Session 3 - Presentation 1 - R Jardine - Imperial College - Axial Design of Driven Offshore Piles - DGF Seminar 2014-04-01

10/04/2014
Recent developments in axial design

of driven offshore piles
DGF Copenhagen
April 1st 2014
Richard Jardine
Page 1
Imperial College London
Themes:
Changed API, ISO axial capacity recommendations
for sands, including ICP-05
Research background leading to new methods
Applications, case histories, some surprising results
New research: ageing, cyclic and lateral loading
Next set of issues: clay methods & improving loaddisplacement predictions
Page 2
10/04/2014
New rules for static axial capacity in silica

sand: 2011 API recommendations
Before: had = K vo tan for shaft, qb = Nq vo for base.
Limits to , qb and values for , Nq depend on D50 and Dr
Now: modified to = K tan, no loose sand case

Recognises: API main text methods significant bias and
poor reliability:
Qcalculated /Qmeasured ratios = Qc/Qm subject to CoV ~ 65%
Recommend: completely different CPT based methods,

including ICP. Note need for different SI & specialist staff
Page 3
The axial capacity prize:

Feedback from one UK
wind-farm design team
Critical economies through
ICP-05 or UWA-05 sand
axial capacity methods
Also applied in onshore civil
engineering: Williams et al 1997
Derived from field ICP research
Lehane et al 1993
Chow 1997
Jardine et al 2005
Page 4
10/04/2014
Research background:
Critique of conventional approach &
how new CPT methods were derived
Page 5
MTD and ICP methods

First proposed in 1996,
extended in 2005 to cover:
Group action
Pile shape
Seismic effects
Special and problem soils
Factors of safety
Ring shear test methodology
Ageing
Cyclic loading
Databases: mini-to-mega piles
Page 6
10/04/2014
Shaft capacities from 81 tests in sand; Jardine et al (2005)

API: skewed for relative density, pile length and tension loading
Pile ty pe & test direction
Steel, closed-ended, tension
Steel, closed-ended, compression
Concrete, closed-ended, tension
Concrete, closed-ended, compression
Steel, open-ended, tension
Steel, open-ended, compression
Concrete, open-ended, tension
3.5
API
3.0
2.5
3.5
API
3.0
2.5
SP
1.5
Qc /Qm
Qc /Qm
H
SP
2.0
H
SP
Pile failures at
Hound Point and
Sungai Perak Bridge
Williams et al (1997)
SP
2.0
SP
H
SP
1.5
DK
DK
1.0
HBD
1.0
BD
H
EU
HO
EU
EU
EU
0.5
EU
EU
EU
EU
DK
0.5
EU
EU
EU
EU
EU
DK
0.0
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
20
40
Relative density,Dr (%)
60
80
100
L/D
ICP shows no skewing (tension solid) Average pile age = 25 days

3.5
3.5
ICP
ICP
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
Qc /Qm
Qc /Qm
3.0
1.5
SP
EU
SP
EU
1.0
H
BD
EU
HH
SP
EU
1.5
SP
DK
EU
EU
0.5
SP
H SP H
DK
1.0
DK
EU
EUDK
EU
BD
EU
EU
EU
0.5
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
Relative density,Dr (%)
Page 7
EU
50
60
70
80
90
100
L/D
Critical review of conventional theory

What controls shear () and normal stress rf at failure?
How does rf vary with v0 and local Dr?
What controls the friction angle ?
Any missing key variables?
Is tension loading different to compression?
Does shallow foundation Nq apply to end-bearing?
Do any limits apply to and end bearing pressure qb?
Page 8
10/04/2014
4.0
Closed-end, 102mm
OD; up to 20m long
SSTs measure local
r and
Bond, Jardine and
Dalton (1991)
Distance from pile tip, h (m)
Background IC
research with
instrumented piles
3.0
lagging
instrument
cluster, h/R=72
trailing
instrument
cluster, h/R=50
2.0
following
instrument
cluster, h/R=27
1.0
surface stress transducer
Intensive testing at 2
sand and 4 clay sites
Page 9
pore pressure probe

axial load cell
leading
instrument
cluster, h/R=8
ICP Configuration for Labenne tests, SW France

