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85c
The Psychology
of Study
C. A.
Mace
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OF FLORIDA
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PELICAN BOOKS
A582
MACE
THE
PSYCHOLOGY OF STUDY
C. A.
MACE
PENGUIN BOOKS
BALTIMORE
MARYLAND
Penguin Books
Inc.,
Made and
by C. Nicholls
Set in
This book
that
it
is
& Company
Ltd
Monotype Times
shall not,
by way of trade, be
lent,
of without
in
published
11,
Md
Contents
L An
2.
On
of a Good Observer
3.
On Memorization and on
17
Dealing with
32
5.
On
Work
54
77
95
108
Index
117
Introduction
This
little
book had
extra-mural classes,
its
and
origin in
some
in pre-university education.
mainly
'How to write a
thesis',
'How
on
topics such
tors of
communication
This
new
from
in reports received
book
version of the
is
show
thesis,
the
all
who
study in
outcome of
their studies in
an examination
script,
or a report.
If there
is
directed education,
and
that to
make
it is
that study
is self-
a study of anything
is
all
learning,
is
to
some
extent self-directed,
7
\
INTRODUCTION
others attend university extension or
technological colleges;
Of
those
who do not
follow
up
their
is
is
live.
is
is
- or
research
and encouragement of
important.
Not
less
important
is
and the
arts
could be
and
local
naturalist societies
who
ness in those
all
The
dedication
is
addressed
is
indicated
which this
by the new
TO ALL STUDENTS
This means
To
all
who
are, in
own
studies.
_,
C. A.
Mace
CHAPTER
An
all
The
Proverbs
xvii, i
on human problems has been enormously increased by his adoption of the working methods and the
adviser
scientist.
The
earlier
were due
knowledge concerning
to the application
had previously
methods
been tackled merely by rule of thumb. But the growth of
specialized knowledge itself has been greatly enhanced
by the application in psychology of some good general
ideas which for many years have been the current coin of
of
to problems that
scientific
other sciences.
notion of a 'function'.
we speak of a
The
is
simplest case
is
the biological
that in which
body
we
as having a
say, to enable us
function. It
is
to see. It
is
is
whole. This
is
psychologists. It
is
in-
volved in the activities of study. Observing things, remembering things, thinking about things, reading books,
all activities
or person as a whole.
To
tronics, is
an
activity peculiar to
man
- notwithstanding
the fact that research into the ways in which animals learn
may
school-
the
when
briefly
title
of this chapter.
It
sets
He
is
composed of a
great variety of
10
more or
less specialized
two
One
which go
about their business in complete independence of what
is going on around them. The more perfect their insulation the better they do their job. A clock is an instrument
of this kind. The less it is affected by the weather the
better clock it is. The other class of machine consists of
into
classes.
it
barometer
is
is
to be as sensitive as possible
in their surroundings.
A recording
What
is
its
own
ture
First, there
is
11
pens.
The
bits
of wood, or supplementary
built-in
equipment
is
human
a third
arti-
set
in itself
many
an extremely
artificial instru-
sets
of instruments there
human
What
As a
first
like
being for?
other organisms,
riately to all
be asked
is
'appropriate' in
adequate
this
account
self-
However
good enough
man
in civilized
and cultured
societies,
and
it
will
be
They
life.
way
is
when
to say, contribute
life is
and works of
art, to
pleasure of imagination,
enjoyment of
activities
of
many
own
sake
An adequate psychology
understanding of
human
do.
human
motivation
attempted to explain
all
mental
life in
forces,
sities
',
terms,
first,
'instincts'
including the interests which motivate studMcDougall's account of human motivation requires
some restatement and amplification in the light of later
studies of instinct in animals and even more perhaps
through the powerful impact of the so-called 'depth'
psychologists such as Freud and Jung. What was most
important in his general account of human nature and
'interests',
ents.
human
motivation
is
set
by the
impulsive
force of some instinct (or some habit derived from an instinct)
every train of thought, however cold or passionless it may
seem, is borne along towards its end, and every bodily
activity is initiated and sustained. The instinctive impulses
determine the ends of all activities and supply the driving
power by which all mental activities are sustained and all the
complex intellectual apparatus of the most highly developed
mind is but a means towards these ends, is but the instrument
Take
by which these impulses seek their satisfactions.
away these instinctive dispositions with their powerful impulse,
and the organism would become incapable of activity of any
kind it would be inert and motionless like a wonderful clockwork whose mainspring had been removed or a steam engine
whose fires had been drawn. These impulses are the mental
forces that maintain and shape all the life of individuals and
the prime movers of
all
activity;
14
and
mystery of
This
is,
life
in
nature \ but
it is
in
human
phrase or
terminology (changes of theoretical rather than of practiimportance) could receive the assent of
cal
temporary psychologists.
It
is
many
con-
accordingly taken as a
2.
of which
and
That the
4.
criteria
of efficiency
in
which the goals are attained, the speed with which they
are attained, and the economy of effort with which they
are attained.
made
to
An Introduction
to Social
p. 44.
15
ways
in
CHAPTER
On
of a Good Observer
You can
him
see
lead a
man
to a lamp-post, but
it
The good
better student
more
is
their credentials. It
is
of books.
critical
He
an important advance
The
asks for
in student-
when
Mundane books
inspiration.
of reflection upon
fact.
it
might be better
ing labour -
is
we went
like
know how
know how
the author
occasion to
test
to the facts
mathematician wishes to
piled, so
if
came by
the table
it is
good
is
com-
for us to
his information,
and on
books as
literature. In this
observation?
If
tion
is
when
human
being perceives.
When
for
example he
first
normal
visual
perception,
example,
for
light
is
what
make
pictures
in
and records of
An
common
ON PERCEPTION
processes of
making a
or
3. It
among
others.
appears or
2. It
is
is
simply 'what'
how many
That
it
occurs at a
what appears,
how much
is
to say,
certain speed.
When we
appears, and
is
have
how
defined
quickly
it
it
what
it
is
perceived^/zcnv
much is
When we
perceived,
have specified
criteria
observation. Observation
goal-directed,
tion
is
of
efficiency
and the
is
We
in
all.
human
criteria
of
distinctive
perception
motivated perception:
and
it
is
essentially a matter
suggested above.
