ME 105

Mechanical Engineering Lab

Page 1

ME 105 Mechanical Engineering

Laboratory
Spring Quarter
2010

Experiment # 3:
Pipe Flow

Objectives: a) Calibrate a pressure transducer and two different flowmeters (paddlewheel

and orifice plate); b) Use the flowmeter and pressure transducer to measure the friction
factor for pipes of different diameter, of different lengths, and for different flow rates.
Check for Reynolds number scaling and compare with the Moody diagram; c) Measure
minor losses in fittings and compare with empirical rules of thumb; d) Use a hydraulic
analog of a Wheatstone bridge to test rules of thumb for minor losses.

Introduction
Volumetric flow rate, pressure, and head losses are key fundamental
quantities in analyzing and designing piping systems. This experiment will
introduce you to basic measurement techniques and to some principles of
pipe flow. In this experiment three basic devices a pressure transducer,
an orifceplate flowmeter and a paddlewheel flowmeter are calibrated and
compared against standard practice, and then used to make fundamental
measurements of losses in pipes, fttings, and piping networks.

Pre-Lab Reading
Review relevant material from your undergraduate fluid mechanics courses, including (i)
Reynolds number, (ii) losses in straight pipes and the Moody diagram, (iii) Bernoullis equation
and the mechanical energy balance, (iv) orifice meters, and (v) minor losses in fittings. Some of
this material is presented below, but this lab handout is not a substitute for more extensive
background reading.

Pre-Lab Work
Prepare and submit an outline
that includes:

Calibrations to perform
Data sets to collect
Possible sources of experimental uncertainty and a plan for quantifying these errors
Brief description of the work plan
Any equations or physical parameters that may be needed during the laboratory session

(See general lab guidelines & print out grading sheet from website).

PreLab Exercises:
1.

Hydrodynamic losses in pipe flow are characterized by measuring the pressure

drop P over a length of pipe L. If you anticipate using flow rates of 0.5 gals/min through
1/4 i.d. smooth-wall tubing, and want a pressure drop of 10 kPa, what length, L, of tubing
should you use? Express your answer in meters. Note: You will note that this problem
statement uses mixed units, which unfortunately are a fact of life in engineering calculations.
You should know how to do unit conversions accurately and quickly. A good rule of thumb is
to convert all units to SI before doing any numerical calculations.
Hint: Assume that the working fluid is water at 20C, and refer to a standard
Moody diagram to complete this task.

2.

The Validyne pressure transducer measures pressure differences between

the two sides of a stainless steel plate (diaphragm). It will be calibrated by
applying hydrostatic pressure to one side. If water at 20C is the working
fluid, what range of water heights should be used to calibrate the device
over a range of differential pressures from 020 kPa?

3.

The kit includes 1/8, 1/4, and 3/8 i.d. tubes. If water at 20C is the
working fluid and the transition Reynolds number is taken as 2,000,
calculate the velocity and the volumetric flow rate for transition from
laminar to turbulent flow for each sized tube. Record both velocities and
volumetric flow rates in your notebook for future reference.

4.

The paddlewheel flowmeter works on the principle that the oncoming

flow rotates the paddlewheel at a frequency that is related to the flow
rate. There will be some backflow as the vane of the paddlewheel sweeps
forward. Consider the hypothetical situation where the flow rate vs.
frequency relation is exactly linear. What would that tell you about the
backflow?

5. In a standard fluids text we find the following rules of thumb for the ratio of equivalent
length to pipe diameter Le/D for minor losses due to:
Le/D
Standard elbow:
30
Standard tee: flow through run
20
flow through branch
60
Consider the flow of water at Q = 2 liters/min. through a diameter tube containing an
elbow. Use the rule of thumb to estimate the pressure drop across the elbow. Express your
answer in Pascals.
6. Referring to the pipe network shown in Figure 1, and with the aid of the development in the
handout, manipulate the energy balance to obtain a working equation for the head losses as
follows.

A) If p23 p2 p3 0 , i.e. the bridge is balanced, and (as is true of our setup), all the
tubing between point 1 and points 2 and 3 is the same diameter and length, the fittings are
identical, and the elevation at points 2 and 3 are the same, what is the left hand side of
equation (13)?
B) Now if in addition the diameter of the tubing at the outlets 4 and 5 is identical what is the
relationship between u4 and u5 ?
C) With all this in mind, if the outlets 4 and 5 are held such that the water exits into the
atmosphere, what is the working equation relating the elevations at 4 and 5 and the losses
in legs A and B?
2

LA

LB

1
Pump

Figure 1: A simple pipe network equivalent to a Wheatstone bridge.