Definition of stresses and tip parameter - h
10/04/2014
Geotechnical profile: Labenne, after Lehane (1992)

Loose dune sand, including thin organic layer
Labenne end bearing

Measured base resistance qb and CPT qc
10/04/2014
Local sr during
penetration at
Labenne
Effect of h/R
K not constant but

varies with:
Sand state - qc
Pile tip depth (h/R)
Combined effects of qc and h/R on r

ICP tests at Labenne: Lehane et al (1993)
10/04/2014
Denser North Sea Marine sand Dunkerque France,

Chow (1997)
Borehole log
0
2
4
Depth (m)
CPT fC (kPa)
0 100 200 300 400
GWL
6
8
Organic layer
12
40
Very dense, light brown, uniform, fine to

medium, subrounded SAND with
occasional shell fragments (Hydraulic fill)
Dense with shell fragments

(Flandrian Sand)
10
CPT qC (MPa)
0 10
20
30
Dense, green-brown and grey-brown,

uniform fine to medium, subrounded
SAND with some shell fragments
(Flandrian Sand)
14
16
18
20
Becoming very dense
22
24
Page 15
Influence of CPT qc and pile tip position on r

Dunkerque, after Chow (1997)
API
r varies with qc
For fixed depth r falls with h/R
Page 16
10/04/2014
Possible
causes for h/R
influence on
local stresses
along pile
length;
Chow (1997)
Heave
Whip
Relaxation as
tip stress
concentration
moves away
Page 17
Extreme
driving
cycles
fatigue?
AfterFriction
Chow (1997)
Load cycles
degrade shaft
capacity
1
First failure
Field Cyclic
tests
onafter457mm
OD,
failure
previous cyclic
or static failure
Aged pile, no previous failure
Aged
pile,
after
previous
failure
19m long steel pipe piles, Dunkerque
0.8
Datapoint number = N f
> indicates unfailed by cycling
Can recover with time

Not true fatigue
Qcyclic / Q max static
41
12
10
0.6
Nf
20
50
100
13
24
206
9
200
0.4
400
221
See recent keynotes

on cyclic design:
Jardine et al (2012) -0.2
Andersen et al (2013)
345
>200
0.2
27
>1000
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Qaverage / Q max static
Page 18
10/04/2014
Delft University photoelastic particulate test rig

Tip installation stress focus and bearing failure
Page 19
Page 20
10
10/04/2014
Dunkerque: loading response & ICP effective

stress paths, similar patterns to Labenne
Base qb qc not related
linearly to v0
r varies under load
Tension compression
rd = 2G r/R
Dr affects response
through G
cv not affected by Dr
cv angles: sand-on-steel interface ring-shear tests
Intact sand
Crushed sand
Ho et al (2010)
Steel interface
11
10/04/2014
Interface shear cv: silt-to-fine gravel,

Interfaces with roughness of industrial piles
Ring shear
Direct shear trend
10/04/2014 Barmpopoulos et al (2009), Ho et al (2010)

Direct & ring shear:
Full ICP design principles: closed ended piles

Radial shaft stresses r = A qc (v0)a (h/R)b
Loading to failure alters r by factor that varies with 1/R
Differences in tension and compression responses
At failure f /r = tan cv with cv from interface lab tests
Base capacity qb linked to CPT qc diameter dependent
No upper limits to f or qb - care needed in variable profiles
How to deal with open ended piles?