4.
We
must add
5.
That perception
is
selective,
end
some more
in view.
19
selections
7.
These
can con-
good observation.
tribute to
are
in perception
criteria
one way or another consequential to the printhat a good observation is one which contributes to
all in
ciple
with economy of
deal of research
dials
other
is
objects
manipulate motor
attainment
its
and
To
1.
Content.
The question
is,
in respect
machines.
of content,
what
is
is
and
who
practical
know
it
is
exactly
some relevant
difference in reality,
ference in
reality
'appearance' corresponded to
if
'reality' in this
perceptual
way. Under
ON PERCEPTION
objects
would be paired by a
difference
and a
relation in
is
not possible.
a camera, and,
It
in fact,
This, of course,
is
not practical
politics.
Nor
are such
ate price to
A microscope
We
all
may
Span.
of organization.
perceive
lynx-eyed detective,
who
'in
It is
in
21
Speed.
It
is
in action
When
sound or a
is
flash
of
light,
it
in'
perceived
lights
things
'
which
Among
the 'other
in attention, expectation,
or hear
first will
is
which we
The
principle of
shall find to
be of very
for.
bears
in the special
life
form of
subjective facilitation.
a matter
of greater
22
and
light travel.
ON PERCEPTION
complicated things or of simple things under complicated
conditions.
the
ing
speed
of perception
has
affect-
been considerably
signals generally.
These
however,
designers could
Of greater
presented to him.
printed matter.
which
Some
affect the
speed of reading
following chapters.
4.
What
some way
Organization.
degree and in
is
perceived
is
fall
man
always in some
into patterns.
perception,
as
moon. Reorganization of the field can disorganize perception, as when camouflage is used to
in the
Good
The
Among
looking for
it.
We
more likely
haystack if we know that we are
are
we
is
the
when
who
prepare
at.
5. Selectivity.
As
and the
recordings of machines in respect of selectivity. Both are
selective but they are selective in different ways. The
right kind of selectivity is a main requirement in efficient
observation.
beings
we cannot observe
Since
everything
we
is
and
propensities
original
An
of
man
propensity
and attend
interest
is,
to
inter alia,
a disposi-
movements of
it
The
mouse-like
noises in
is less
cat, for
mice,
objects,
its
and
to
discriminate
mouse-like
it
selectivity
ON PERCEPTION
general picture of the course of development in this
respect
child,
if
we compare
scientist.
'
In this case
and more or
less
of the
sciousness
more
of what is
scientist
memory
is
specifically directed
by the con-
theory.
6.
Accuracy.
Good
observation
is,
of course, accurate
just
as
when one
or
ordinary globe-trotters
may
taller,
more
or kindlier than
one
'impressions'
how much
tribe
the purpose
serve
other. Their
of suggesting hypo-
worth
theses
research.
quantitative
varies with
Objectivity.
virtues
is
demand
among
Foremost
the
it
observational
be too exacting to
we may
from
at least
is
his
ask
own
a simple
difficult to satisfy. It
men have
great
in
difficulty
men when
what
is
are
we
distinguishing
For
this
it
hand
but Nature
is
a clever con-
many mechanical
of scientific research
we
many
fields
upon
no
objective tests
and of a
ON PERCEPTION
and with reports
in
which
it
is
almost impossible to
penumbra of
absence,
its
is
in
Reliability
life.
in
arouse.3
The
difficulty
way
The
of 'wishful thinking'
idea
thinking'
should
is
like
is
familiar.
'Wishful
them
to be.
There
is
also 'wishful
we
remember-
past
ficance
who was
tends to see
clinical
who have
shown
that
be conscious.
In view of
all
depend on subjective
Objectivity in
will to
factors.
teristic
lines
First,
It
of mind-training that
memory
is
first
lessons
The
had
all
that
was presented
to his
it
he
was sup-
the process
of observation no
memory.
28
less
than
ON PERCEPTION
To
is
in part a
problem
To
offer
is
is
adequate motivation.
principally a matter of
supposed that a
specific
'instinct
It
what malice
is sometimes
of curiosity' supplies
is
it
found
in
its
if
such an
things. It
an ingredient
is
curiosity if
and what
fact,
is
is
For what
not a disposition to perceive and attend
in
know?
alike.
In point of
from
instinct
mind. There
of
is,
in
directing
disease
no
less
may animate
that
problem
practical
to
a merely
curious
a plethora of motives.
fact,
The
is
'instinctive'
curiosity
into
appropriate
channels.
Failure in observation
a failure
inspired
in discipline,
is
and
observation
is
is
in general
restriction.
its
relevance.
scarcely
29
due to dissipation,
The hall-mark of an
An
irrelevant
staring
is
observation
is
observation to
can be relevant
experimental and
observation
more
is
made
may
be.
you
observational
the
if
more
When
specific
only for
find
it.
In
an
and the
sciences,
observation
in fact
is
important in
to. It is
when
it
a question
unselective
observation.
Intelligent
is
travel
presupposes
mind
but in
in
there - in filling
unfavourably
with
eye
is
of corn
field
'historical associations'.
The
case
is
unsanctified
by
when
the
different
So, too, a
more profound
ON PERCEPTION
Much would
be gained
could be employed
in
if
specific
regional textbooks
full
which the
in
supposes.
Our
us to an apparent paradox.
is
found that
effective observation
and of the
intellectual
is
we have
life.
That
is
in
exhibits
an organic
from an educa-
done
mind
unity.
else,
The
to increase efficiency.
It is
on
this
reject the
simple
We
points.
strategic
must
begin
interest
is
with
spontaneous
intelligence.
We
can
Our instrument
is
the question.
is
minds.
in
We
from the
abstraction;
must go
press.
this
model
'science' does
progresses
an
in
not
individual
intelligent reporter
ment on
it
And
to Nature, like
He
out,
As Bacon pointed
lies in
should ask.
31
we
CHAPTER
On Memorization and
on Dealing with
can
work
the
left
is
The
to
effect
II).
methods
fruits
in the pursuit
of the
the
sciences,
Renaissance,
outside
but,
of the
authority
traditional
the
special
book has
remained a dominating factor in education. In consequence, the problem which looms largest in the student's
mind
retain
is
what he reads
lectures?