Equipment

Omega paddlewheel flowmeter

Validyne pressure transducer with bleeding screwdriver
Water reservoir and sumppump
Teflon tubing and ftting assortment
Flow needle valve
Orifice plate
Bucket
Balance
Stopwatch
Oscilloscope and power supply
Thermometer

Technical Data
Orifice plate
Upstream pipe diameter
Orifice diameter

= 9.53 mm
= 4.76 mm

System Description
You will need to set up a simple method to calibrate a pressure transducer by providing
a known pressure difference between the two sides of the transducer. In
addition you will have to construct a water-bench to perform measurements that allow you to
calibrate the pressure transducer and the two kinds of flowmeters, and investigate head loss in
pipe flow, fittings, and pipe networks. Although you will decide the specific arrangement, Fig. 2
shows generically the layout of the flow loop.

orifice plate
pipe section

pressure
transducer
needle paddlewhee
valve flow meter
return
pump

water supply

Figure 2: Flow-loop schematic.

Theoretical
relations

orifce

An orifice plate is one of the most common flow measurement devices. Using
a control volume approach shown in Fig. 3, it is possible to obtain an
expression for the flow coefcient in terms of the flow rate Q, the pressure
difference P1P2 across the orifce plate, and the geometrical parameters of
the flowmeter. Applying conservation of mass for steady flow,

A1V1 A2V 2 ,
(1)
and Bernoullis equation between position 1 to position 2,
V 22 P2 gZ 2 ,
V1 2 P1
gZ 1

Orifice plate

Pipe
2

(2)

Control
volume
Differential
pressure
transducer

Figure 3: Flow in the vicinity of an orifice plate.

we find that if Z1=Z2:
2

P P
1
2 A

V2

1 (

/A)
2

(3)

where V is the flow velocity, A is the area, is the density, g is the acceleration due to gravity
and Z is the elevation. This can be rewritten in terms of the volumetric flow rate as a function of
the pressure difference:
Q V 2A 2 A 2

2( P1 P2 )

1 ( 2 / A1 )

(4)

A
For the orifceplate meter shown in Fig. 3, the area A2 is not given by the
orifce diameter d, but rather the diameter of the vena contracta, (where
the flow has a minimum cross sectional area). This area is unknown and
will change with the flow rate. Consequently, (4)

is often written with d 2 / 4 , and a dischargecoefcient C is added to

A2
D
account for
the combination of these geometric effects and viscous losses:
2 (P1 P2 )
Q C DA2
,
(5)
1 4
wher d / D , where d is the orifce diameter and D is the diameter of
e
the pipe. The
discharge coefcient for an orifceplate meter is not constant and is found
experimentally
by measuring both Q and (P1P2) and applying equation (5).
have
Values for CD
been
measured for standardized tap locations, which allow flow rates to be
measured from a
pressure drop across the orifce plate. Figure 4 shows the typical
as a
dependence of CD
function of geometry and Reynolds number, Re.

Figure 4: Discharge coefficient curves for a standard orifceplate

flowmeter.

Head Loss in Pipe Flows

There is a pressure drop when a fluid flows in a pipe because energy is required to overcome the
viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving fluid. In addition to
the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also loses energy (or pressure) as it goes through
fittings, such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure is often due to
the fact that flow separates locally as it moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe
flows is commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses

(hl) while losses through fittings, etc, are called minor losses (hlm). Together they make up the
total head losses (hlT) for pipe flows.

Mechanical Energy Equation for Pipe Flows

The mechanical energy equation between any two points 1 and 2 for steady incompressible flow
is:
P V2
P V2

1
1
2
2

gz1

gz 2 hlT .
(6)

2
2

(It also be noted that for flow without losses, hlT = 0, and the energy equation reduces to
Bernoullis Equation.) The terms in parentheses represent the mechanical energy per unit mass
at a particular cross-section in the pipe. Hence, the difference between the mechanical energy at
two locations, i.e. the total head loss, results from the conversion of mechanical energy to
thermal energy due to frictional effects.
For an incompressible flow, conservation of mass determines V2 (since, V1 A1 V 2 A2 ) and so
the terms involving the fluid velocity are determined by geometry. If the elevation at position 2
is known, the change in the gravitational potential is known. The net result is that if the pipe
diameter is constant and the elevation does not change, the head loss is manifested simply as a
pressure loss.
Major Losses
The major head loss in pipe flows is expressed in the following way:
2
LV
hl f
,
(7)
D 2
where L and D are the length and diameter of the pipe, respectively, and V is the average fluid
velocity through the pipe. This may be taken as a definition of the friction factor, f. In general,
the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number Re and the non-dimensional surface
roughness / D , and is determined experimentally. The plot of f vs. Re is usually referred to as
the Moody Diagram, after L. F. Moody who first published this data in this form.