Page 24
12
10/04/2014
Generalisation of ICP
shaft expressions to
open ended piles
Choices considered by
Chow (1997)
B2: R* = (R2o R2i)0.5

Page 25
Assessment by Chow (1997)
Peak shear stress (kPa)

-200
0
B2 choice considered
most practical
Later UWA-05 follow

Page 26
College London
alternative A2 Imperial
route
Depth (m)
-50
50
100
150
200
0
2
10
10
12
12
A2 Scalar reduction based on IFR

Peak shear stress (kPa)
-200
0
Depth (m)
Re-checked against full

scale data base, adopted
for MTD-96
-100
Pile CS
T'89a
C'89a
Prediction
Five hypotheses checked

with instrumented openended (325mm)
Dunkerque pile
-150
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
200
0
Pile CS
T'89a
C'89a
Prediction
10
10
12
12
B2 h/R term revised with R*

defined by solid area of pipe pile
13
10/04/2014
Full ICP: checks for possible wall thickness ratio bias

Shaft capacity of open piles in sand: IC data base
3.5
3.0
Pile type & test direction

Steel, open-ended, tension
Steel, open-ended, compression
Concrete, open-ended, tension
Qc/Q m
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
D/t
Page 27
Pile plugs and open-end bearing: diameter dependence

Plug qb falls with
diameter D
ICP qb/qc = f(D)
IFR rises
sharply with D
Because of
interface shear
scale effect
Page 28
14
10/04/2014
Debate over new API/ISO recommendations

Agreement: CPT based methods offer great potential
Debate over how to scale up from closed ended
model piles to full scale
API (2011) cites four approaches: ICP, Fugro, NGI
and UWA
What are the differences? Practical evidence that the
full ICP and other methods work?
Page 29
2011 API commentary methods: NGI-05

Sliding triangle approach to capture h/R effects, z = depth
= z/ztip Patmospheric FD Fs Ft Fl Fm
z/ztip term not normalised by D or affected by Length L

F factors depend on: Dr; v0 ; loading sense; pile type
Base qb does not vary with D, unaffected by L/D
Terms fitted from NGI data base, checked against 28 high
quality load tests
Page 30
15
10/04/2014
2011 API commentary methods

Fugro-05, Kolk et al (2005)
ICP shaft expressions, coefficients revised to fit 37

steel pipe piles (some non-silica sand, some
repeat tests)
varies with L/D
Interface dilation neglected
Different expressions for tension and compression
= 29o for all cases
Base capacity
Page 31
not affected by D
API commentary methods

UWA-05; Lehane et al (2005)
Re-working of ICP, adopting Chow Set A2 approach
v0 term dropped and (h/D) term models friction fatigue

model, with modified exponenent
rc = a qc (Ar)b (h/D)c
Effective area Ar depends on Incremental Filling Ratio
(IFR) to define stresses near tip varies with L/D
Full and more conservative offshore variants
Page 32
Choices for a, b, c checked against large database
16
10/04/2014
UWA-05 & ICP-05 end bearing for plugged piles vary with D
UWA qb/qc depends on Final IFR, which varies with D
Open ended piles in sand, taking D/t = 30
0.4
0.35
0.3
qb/qc
0.25
0.2
0.15
ICP-05
UWA-05
0.1
0.05
Page 33
0.5 Imperial College1London
1.5
2.5
Outside diameter, m
UWA data base study: Lehane et al (2005)

74 high quality tests after 30 days, silica sands, CPT profiles
New CPT methods greatly reduce bias and scatter (CoVs)
Overall:
(full)
(full)
API-93
NGI-05
Fugro-04
ICP-05
UWA-05
Mean Qc/Qm CoV

0.81 0.67
1.11 0.37
1.11 0.38
0.95 0.30
0.97 0.27 (measured IFRs)
Similar data-base results to Jardine et al (2005)
New studies in hand: IC & ZJU, UWA and new NGI JIP
Page 34
17
10/04/2014
Applications:
all with full ICP approach
Page 35
Sungai Perak, Western Malaysia; Williams et al 1997

Balanced cantilever bridge on 1.5m OD driven steel piles
API design 33m penetration had to be doubled after tests
Pile tests
1&2 3 4
Average results
Medium-dense
gravelly sands
Page 36
API: Qc/Qm= 1.99