Can
in
How
can he best
in
is
much
that
is
is most
some of
the earliest findings of psychologists, and some of the
best attested, are apt to strike us as discouraging. One
such finding is that many of the most important qualities
of mind upon which success would seem to depend
belong to our innate constitution and do not admit of any
student's problem.
important.
On
The
first
difficulty is to select
general survey
we
what
find that
powers mature
in relative
ON MEMORIZATION
sensory perception.
It is
ulti-
them.
Moderate
ability
methodically employed
is
more pro-
would defy a
giant.
Method
is
equally
memory
to
33
I,
p. 667.
rela-
tively 'specific'.
may seem
This, too,
overlook
ability
our
cheerful
its
of training
is
The
we
non-transfer-
abilities
we should
was
it
is
Another of the cheerful implications of the non-transis the fact that we can say good-bye
to those dreadful exercises devised by certain inhuman
monsters for the improvement of our powers of memory.
A painful example is cited by James from a work entitled
How to Strengthen the Memory, or the Natural and
Scientific Methods of Never Forgetting* The author
ference of training
describes
how
mem-
to spend
two hours
daily,
one
in the
so that
clearly.
He
is
it
shall
asked to
be impressed
recall every
upon
evening
all
his
mind
the facts
is
written
cit.
Vol.
I,
p. 668.
ON MEMORIZATION
committed to memory every week. A verse
of poetry
He
is
is
to
asked
book where
it.
If
we wish
to perform
memory
or for
its
There
practical utility.
is
much
presuppose
done
much
in
it.
and
It
35
little
some
no more
leaving
as void of
is
them
as if they
fields
of corn,
there.'*
of the mind
in its
in
some
respects so
is
the selectivity
differences of capacity.
fruitful
the psycho-analyst,
that
we
who made
forget because
we want
to.
paradox becomes a
The necessary
little
platitude.
As
what
what
is
is
past, to
past experience.
memory
enables us to respond to
respond to what
is
so with
memory,
Chapter
Concerning
Human
10.
36
Understanding,
Book
II,
ON MEMORIZATION
and acquired
pensities
It
requires but
supple-
little
'to
mentary evidence to see that when there is
perceive and attend to things there is also a tendency to
retain and recall them as occasion demands.
But for the problems of the student, which alone
concern us here, we need not trace the streams of human
energy to their ultimate sources. We may take as our
a tendency
'
complicated story.
It
student.
from the
choice
his
infallible,
success
largely
will
It is
may
is
not
we cannot augment our inborn powers, their effectivemay be considerably increased by the reinforcements
of spontaneous interest. This is the more important where
If
ness
talent
The
is
not pronounced.
principle
is
human
was James who, contrariwise, advised us to keep alive the faculty of effort by
a little gratuitous effort every day, by doing things for no
other reason that the fact that we would rather not. This
no doubt was good advice, but the choice of studies is
weakness as perhaps
opportunity enough.
it
its
It
seems.
It
application.
The student
will find
to their
its
appeal, there
is
grinding
work
mnemonic
to do,
much
that
When
every
much
effort.
repetition.
things to say.
dis-
It
and so
forth.
are possible.
He
efficient.
in
Within
this
system
He
first
twenty
more
interesting
repetitive
;
:
ON MEMORIZATION
but for some purposes the distribution of
repetitions may be profitably carried even further. There
learning,
is
much
which can be tabulated on postcards, these being studied for a few minutes each day. A
selection of these cards can be carried in the pocket and
revised from time to time at odd moments. This not only
memorized
eliminates
into units
much
most favourable
On
and so on.
is
another
very
list
much more
purpose of immediate
this
passive repetition.
is
there
recall
When
is
We may
two ways of
are
We may
re-read this
recall
it
to
list
mind
is
efficiency
i.e.
learning
and
retention
One
when acts
when every
why
is
this
enormously
is
the case.
most
favourable distribution of attention. The items which
prove most difficult to recall receive a special welcome
from attention on the subsequent reading and a more
is
favourable impression
is
secured.
together
is
a natural
memory,
rhythm of reception and
nutrition, there is an appropriate 'meal'. Both are
digestion. In
Cramming
is
as in
liable
a kind of forcible
be acquired.
We
life
mental as
dietetics.
Curiosity
tion
is
it
appetite.
we have
retained, as
when
on
waits
comes
in
Information
seen
it
is
more
is
more
readily
readily acquired,
and no perplexities, it
by chance we learn,
whether we shall retain. We forget because we do not
effectively want to know. The only effective want in this
connexion is the gnawing pain of unsatisfied curiosity.
Such pains are the growing-pains of knowledge. The
moral for the student is Let your questions come. Try to
get them clear - then follow their lead as far as ever they
questions, experience
is
doubtful
if
we
no
curiosity
will go.
And
on Monday which
light
We do
upon the
principle of dis-
will last us
is
and
knowledge.
40
is
ON MEMORIZATION
and
which
its
is,
Relatively
re-synthesis in thought
little
of what we learn do
original form.
Some
we need
reorganization
is
to retain in
required,
some
we
originality '.
much that
memory is not
would tempt us
in the
mind but in
not so
much
our nature.
We
is
of
action.
Some form
essential to
unimpaired retention.
conversationalists
memories.
It is
and great
It
firmly impressed
they read a
is
due to
more
have good
talkers generally
upon
The
What
is
reverse con-
talked about
book immediately
discuss
it
men when
with a friend,
One of
teacher knows,
is
to give a lecture
is
consti-
is
properly employed
The
purpose.
it
its
an educational
serves in addition
is
When
it
also ensures
more
permanent retention.
Disproportionate attention to the receptive as opposed
to the expressive functions
is
much
too
time
in assisting
memorization
illustrated
It is the case
and
of a certain
journalist,
who
Mr
records
Thurlow Weed,
politician
successful
memory
his
and impressive
narrative:*
Quoted by James,
42
I,
p. 665.
ON MEMORIZATION
to
my wife,
'
Catherine,
I shall
never
make
and that
me I must
when
fifteen
My
wife told
came home
minutes trying
now
remember
a successful politi-
a prime necessity of
train
down
my memory.
