal operating conditions and during disturbances, as
is required [5]. Investigations of the response of wind parks
with constant speed wind turbines to wind speed changes and
the fault response of wind parks with variable speed wind
turbines have not been carried out yet. These will be carried
out in this paper, which therefore makes an important
contribution to the topic of aggregated wind park modelling.
(1)
in which Pw is the power extracted from the wind [W], ' is the
air density [kg/m3], cp is the performance coefficient, Ar is the
area swept by the rotor [m2], vw is the wind speed [m/s] and
the tip speed ratio, equal to the rotor blade tip speed vt [m/s]
divided by the wind speed vw. Before the wind speed is
inserted in equation (1), it passes through a low pass filter in
order to approximate the smoothing effect of the large rotor
surface for wind speed components with a high frequency.
The shaft is described by the following set of equations, in
which f is the nominal grid frequency [Hz], T is torque [p.u.],
is the angular displacement between the two ends of the shaft
[electrical radians], 7 is rotational speed [p.u.], H is the inertia
constant [s] and Ks is the shaft stiffness [p.u. torque/electrical
(2)
C. Model Aggregation
1) Aggregated Wind Speed Modelling
The wind speed can be considered to consist of four terms,
namely an average value, a ramp component, a gust
component and turbulence [11], [12]. In deriving the wind
speed signal for the aggregated wind park model, it is assumed
that the wind speed can be split up in a fully deterministic and
a fully stochastic part. The stochastic part consists of the
turbulence. In the aggregated park model, this term is
neglected, because in a wind park the effect of turbulence on
the aggregated output power is reduced due to the smoothing
effect of the large number of wind turbines, as can be
concluded from measurements carried out at existing wind
parks [13].
The fully deterministic part consists of the average value and,
if present, the gust and ramp component. The average value
can be assumed to be the same throughout the park. The gust
and ramp components travel through the park and the time at
which they arrive at the individual turbines depends on the
average wind speed, the angle of attack and the wind park
layout. The start and stop times of the gust and the ramp at
each individual wind turbine can thus be calculated from a
single wind speed signal applied to the aggregated wind park
model as a whole, taking into account the wind direction and
the park layout. The wind speed signal is specified by the start
and stop times of the gust and the ramp relative to the centre of
the wind park and the wind direction.
2) Aggregation of Constant Speed Wind Turbines
The way in which constant speed wind turbines can be
aggregated has been discussed in the literature [2]-[4]. In this
paper, it is assumed that the wind park can be represented with
one single constant speed wind turbine. The characteristics of
this wind turbine can be calculated using the following
equations
(3)
in which S is the MVA rating and C the size of the
compensating capacitor. The index eq means aggregated
equivalent wind turbine, m means mechanical and i indicates
the individual wind turbines in the wind park.
A specific problem in the aggregation of the turbines is posed
by the internal infrastructure of the wind park. Here, the only
components of the internal wind park infrastructure that are
included in the aggregated model are the transformers at the
wind turbines and, if present, at the point of common coupling
(PCC). The reason for this is that transformers have a
relatively high impedance, whereas the cables within the park
are rather short and therefore have a low impedance when
compared to the transformers. Their impedance is therefore
neglected. The impedance of the cable from the PCC to the
point of grid connection is kept, because it can be quite long,
particularly for off shore wind parks. The resulting aggregated
wind park model is depicted in figure 3.
Figure 3. Aggregated model of wind park with n constant speed wind turbines
Figure 5. Aggregated model of wind park with n variable speed wind turbines
VI. REFERENCES
[1] J.G. Slootweg, S.W.H. de Haan, H. Polinder, W.L. Kling, Aggregated
modeling of wind parks with variable speed wind turbines in power system
dynamics simulations, 14th Power Systems Computation Conference,
Sevilla, Spain, 24-28 June 2002.
[2] R.M.G. Castro, J.M. Ferreira de Jesus, A wind park reduced-order model
using singular perturbations theory, IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion, v.11, n.4, December 1996, p.735 -741.
[3] R.M.G. Castro, J.M. Ferreira de Jesus, An aggregated wind park model,
13th PSCC Power Systems Computation Conference, Trondheim, Norway, v.
2, p. 1302-1307, 28 June 28-July 2, 1999.
[4] V. Akhmatov, H. Knudsen, An aggregate model of a grid-connected,
large-scale, offshore wind farm for power stability investigations-importance
of windmill mechanical system, International Journal of Electrical Power &
Energy Systems, v. 25, n. 9, p. 707-719, July 2002.
[5] J.G. Slootweg, W.L. Kling, Modeling of Large Wind Farms in Power
System Simulations, Proceedings of the IEEE PES Summer Meeting,
Chicago, July 25-29, 2002.
[6] S. Heier, Grid integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems, Chicester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1998.
[7] P. Kundur, Power system stability and control, New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc., 1994.
[8] J.G. Slootweg, H. Polinder, W.L. Kling, Dynamic Modelling of a Wind
Turbine with Direct Drive Synchronous Generator and Back to back Voltage
Source Converter and its Controls, 2001 European Wind Energy Conference
and Exhibition, Copenhagen, Denmark, July 2-6, 2001.
[9] J.G. Slootweg, H. Polinder, W.L. Kling, Dynamic Modelling of a Wind
Turbine with Doubly Fed Induction Generator, 2001 IEEE Power
Engineering Society Summer Meeting, Vancouver, Canada, July 15-19, 2001.
[10] J.G. Slootweg, S.W.H. Haan, H. Polinder, W.L. Kling, General Model
for Representing Variable Speed Wind Turbines in Power System Dynamics
Simulations, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, v. 18, n. 1, February
2003, p. 144-151.
[11] O. Wasynczuk, D.T. Man, J.P. Sullivan, Dynamic behavior of a class of
wind turbine generators during random wind fluctuations, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, v.100, n.6, June 1981,
p.2837-2845.
[12] P.M. Anderson, A. Bose, Stability simulation of wind turbine systems,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, v.102, n.12, Dec. 1983,
p.3791-3795.
[13] J. Cadogan, M. Milligan, Y. Wan, B. Kirby, Short-term output
variations in wind farms: implications for ancillary services in the united
states, Wind Power for the 21st Century, Kassel, Germany, September
25-27, 2000.
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
J.G. Slootweg (M 01) received his MSc degree in
electrical engineering from Delft University of Technology
on September 23rd, 1998. During his education he stayed
in Berlin for six months, to hear lectures at TU Berlin and
to conduct research at the Dynamowerk of Siemens AG.
He is currently working towards a PhD on the effects of
large scale integration of new technology on power system
dynamics. The research is carried out at the Electrical
Power Systems Laboratory of Delft UT.
W.L. Kling (M 95) received his MSc degree in electrical
engineering from the Technical University of Eindhoven in
1978. Currently he is a part time professor at the Electric
Power Systems Laboratory of Delft UT. His experience lies
in the area of planning and operation of power systems. He
is involved in scientific organizations such as Cigr and
IEEE. He is the Dutch representative in the Cigr Study
Committee C1 System Development and Economics.
Figure 7. Simulation results. From left to right: response of star connected wind park to a wind speed change, response of string connected wind park to a wind
speed change and fault response of wind park. The upper three figures depict active and reactive power and PCC voltage of a wind park with constant speed
wind turbines, the lower three figures depict active and reactive power and PCC voltage of a wind park with variable speed wind turbines. The solid lines
correspond to the detailed model and the dotted lines to the aggregated model of the wind park.