ICP: Qc/Qm= 1.10
18
10/04/2014
Dense North Sea sand

EURIPIDES - Holland
Kolk et al (2005)
760mm OD heavily
instrumented steel
tubulars
Average results:
API: Qc/Qm= 0.58
ICP: Qc/Qm= 0.97
ICP predictions (thick
lines) fit tests at 3 L/D
values, no skew or bias
with
L/D
Page
37
Oil and gas: all N. Sea Shells installations since 1996

Now widespread wind energy applications
Overy 2007
Page 38
Piled tripods for Borkum West II

German N. Sea Merritt et al 2012
19
10/04/2014
North Sea track record since 1996

13 installations of ICP designed foundations reported
Overy (2007)
Encouraging correlations with driving SRDs and stress
wave matches in sand, clay and mixed profiles
Substantial variations from conventional API, depending
on soil profile, pile details etc
Engineering potential facilitated new low-cost marginal
field options: Sayer & Overy (2007)
Borkum West II wind-turbine tripods: see Merritt et al 2012

Page 39
If conventional API is so unreliable, why are

offshore failures rarely reported?
Almost no offshore static testing, limited driving monitoring
Problems revealed by tests performed for near-shore
projects: Hound Point, Sungai Perak, Jamuna Bridge etc
Systematic conservative bias in some conditions such as
very dense marine sands
Unrecognised positive factors: shaft ageing characteristics
in sand
Page 40
20
10/04/2014
Dunkerque
programme:
Dense marine sand
Eight steel pipe piles
457mm OD, 19m
Static & cyclic loading

9 days to 1 year after
driving
Jardine et al 2006
Jardine & Standing
Page 41
2012
1st time tension tests at Dunkerque

235 days
Creep important
at Q > 1MN
81 days
9 days
ICP capacity after 9 days

EoD shaft 0.63 ICP
Low driving base capacity
Ageing disrupted by pre-testing
Pile age after driving: a missing parameter
21
10/04/2014
New and ongoing research

Pile installation and stress system it creates
Ageing in laboratory and field
Cyclic axial loading
Layering and base capacity
Lateral loading response
Extending the field database
Page 43
Long term calibration chamber tests in Grenoble

with new 36mm OD mini-ICP: Jardine et al (2009)
1.2 m ID, 1.5 m deep chamber

On pile stress measurements
Page
Imperial College
London installed in sand mass
44Multiple soil stress
cells
22
10/04/2014
Experiments on NE34 Fontainebleu sand:

Yang et al (2010)
CPT cone resistance, qc
Critical depth
Shear zone
Crushing zone
Shear zone developed around the pile shaft,

Yang et al (2010)
Plan view
Side aspect
Zone 1 material 0.5 to 1.5mm adheres to pile shaft
23
10/04/2014
Schematic
development of
Zones 1 to 3
Related to stress
regime in:
2
3
Crushing area
beneath tip
Degradation over
shaft length
Microscope images: progressive grain crushing
(a) Fresh sand
(c) Zone 2 sand
(b) Zone 1 sand
(d) Zone 3 sand
24
10/04/2014
Stresses in soil
mass during
penetration
(and at rest)
10
50
1.0
1.0
4.0
40
4.0
0.50
8.0
8.0
12
12
30
1.5
16
16
0.50
20
r normalised
by CPT qc, %
2.0
20
20
30
h/R
h/R
0.75
10
1.0
16
3.0
12 10
6.0
4.0
2.0
Similar plots for

and z
2.0
14 3.0
6.0 4.0
1.5
-10
1.5
-5
0.75
0.50
-20
1.0
0.25
0.50
0.25
-30
Jardine et al (2013)
10
15
0.75
-10
20
r/R
0.75
10
r/R
Local stress paths at Leading pile instrument