So
silently
is
found
could recall
Why
me
them
years.
my
and
interest in
before retiring,
last thing
remember
everything I could
me
it
that
had happened
told her
to
me
or
had
had for breakfast, dinner, and tea the people I had seen and
what they had said the editorials I had written on my paper,
giving her a brief abstract of them. I mentioned all the letters
I had sent and received, and the very language used, as nearly
as possible when I had walked or ridden - I told her everything that had come within my observation. I found I could
say my lessons better and better every year, and instead of the
practice growing irksome, it became a pleasure to go over
about
memory
facts,
recommend
or expect to
43
tiveness
was not a
bit
We may
not
all
exercise,
and
both
more
suggestive
is
is
helpful
like
was obscured
in
complex wholes.
The
from the vague
to the precise,
is
ing
what
is
to
method
learning of poetry.
whole, not, as
it
we
into sections.
rather than
by
divid-
should proceed,
we should
it
To
is
is
learn a
said,
poem
of forty stanzas we
by reading
it
through as a
by dividing
* Better, perhaps, of
To
for this
acquire a
memory
of such unusual tenacity we should need to possess even more tenacious friends.
44
ON MEMORIZATION
advice are that in the sectional
light
of other prin-
ciples.
in the middle.
is
one that
and
structure. It
is
The
fill
in the
field.
ele-
is
tion,
Bad reading
correction later.
formed
Among these
in
early
years require
with Chapter
detail right
habits
less
widely realized
is
is
that
45
familiar enough.
many
What
texts, especially
have
it is
at least
a good thing to
is
not
is
satisfied
same
topic in
When
put his
book
Though
different kinds of
procedure
is
generally useful.
first
At
attempt to master
may
difficult
argument.
This
first
general
perusal
determines
Some books
the
will
not
same general
to
first
detailed
re-read as a whole
scrutiny.
The
third
of reading
This
is
at all. It
is
perhaps
strictly
not a case
It is in fact
private critical
commentary. This
it
school,
university,
in
the
pursuits. Creative
is
and
and
in
private
interpretative reading
46
intellectual
is
the only
ON MEMORIZATION
thing which distinguishes the student's
memory of a book
word on
selective
'judicious skimming'.
Two
reading.
Skimming
is
rapid
selectivity.
and
be said that
unintelligent applications. It
it
is
may
at
distinguished
concentration
from
is
lazy
and
inattentive reading.
required in the
first
No
less
former just
question on which
we
its
relevance to the
When
who
managers' in industry
suffer
is little
how
ON LISTENING TO LECTURES
The technique of reading differs in many important
respects from the technique of extracting information
from lectures. An important difference between the
lecture and the book is that in the former everything
depends on the first impression. The principle of working
from outline to detail here obviously fails to apply. Three
methods are are possible in dealing with a lecture. Each
has its advocates. At one extreme there is the policy of
giving one's whole attention to grasping
No
memory
The student
memory
is
bound
is
is
most important.
in
It
When we are
writing
and we fail to
a whole. At the other
to be missed
is
an excellent mental
a way in which it may
extreme there
said.
is
notes something
is
what
this
what
is,
when
when
is
practically dictated or
the student
ON MEMORIZATION
ment while
extremely
it is
in progress.
difficult
feat.
To do
this efficiently
is
an
undivided attention.
The
college student
had
who
teach will
At the
have been
like
new
ideas.
in a
is
one
49
To be
chief responsibility
in the
is
That
is
why,
the most
is
a lecture the
earliest
opportunity must
said.
active repetition.
It
The
This
is
is
reproduction,
where
is
apt to be at best an
what
needed
is
is
an
references,
and
final
illustration,
extracts
critical
comments,
is
university
students
increasingly
clamour for
It
would perpetuate
ON MEMORIZATION
who
get a
new
Sir,'
young MacTavish
father's notes of
Some
your
replied,
'I
have
my
lectures.'
number of
bits
it
answer
wrong
it
world
like the
most expensive of
all
pieces of
The
He
Conqueror landed
at Hastings in 1066.
Who
When
Where
did he land?
he landed
it
'I
'that
When
next
on
to the
fact.
This
lecturer
is
machinery.
is
to be tedious
more
interesting.
is
is
saved,
'programme' for a teaching machine can have the satisfaction of knowing that his lesson has got across and the
pupil has the satisfaction of knowing that he has got his
answers right. The construction of teaching machines
and the writing of 'programmes' is in course of continuous development and there is little doubt that in the
coming years more will be heard of these machines and
more use
will
be
made of them.
In the meantime
it is
who
write
ON MEMORIZATION
by looking at the principles involved in
preparing programmes for teaching machines.
In the meantime, also, while awaiting the development
and
their lectures
What
is
is
that
it
teaching. It involves
education.
It
applies
of
CHAPTER
On
Originality
When We Think
It is
one of the
that he
curiosities of the
psychology of the
is
artist
do something which
- Roger Fry
Perfect memorization
it
Vision
not enough.
is
and Design)
What
distinis
that
merit
ing
it lies
in being
machine.
is
enough.
We
difficulty is
important.
Nor
originality merely
to be right.
is
is
primitive people. It
is
'
mental processes to
the
creative
activities
of great
when he is
many very
54
he
may be
doing.
He may
ON ORIGINALITY
be indulging
He may
be calculating, he
may
some
He may be
play. He may
thesis.
novel, or a
picture.
Idle reverie
with, but
discuss
it
and
may
explain. It
but
'free association'
most
difficult to
allied to
is
'free
things in different contexts. In the context of the psychological laboratory, experimental psychologists distinguish
between
'free'
and
first
word or idea
suggests to him.
'chair' reply
him the
given word
example, given the word
He may,
for
instructed,
is
'table'.
to
He may on
the other
'
way he
does.
(And
why
the
there are
In the
'controlled' or
any word he
likes.
He
is
is
'constrained' association
its
55
is
is
indicated by
named by
means
'free association' as
dream the
some
idea, such as
He
required
an item in a
under-
understand what happens in reminiscence, in remembering and forgetting generally, and what happens, indeed,
Some
may be
noted
That there are causal laws or principles in accordance with which one thought follows another. When, for
example, the idea of lightning suggests the idea of
1.
is
may
be.
is
the
(Ughtning-thunder).