Minor Losses
The head losses associated with fittings such as elbows, tees, couplings, etc. are referred to as
minor losses. In some cases, such as short pipes with multiple fittings, these losses are actually
a large percentage of the total head loss and hence are not really minor. Minor losses are
expressed as either
(8a)
V2 ,
hlm K
2
where K is the Loss Coefficient and must be determined experimentally for each situation, or as
2
L V
hlm f e
,
(8b)
D 2
wherein the loss is expressed in terms of the (known) friction factor and an equivalent Le / D .
For example, an elbow creates a loss that is roughly equivalent to a pipe of length of 30 pipe
diameters (see the table in Prelab Question 4). Loss coefficients, K and/or equivalent length

ratios Le / D can be found in a variety of handbooks: data for specific simple fittings are
available in most undergraduate Fluid Mechanics texts.

Pipe networks: the hydraulic analog of a Wheatstone bridge

Consider the pipe system shown schematically in Figure 1. We are interested in describing the
pressure loss through all the legs of this simple network. If both legs A and B exit into the
atmosphere, then the pressure differentials downstream of junctions 2 and 3 can be defined as:
p A p2 pa
and
pB p3 pa

(9)

where pa is atmospheric pressure. The energy equation for these two branches yields:

2
2

and

2
2

(10a,b)

Assume that leg A of the network consists of only a straight tube uniform tube and therefore the
head loss hLA is
(11)
L V2 .
h f A A
LA

DA 2
The head loss in leg B of the network, hLB , includes losses through the pipe itself but also any
minor losses due to the insertion of elbows, etc. In general,
2
2
LB V B
LeB VB
h LB f B
,
(12)
fB
DB 2
DB 2
where we have chosen to express the minor losses in terms of equivalent pipe lengths, LeB.
Subtracting (10a) from (10b) we obtain:

13

This particular pipe network is analogous to a Wheatstone bridge. The purpose of the electrical
version of such a bridge is to be able to measure small changes in resistance accurately. In the
hydraulic analog we measure small changes in head loss. When the bridge is balanced, i.e. there
is no flow through the leg L23, the pressures at points 2 and 3 must be the same: (otherwise, the
pressure gradient would drive a flow through the leg).
In our laboratory setup, the leg L23 viewed from the side is shaped in an arc as shown in Figure 5.
A small tightly fitting sphere is placed in the tube. Any flow in the leg will exert a drag on the
sphere and it will rise above the center. By contrast, a no flow condition will result in the sphere
positioned at zero degrees from the vertical since p23 p2 p3 0 . Thus, monitoring the
sphere position allows a coarse measurement of bridge balance.

Figure 5: Schematic of the sphere in the arched tube comprising the center leg.

Experimental Procedure:
General
You will be making a variety of measurements with water, the physical properties of which are
temperature dependent. For this reason, it is very important that you know the temperature of
the water for each measurement.

Week One
1) Calibration of the pressure transducer
The frst step is to calibrate the output voltage from the Validyne differential
pressure transducer. Apply known pressure differences to the two sides of the
transducer using hydrostatic pressure. Five to ten data points should be
obtained, ranging from a zero pressure differential to a pressure differential
of about 20 kPa. Perform a linear least squares analysis of the data before
week two. Try both linear and a quadratic fts and compute the goodness of
ft. If a linear fit is sufciently accurate, record the slope and intercept of the
resulting line for later use in data acquisition.

2) Calibration of the paddlewheel and orifice plate flowmeters

Paddlewheel flowmeter: The paddlewheel flowmeter outputs a pulse train
whose frequency is related to the flow rate. Calibrate the paddlewheel using
varying flow rates by measuring the frequency as a function of flow rate.
Five to ten data points should be obtained. Determine the rising and
falling cutoff flow rates, i.e. the discharge below which the paddlewheel is
motionless or erratic. You will notice that at low flow rates the
frequency is erratic, and that the frequency fluctuates at all flow rates. Do
your best to get an average reading from the oscilloscope. What might cause
such fluctuations?
Orifce plate flowmeter: Measure the pressure drop across the orifce
plate as a function of flow rate. Five to ten points should be obtained. These
data will be used to determine the discharge coefficient CD for the
orifce plate as a function of the Reynolds number.
3) Investigation of major losses
Prepare 6 8 lengths of the three different diameter tubing. Using the paddlewheel to measure
flow rate and Tees as pressure taps, obtain data for pressure drop over a given length as a
function of flow rate for the three different sized tubes. Since the Moody diagram is for long,
straight tubes, try to make your tube runs as long and as straight as feasible. Obtain 5-10 data
points for each tube over the maximum range of flow rates possible. These data will be used to
determine the friction factor, f, as a function of the Reynolds number. These values will also
be compared to the standard Moody diagram, so you should perform calculations on some of the
data during the experiment to make sure the comparison is reasonable. Complete these
calculations and the comparison with the Moody diagram before week two.