One cycle towards end of installation
150
100
(c)
Shear stress (kPa)
st
1 P.T.
Peak
load
peak
load
50
Unloading
-50
start
point
Start
of push
nd
2 P.T.
-100
End
endPoint
point
-150
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Radial stress (kPa)
25
10/04/2014
Interim conclusions from field & laboratory

Driving analyses highly variable. Base capacity well below
static estimates
Shaft capacities build over time from low EoD values to far
exceed full ICP or UWA Qs estimates
Installation stress regime promotes ageing, as may interface
crust and physiochemical effects
Base resistance very sensitive to local variations take lower
bound CPT profile for qb design
Limit qc to 100 MPa in North Sea sands, beware tip buckling
51
PageAddress
cyclic loading
in design & consider ICP clay method
ICP effective-stress clay approach:

= rf tan , analogous to sand: rf/v0 = f (YSR, St, h/R*)
Good predictions for ICP data base, reduces CoV and bias
Applied since 1996, particularly in North Sea
Needs different SI approach. Key issues, including low IP
clays, debated at OSIG 2007
Micro-fabric in shear zones is crucial, as in landslides. Altered
by driving, promotes progressive failure
Ring shear tests to measure ; qb related directly to CPT qc
Page 52
26
10/04/2014
Microscope thin section

through clay around piles at
Pentre; Chow (1997)
Pile shaft
Principal displacement shears
Reidel shears
Residual shearing mode,
unusually low for given Ip
More common with
Imperialplastic
College London clays
Page 53
Interface friction angles for piles driven in clay

Measure max, min in ring shear interface tests, can be surprising!
Page 54
27
10/04/2014
Load-displacement behaviour
Axial, lateral and moment monitoring of Magnus and Hutton
TLP foundations: errors of 400% in conventional T-z, P-y
predictive approaches
Far better fit with (Class A) non-linear small strain FE
predictions; Jardine and Potts (1988), (1993)
Central role in new DONG-led PISA lateral loading JIP
Widely used in onshore Civil Engineering: many conferences
and case histories
Advanced soil testing & non-linear modelling:

Six TC-29/101 conferences since 1994
Page 56
Lyon 2003
Atlanta 2008
Seoul 2011
28
10/04/2014
Advanced stress-path
triaxial equipment
200 x 100mm samples
Accurate cyclic loading
Longer term creep tests
Interactions with cycling
Higher resolution strain gauges
Multi-axial BE systems
Jardine 2013
Or, IC Resonant column HCA

Static mode
1 , 2 , 3 and control
Static loading ram

torque system
and hydraulic
pressures
Dynamic mode
Torsional resonant column
Oscillator (RC)
38/71 mm hollow cylinder
71/101 mm hollow cylinder
Specimen sizes
Page 58
29
10/04/2014
Predictive tools
FE code ICFEP, fully coupled includes range of possible
elastic-plastic soil models, can model progressive failure
Simulate small-strain behaviour by tangent stiffness
functions between (Y1) elastic and outer (Y3) yield surfaces
G/p = f(D)
K/p = g(vol)
Fitted from lab tests, applied in 100s of projects
Illustrate with simulations of tension tests on 19m long,

456mm OD Dunkerque steel piles driven in dense sand
Page 59
Dunkerque anisotropic stiffness profiles: lab and field

Elastic
stiffness
MPa
Elastic stiffness,
MPa
0
100 Y1 200
300 profiles:
400
500
600
Anisotropic
stiffness
Dunkerque
0
m
Depth
Depth, m
700
Legend:
Eu from TXC tests
E`v from TXC tests
E`h from TX tests
Gvh from TX BE tests
Ghh from TX BE tests
Gvh from field seism. CPT tests
10
15
20
Field seismic & lab Gvh measurements agree within 10%
Page 60
25
30
10/04/2014
Dense sand non-linear secant shear stiffness data

OCR=1, other tests at different OCRs
1400
Legend:
Curve used for FE analysis
TC test curve OCR=1
TE test curve OCR=1
TS test curve for OCR=1
1200
1000
G/p'
800
600
400
200
Page 61
0
0.001
0.01
e s, %
0.1
Non-linear ICFEP predictions for tension test