They must
56
ON ORIGINALITY
poetic ways of thinking (the gods with their thunder-
(as
when
'gout' or
'9
as the
why any
standing.
They need
direction
of thought under
and refined
ways
which explain why the sequence of thought and the
direction of thought differs from one person to another
and in the same person at different times.
2. That the difference in the sequence of ideas and the
largely a matter
controlled
operate
to be amplified
of the
association
in all forms
different
in
circumstances
but
the
similar
controls
is
of
which
free.
'
by 'Double
it',
first
instruction
is
free
series
of
digits
57
is
(unwittingly) the
controlled by
the instruction to
multiply by two
may be due
to
is
McDougall on
thought
is
manner
borne along to
its
defended in
in
which every
command wide
propensities
or
drives
is
the
tions into
more detailed
aims, and inten-
may
say
{causally)
that
by
all
trains
motivational
we
ways of thinking.
58
some of
the
common
ON ORIGINALITY
Among
psychologists describe as
experiment
'sets'.
When
the subject of an
number comes
is
to his
mind when he
more
likely to say 7 or 8 or 15
many
is
and
digits 3
than he
is
he
is
to say 9 or
He is more
of.
likely to say 7 if
he
he might be
if
is
'set' to
He would
would be more
likely to say 8 if
He
mechanical process
it is
not just a
is
They
are habits of thought, and like other habits are formed
and sustained by propensities - the abiding interests and
sentiments into which propensities are canalized. Some
of these are very general and pervasive in their influence,
man's whole
style
life.
What
Some
is
it
to
of the search
such search.
prejudice
is
from what
59
'attitudes',
Let us change
it.'
Some such
consciousness as
or policies, aims or
is
Some
studied in detail.
which
appears to be a simple
at first sight
is
and
is
has something in
common
example
'Tell
with
When
according to
whom
The
scientific
thinking and
a student
is
asked, for
It is
it is
last
that he
and elaborate
is
reporting.
He
in different ways.
is
again
if
he
is
He
will select,
ON ORIGINALITY
it
is
will differ
There
is
memory
a quality of
The
described as serviceability.
generally which
difference between
is
its
it is
is
availability is
circumstances
in
presented.
invention. It
is
originally
to the psychology of
Novelty in thought
sal
function of the
The
first
type of synthesis
is
61
We
One
may
this
We
perform
dreams.
It
mode
it
obviously
'ifs
And
We
this
'
and
all
and pans
spilt
Still less,
occurs
when such a
to a problem
Some of
it
most
forms of thinking
assume the form of an attempt to solve a problem, and
proceed, with some variations, in accordance with the
the
characteristic
following plan
62
ON ORIGINALITY
(a)
problem
is
with
(b)
of the
conditions
to
(c)
making of
or answers. The
the
is
activities
recall, associ-
- resulting in
Either a final judgement
ations, etc.
(e)
satisfies
the
test,'
'Yes, that
is
the answer. It
It
does not
thoughts go
back to stage
(c)
or another guess
repeated.
It
can be made
'Yes, that
is
the answer.'
set in
an intelligence
test
or a radio quiz. There are other problem solving processes which are almost entirely a matter of observation.
ance of experiments. In
many forms of
research in the
63
'
The
letters.
The
first
'clues'.
The word,
of these
is S,
let
the
fifth is I. It
We
by the
of associative
exploration. Geographical
is
The process
is
is
required -
psychologically similar
when
is
not essential.
when
'originality
invent a name.*
is
question
some obscure
itself increases in
let
us suppose, to
disease.
Here the
is,
symptoms of the
We may
inquire
disease, study
its
more
course,
its
it
In the notes of Henry James for his unfinished novel The Ivory
Tower we have preserved to us an interesting document in which
this process may be studied. The only important difference in the
*
case of invention
is
64
ON ORIGINALITY
answer to our question must explain. It
introduces new controls, which stimulate thought in new
satisfactory
directions
The
in others.
what we may
They belong,
that
is
call
to say, to the
may
be con-
'
in their applications to
thought
in
science.
It is
the
controls. It
'
to provide
but
now
it is
is
A knowledge
of at least elementary
directly relevant.
statistical
techniques
A case
Many
is
be deduced, or
support
it.
The
from which
we may
it
we may
for more
to say,
conceivably might
proclivity to
is
scientific
common
marked
discursive thought.
mould of thought;
There
do reason
is
dispositions belong to
They
are, in general,
acquires
skill in
A man
or defence as he acquires
skill in
'
for aggression
similar purposes.
Sooner or
later,
there
in this
is
always a large
final
occurs,
is
solved.
How
did
this
happen?
This
much
many a
misdirected awe. In
little if
all
all
the critical
tests.
satisfy
happened
it
66
'
ON ORIGINALITY
and his apple, though the correction of the data was
something with which he had nothing to do.
A well-directed guess becomes an 'inspired revelation
by conforming to the tests. If the tests are altered a dis-
may
carded theory
genius very
much
The
is
fault or virtue
at all.
as he
lie
guess.
in the final
in the organiza-
tion of controls.
distinction
is
clearly
marked
The
in the
The
critical.
crossword puzzle.
of irrelevant words.
and con-
tive
by
directed
is
We associate
is I
'
operates in
Of
these
we have an example
in
the clue
'The word
words consisting of a
specific
thought.
lines
Some
of fruitful
In
scientific
investigation
best-stored
is,
relevant facts.
process of research.
and
incorporates
It
is
the
directs
discussed in Chapter
2. It is
process
of observation
we were
and interrogation.
The application of confirmatory
upon
selection
controls,
is
in scientific
'guesses' are
now
tests, i.e.
of the
thought an elaborate
critical
affair.
The
Add
perhaps, through
many
generations.
requires to be extended
There
is
68
ON ORIGINALITY
what conditions
is
a problem solved?
How
do we
get
original ideas?
As with other
is
partly
difficulty
is
the
consciousness of a problem.
initial intensity
its
endurance.