Week Two
4) Major losses
Depending on the quality of your data from week one, you may chose to
check calibrations and/or repeat your measurements of major losses.
5) Investigation of minor
losses
Using the paddlewheel to measure flow rate and tees as pressure taps, measure the minor
losses for an elbow, a tee, and a straight coupling as a function of flow rate. Use only one
diameter tube and make sure your data are taken in the turbulent regime.
6) Investigation of a simple pipe
network
Set up the flow system shown in Figure 1 of this handout incorporating the section of arced
tubing between the points 2 and 3. Use tubing for these experiments. It is best to place a
needle valve before the branch so that the flow rate can be controlled.
a) Prepare two 6 long lengths of tubing to serve as legs A and B. Set the flow rate with the
needle valve in the midrange of the pump and make sure that the tube exits are at the same
elevation. Curiously, although the two legs are identical tubing and identical lengths, the bridge
may be slightly out of balance. This could be due to a number of factors, including different
coiling of the two legs, burrs and rough edges where the tube was cut, slight differences in the

losses in the two elbows at points 2 and 3, etc. By raising or lowering the exit tubes, determine
which of the branches has the larger loss, and shorten the appropriate tube in order to bring the
bridge into balance.
b) Experiment with the effect of raising or lowering one tube exit elevation on the bridge
balance. In this way, you will obtain some feeling for the response time of the middle leg.
Since the small sphere is tightly fitting, there is some time lag between a change in hydraulic
resistance and the motion of the sphere. Experiment also with the effect of throttling the flow
with your finger. Explain the reasons for what you observe. Change the flow rate and observe
whether the bridge remains in balance or not. If so, why? If not, why not?
c) Re-establish a balanced bridge by returning the flow rate to the original setting. From this
point on, do not change the needle valve, as it is important for these next steps to be done at
constant flow rate. Add an elbow to one of the legs and observe the resulting imbalance. Raise
or lower one tube to re-establish the balance and record the elevation change necessary to
accomplish this. This datum will be used to compute the minor loss using the mechanical
energy balance.
d) Using the empirical rule of thumb that an elbow creates a loss equivalent to 30 pipe diameters
of smooth, straight pipe, shorten the leg containing the elbow by an appropriate length. Observe
the bridge balance or imbalance. If imbalanced, measure the change in elevation of one of the
tube exits required to re-establish balance.

Experiment Report

Pressure
transducer
The Validyne pressure transducer produces a voltage related to the pressure
difference across a thin plate. If the deflection of the plate follows the laws of
linear elasticity, the pressure will be linearly related to the voltage and the
device is said to be a linear transducer. Perform a linear leastsquares
analysis of the data. Try both linear and a quadratic fits and compute the
goodness of ft. Discuss the degree to which this is a linear transducer.
Paddlewheel
flowmeter
The paddlewheel flowmeter produces a pulse signal, the frequency of
which is related to the fluid velocity in the pipe. Perform a leastsquares ft of
your data, using different polynomial fts and a power law relation. Find a
suitable ftting function and record your ft. To what degree is the
paddlewheel a linear transducer? Are there reasons to expect either linear or
nonlinearity in the calibration? Discuss.

Orificeplate flowmeter
The theoretical relation between Q and P is a nonlinear
one, namely

Q (const.)C d P .

Using loglog scales, plot your data points for Q as a function of P. Do the
data appear to
fall along a straight line, indicating that a powerlaw relation of the type might
m
Q K (P)
apply? If so, what is m? If not, why not?
Use the measurements of Q vs. P, compute the discharge coefcient Cd for
all the data. Plot
Cd vs. the Reynolds number Re and compare against standard curves.
Head loss in pipe flow
Calculate the friction factors for each flow rate and tube size and plot all the data as a function of
the Reynolds number. Use different plotting symbols for different tube diameters and check for
Reynolds number scaling. Compare your data with the standard Moody diagram and discuss.
Minor losses
Express your results for minor losses through elbows, tees and couplings both as loss
coefficients, K, and as equivalent lengths, Le / D . Compare your results with literature results for
K, and with the common empirical rules of thumb for Le / D .
Piping network
Compute the loss coefficient and the equivlent length, Le / D , for an elbow as measured by the

bridge technique. Compare it against your direct measurement and also against the standard rule
of thumb.