19m, 457mm OD, steel pipe pile at Dunkerque
2500
Shaft rc from ICP-05

CPT approach
Non-linear stiffness
and interface shear
from lab tests
Jardine et al 2005b
load, Q (MN)
Pile head
Q (MN)
Pile resistance,
Estimates for other

soil components
2000
1500
Good for capacity &

working load stiffness
1000
Legend:
predicted - ICFEP
observed
500
10
15
20
25
30
35
Pile cap
displacement, (mm)
Pile head
displacements,
(mm)
31
10/04/2014
Conclusions
Need for improved capacity methods highlighted
Background instrumented pile & data base research
reviewed
New API/ISO sand methods and practical application
discussed
Case histories demonstrate full ICP is fit for purpose
New factors highlighted, including strong time effects, base
capacity in variable strata & cyclic loading
Page 63
Conclusions
Recent research outlined and interim conclusions noted
Focus on stress regime and soil fabric around shaft
Greatest practical impact with sands
Key aspects of ICP clay effective stress approach outlined
Way to improve pile-soil deformation analysis reviewed and
illustrated
Page 64
32
10/04/2014
Acknowledgments
Sponsors & partners: BP,
BRE, IFP, EPSRC, Exxon
HSE, Shell, INPG 3S-R
group, Total and others
Current and former coworkers: Andrew Bond,
Fiona Chow, Reiko
Kuwano, Barry Lehane,
Siya Rimoy, Jamie
Standing, Zhongxuan
Yang, Bitang Zhu and
many others
Page 65
Pierre Foray
1949-2014
33

Session 3 - Presentation 1 - R Jardine - Imperial College - Axial Design of Driven Offshore Piles - DGF Seminar 2014-04-01

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Session 3 - Presentation 1 - R Jardine - Imperial College - Axial Design of Driven Offshore Piles - DGF Seminar 2014-04-01

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10/04/2014

Recent developments in axial design

Imperial College London

Imperial College London

New rules for static axial capacity in silica

Now: modified to = K tan, no loose sand case

Recommend: completely different CPT based methods,

Imperial College London

The axial capacity prize:

Imperial College London

Imperial College London

MTD and ICP methods

Imperial College London

Shaft capacities from 81 tests in sand; Jardine et al (2005)

Relative density,Dr (%)

ICP shows no skewing (tension solid) Average pile age = 25 days

Relative density,Dr (%)

Imperial College London

Critical review of conventional theory

Imperial College London

Distance from pile tip, h (m)

pore pressure probe

Imperial College London

ICP Configuration for Labenne tests, SW France

Geotechnical profile: Labenne, after Lehane (1992)

Labenne end bearing

K not constant but

Combined effects of qc and h/R on r

Denser North Sea Marine sand Dunkerque France,

Very dense, light brown, uniform, fine to

Dense with shell fragments

Dense, green-brown and grey-brown,

Becoming very dense

Influence of CPT qc and pile tip position on r

For fixed depth r falls with h/R

Imperial College London

Imperial College London

Can recover with time

Qcyclic / Q max static

See recent keynotes

Qaverage / Q max static

Delft University photoelastic particulate test rig

Imperial College London

Imperial College London

Dunkerque: loading response & ICP effective

cv angles: sand-on-steel interface ring-shear tests

Interface shear cv: silt-to-fine gravel,

Direct shear trend

10/04/2014 Barmpopoulos et al (2009), Ho et al (2010)

Full ICP design principles: closed ended piles

How to deal with open ended piles?

Imperial College London

B2: R* = (R2o R2i)0.5

Imperial College London

Assessment by Chow (1997)

Peak shear stress (kPa)

Later UWA-05 follow

A2 Scalar reduction based on IFR

Re-checked against full

Five hypotheses checked

B2 h/R term revised with R*

Full ICP: checks for possible wall thickness ratio bias

Pile type & test direction