Since thought
is
initiated
upon
framed, and upon
the
the
manner in which the question is
way in which the question is present to mind. Hence, for
example, Descartes' rule of method 'Method consists
:
'
is
it is
conceived. In
is
Rule
much
69
action
Ceteris paribus^
are trying to
more
do and
is
required. This
is
is
many
to keep as
mind. This
is
is
important, too,
perception'.
been already
Originality, as has
said, is
Novelty in
scientific
thought
There
This
is
is
one of the
explain
new
irrational.
Scientists
minimum
try
facts
with a
Fieud's
revolutionary ideas were for long resisted partly for emotional reasons, but partly because any revolutionary idea
is
evidence.
psy-
if established,
and
in physics.
Originality
is
for something
more important -
the solution of
some
70
ON ORIGINALITY
problem-solving organization of mind. This as a general
disposition
There
is,
is,
is
individuality,
and upon
this,
as a simple pre-condition, creative genius probably depends. Individuality of a legitimate kind may be fostered
at every stage of
human
trait.
mental
We
all
life. It is
left
of manufacture.
Individuality does not
is
work
in vacuo.
Human
creation
is
is
obtained.
Raw
ratio of material to
manufacturing
costs.
com-
material
is
position. This
is
times
come
trains of
Two
thought
will
is
similarities or
of their superficial logical relations. Such dynamic interaction often arises (as in the case of verbal wit) from the
little
may
The intermarriage of
lars,
This
is
illustrated
turies this
with
dissimi-
its
into
experimental
physiology.
The moral
to be
drawn
one of breaking
down some of the hard and fast divisions between different
scholastic subjects and of stimulating interest in their
interrelations. In the private study of the more advanced
72
is
ON ORIGINALITY
student what
is
required
is
frontiers of his subjects. Particularly fruitful is the interchange of 'controls', of allowing historical sense to enter
the study of science and of employing scientific methods
be defined.
This
'to think'.
is
unpractical
requires to be supplemented
how
it
may be
To
carried out.
them
like telling
by information concerning
exhort others to think
many
advice and
is
Many
uplifting
will in
sermons
fail in their
purpose
acted on.
is
It
is
to be told to think
how
to
do
about
his
it.
Incidentally he
Thinking
is
relating. Relating
we
think
some
about.
Some
73
The
others.
quality of thought
relations are
found
will
depend
chiefly
upon what
is
What
rela-
farther afield
may most
What
questions
is
a limited
number of kinds of
Is
illustrate
it
thing else?
thinking
tion.
of thing happening
this sort
From
it is
it
is
is
does
Deduction
is
we have made of
not
all
sheer deduc-
to deductive
books he reads he
become
to get
them
clear
own.
- then follow
their lead as
far as
ever they will go. And, then, ask yourself another question.
The awakening of
curiosity
is
upon
insatiable curiosity.
is
the most
ON ORIGINALITY
personal and the most individual of our thoughts. Strictly
We can
communicate only
spirit is
feeling, a
its
empty
inward
shell. Its
the teacher
is
not to impart
mind, and to
ment
will
The
It
other
it
maximum
essay.
At one extreme
single
answer
at the
of individuality. This
is,
of education.
It
learnt to walk.
cal
fly
before he has
many
The
step
is
is
is
translated into
is
its
able
75
should acquire
is
facility
in
expression
the
be one of elucidation,
The
the commentary.
stud-
of his
or
The
full-dress essay
is
the
last
the
They
mind. These two points, perhaps, are only one; for only
active trains of thought can interact. It follows that the
student would be well advised to give careful thought to
the selection of his subjects
For the
selection he
and
to his
methods of work.
to his
in all
all,
he must
He must
CHAPTER
On
Work
What
The
to 'The Will'.
The
Modern
texts rarely
many pages
how
him from
how
his
books - simple
to concen-
which
distract
which
no such
practical questions to
may
is
be forces included by
(The
memory, and in constructive thought is insatiable curiosity and the will to know. Can we cultivate this will?
77
is
tion.
we must
Again,
try to free
of concentration'
tration,
it
is
is
vaguely supposed,
is
is
to attend
of the boxing-ring.
It is
learn. This
is
the ideology
dogged perseverance
or stubborn determination - at least not directly. These
sterling but primitive virtues must first give way to diplomacy, to understanding, and tact. We must first try to
understand why it is that sometimes we like to study and
sometimes we find it irksome and we must try to arrange
bully the intellect, nor of exercising
The
work
it
its
specific
will
goal
to
(its
is
'content'),
i.e.
in respect
of what in
This
last semi-technical
term compares
repulsions,
comfortable so long as
'
it is
left
undone.
is
ON CONCENTRATION
voluntary
effort,
The
of desire
intensity
its
requires
duration,
its
to
be
quality, its
We
is
to secure the
most favourable
This
will
educational ideals.
The
is
79
quires a retentive
an
its
memory, a sense
severing
virtues
It is
an
whose disposition
it
is
and
work
to
unsuited to those
is
it
spurts of volcanic
in
and
tions
for those
love abstrac-
for the
in the choice
tastes,
also per-
wood
trees.
It is
who
whose enthusiasm
ideal that is
endowed with
abilities
of his
and
his
its
may
be neglect of generality and a deficiency in the perception of abstract principles. In the search for universality
there
is
insufficient
there
is
upon
is
on
his
his virtues,
guard
it is
first
80
do
fact.
But
the basis of
best,
He
should
and he should
ON CONCENTRATION
not be influenced unduly by opposed ideals however
excellent in themselves and however admirable in
others.
is
some evidence
operates adversely
temperature.
a certain
is
optimum emotional
to ensure a
work should
and frequently and that it should be maintained throughout the working day, and throughout the successive weeks
;
Some desires, such as the desire for sleep and for food,
wax and wane in accordance with natural rhythms. In
some, the appropriate rhythm
stimulation. Every student
sometimes be to
settle
down
once
it is
to
acquired by organized
begun. There
difficult
it
can
work
is
knows how
is
is
will
is
be of absorbing
pleted purpose, of
some
of
same
81
The
off'
from history
to
the problem
is
attend to mathematics.
the best - the organization of habit, even perhaps by the
responsibility
will
and put
in
is
thus
charge
it is
said, could tell the time of the day by observing the movements of Immanuel Kant. But the time-table should be
used with intelligence and discretion. It is an instrument
for starting us
primarily as a brake.
Much
daily
it
is
gained
if
and
at the
may
we have
work which
devoted to
seen, be short.
require
maximum
reflective reading,
So should periods of
concentration. Periods
In general,
better to devote
it is
may be
duration,
may
diversified
On
82
ON CONCENTRATION
course
is
a matter of
common
culous organization.
On
we must
On
avoid fanaticism.
perienced opinion
efficient.
morning work
that
is
This belief
the most
is
in the course
of reading or at lectures
may
exercise
like
body
itself
Lack of
behaviour and
sense
When
these insistent
speak, curls
demands
up and goes
possession of the
field.
mind
in sole
may
be
work
is
essential
it is
likely to
be more
efficient if preceded
for a
in the
The
is
admit of systematic regulation. Habits of active and selfdirected study sustain for obvious reasons a higher level
of concentration and more persistent efforts than habits
of passive assimilation. Apart from the influence of
and of competing
fatigue
ed,
interests, curiosity,
its
once arous-
natural satis-
faction.
Fatigue
may be
of work.
ization
psychologists
may
by industrial
established
mant powers
is
followed by a
is
is
failure
commonly
True fatigue
involves a genuine, if temporary, impairment of capacity
but there is a form of pseudo-fatigue which arises only
sense,
from the
84
ON CONCENTRATION
ignored, or they
may
is
rule.
and
in rest
recreation.
may be
Some form
in every
week
rest
;
months of work.
The problem of concentration
largely a
is
problem
upon
interests
attention.
The
when
wasteful of energy.
full acceleration, is
may be
a letter
the cause of
moment
We
to find
an apt retort
we
may
much
failed
distraction.
spoil a
morning's work.
make a
to give
little
it
In
many such
cases
The
it
in its
pays us well to
rein a while.
We may
little
no doubt, whenever
current of distraction at
possible, to
source.
its
The
stem the
difficulty
of
in the organization
of
leisure.
game
is
self-contained
it
certain
is
that
and the
among
is
in the
single sitting,
exercise
an
under which they think. Others can acquire this indifference. But for most of us environment can be of exasperating importance.
It is
should be quiet.
It
room
in
which we work
upon
upon
the presence
ON CONCENTRATION
(and, for some, the absence) of books. Principally,
depends upon
its
history.
it
room
in
it
for
ings
is
thoughts.
It is
precisely the
of
cumula-
which
that
it is
is
in periods
we need
to
and sustain
in
the
working
term.
When
the student
is
life,
intangibly
atmosphere
is
one that
stimulating
will
its
life
as the class-room
is
intellectual pursuits,
The
trivial too.
may determine
- the
An
may
pen or unsuitable
ill-chosen
room
that
is
over-heated
ill
or too cold,
good or
for
'triviali-
of an instrument of preci-
sion.
To
more
spiritual
we may
is
painful,
something
is
almost certainly
fear of failure.
worried by the
'difficulty
looked
The
'
of his subject
the student
but
is
difficulties
at the right
sense
in
solving
them would be
intellectual pursuits.
is
an over-
methods
come through
- subjects
essentially consisting in
set
ON CONCENTRATION
can and never should be easy. They are inherently
cult,
diffi-
first
he hasn't.
finds
it
jects.
He
is
difficult.
It
difficulty
is
when he
of this kind
insufficiency
it
is
when
\
\
and progress in 'difficult' subjects. The characteristic of an 'easy' subject is that its facts, individually, are
not difficult of comprehension. The only problem is to
assimilate, organize, and apply. Under such conditions
progress may be perceptibly rapid, and this engenders
'easy'
confidence. In the
'difficult'
an
effort
by the
is
ideal of erudition,
is
may be
all
the
fusion of thought,
difficulty
ideals
are
should always
Effort spent
on
difficulties
\
/
Lack of
when the
is
of independence appropriate to
is liable
it is
intellectual
maturity
psychologists
But
life,
would advocate a
doubtful
if
some
life.
may be
useful in
it is
desirable that
we should
but
face our
90
ON CONCENTRATION
mental powers, for example, may be interpreted in a
fatalistic way. Of course the remedy is not to refuse to
face the facts, nor to
in
lie
ence. Incidentally
absence of
that
it is
may
it
ability is
present. If
a task, that
sufficient
Trite
though
it
repeated effort.
which we
try. It
be to say
It
special illusions.
a special name.
is
It
remember
is
is
more
is
frequently
failure.
When, on
own performance
tion,
is
is
often nothing to
superior.
that
common
91
show
occurrence.
much
conceit.
is
self-
More
chastened
mood
should not
in general
is
more commonly
is
associated with
We may
logical
sermon
in a slightly different
of concentration'
is
Now,
rear.
The two
of these
lies
in the
ourselves to work.
The more
the will
is
weak
direct
it is
itself,
and
if
ourselves,
in
the
92
ON CONCENTRATION
assume, that we are going to work, if in fact we are not
already working. If we only imagine ourselves working
with
A difficulty
Not
we
soon
shall
method
efficacious.
is
is
who
to their case.
The underlying
principle of the
more
objec-
The
work
will to
is
in part, at
is
It
is
most of
all
in
part
a matter of
all,
needs.
maxim -
should be content
to
maxim
is
less
rigid,
more
do
best.
93
may become
not
it
results in mediocrity
and
lasting frustration.
and
abilities
in the energies
we have been
and done
there are individual differences in innate endowment. We
do, of course, differ in our inborn powers but let this
not become an inhibiting idea or an overweening obsession. Excluding the extremes of stark deficiency and of
genius, the differences between most of us largely boil
down to the difference in speed - in the time we take to
all is
said
may
see
it
at a
We may
Heaven they
if
mental
will
tests
not be the
tests
common
test
imposed
in
in the
main concerned
will
in
1.
(1)
(2)
Routine study
(3)
Revision
(4)
The examination
itself.
One of
human
desired
some
in the
95
though
wait for
its
it
lies in
the
all
trivial
distractions
may
be the consequence of setting out to do something without being clear concerning what exactly
setting out to do.
Among
it is
that
we
are
To
this
end
syllabus as a whole,
it
to the syllabus as a
whole.
Preliminary adjustments
may
mean
it
be repeated,
is
When
it.
carried out at
all.
To
avoid procrastination
intention. Instead
at
my
set
of execution
of saying merely,
*I
it is
essential
of an
must work harder
in the content
'I
is
that the
execution.
will constitute a
plan and
lies in
the incentive
it
supplies in prescribing
The student
by a
definite
each of which
is
rate of progress,
its
own
date of
completion.
2.
ROUTINE STUDY
of course,
will
be
made not
out the whole course of study, the student will set to work
each day with a well-defined objective - an intermediate
goal on the road to his ultimate destination. Each defined
He
is
is
desires to possess,
able to recall
it
at will.
97
which a
fact
can be learned
by repetition;
(ii) by the use of mnemonic devices;
(iii) by the perception of integrating relations.
To illustrate: Suppose that for some reason
(i)
is
it
is
is
and
To
called port
and
is
may
that
left is
He may (1) say to himself, 'right, starboard, green; left, port, red,' and he may say
methods.
this
is
the
method of repetitive
less
mechanical.
learning,
He may
make
use of the
is
etymol-
of
human
bilateral
3, is
not to be despised.
will
artificial
Such
repetitive learning,
mechanical. In
fact,
general result of
is
it
much
more efficient the less purely repetitive it is. Apart from some of the simplest studies of the
earliest school years, there would seem to be very little
scope for learning by incantation. The following are three
memorization
is
useful principles
the
which have
natural systems in
the
may
Collections offacts
best be
may
be
divided.
This
is
method
as
and
intelligence.
99
must be subject
to dis-
distributed.
one
The
first
of the repetitions
number of separate
It
is
sittings
of readings at each.
3.
its
it
successive reading,
assimilation. It
is
and that
it
of
much
lation.
It is
The
facts presented
the mind.
listen to a lecture.
is
working rule
is
to devote at least
100
two
If
it
be true
(as
many
REVISION
psychologists say) that nothing
is
it is
is
also
refreshing
(ii)
in the process
which are best for the main purpose of study, are also
those that are best adapted for effective revision. Good
notes are those that reduce the presented material to a
form and structure of the information abstracOne of the most common types of structure is that
exhibit the
ted.
may
When
an author
sits
down
to write a
book
it is
because
there
is
can
What
precisely
is
What
What
precisely
is
adduced
in favour
of that answer?
To
may be
dealing with a
book
as a
their grounds.
In Chapter 3 (pp. 46-7) it was suggested that important books will require three readings. The state-
ment
On
the
reading
first
it
its
will
aims
some
is
will
sort of evidence
be intensive and
selective. It
specific question.
This
is
To formulate
and as precisely
as he can.
first
will
be required here,
e.g.,
102
is
To formulate
(c)
this
is
answer
to
be true.
will
be given. These
By
(i)
(ii)
etc.
this time
it
fits in.
Items which
mere
is
its
place,
enabled to assess
and
its
'
as in
its
much
reside in
is
The
*
its
argument
digressions. In a well-constructed
some
making of
Some works
it is
incorporated in
many
(cf.
Human
Understanding, which
is
He will use
it
and introduce critical and constructive comment. Arguments must not be allowed to pass unless they are manifestly convincing, and counter arguments should be
added to the notes as they occur to mind. Notes so constructed will not only serve the purpose of revision
will facilitate the transition
Reduced
to
they
critical
thought.
THE EXAMINATION
question with which this
the
essentials
may be formally
stated in the
following terms
by revisions
recalled
there
is
mind
at a time
at various time's,
a subsequent interval
tx
The
f2 ,
initially
is
has been
it
to tx during
tn
->
that
which there
item of information to
this
return to mind,
/at
t19
/,
that
the revival of
depend?
total process
is
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
In the
first
phase occur
all
both the
?a
to
tn
initial
impression at
(which
latter
process of assimilation).
t19
set
of revivals at
The
and the
is
unconsciously retained.
104
*RV
in import-
recall.
moment
important they may be
It is
least
of /
is
sealed.
mind or
return to
tx
to
in the
fail
to return to
mind
at that crucial
is
much
that I
will
know?
really
The question
is
come
It is
to
mind
at the
moment when
fail
really
knew
it
few precautions which may reasonably be expected to decrease the frequency of this calami-
There are
at least a
tous occurrence.
The
fatigue.
recall
of what
Hence the
is
is
may
enable us to clear
is
more commonly
nerves
may
inhibit the
more
and
collected,
and examination
it
slightly elated,
frame of mind
but
offers the
The
failure to recall
the
student's
first
concern
make
should be to
in entering the
examination room
maximum
possible
arithmetic
would appear
it
logy
is
faulty.
of revival
continues for
some time
is
unconscious.
As assimilation
information
may
It is for this
reason that
go on
sets in
to the whole
motion a process of revival which may
after
mind
down
is
engaged
in preparing the
answer
to the next.
knows a
great deal
more than
There are
many ways of being
a plausible rogue in the formal examination as in the
other tests of life. But although examiners, on the whole,
many
styles
is
had
as a rule
more
is
pits
of ignorance in
the student's
suspect
to be there).
He
little hills
is
them
of
upon
by
best not
ON RESEARCH
Research
is
is
intellectuals.
This
it
takes the
form of
'pro-
ceeding to research' in a research institution or continuing to take an interest in such things as natural history
provided by univercarried
good
research
is
out by such
sities. (Much
societies and classes.) This life-long pursuit divides naturally into two phases. The first is that in which the student
is just catching up, learning for himself things which are
already known by others. The second is that in which he
is going beyond what is in the books. Now, the important
point is that psychologically there is no great difference
between the two sorts of study, no great difference between
the kind of thinking that goes into research and the kinds
societies or in the extra-mural classes
on research could be
word
'thinking'
'search',
just
when
Chapter 4
over
all
is,
after
all,
just
solutions to problems.
restated like
this:
The next
step
108
is
to
make
a guess at the
may
The
differences
this or that
become
greater at the
precision
to
He
measure
control
conditions
with
skill in
statistics,
and the
more
But again the differences between the professional botaand the amateur gardener next door are differences in
nist
The amateur gardener can acquire such knowledge and such skills. He may indeed win more prizes at
the local show than does the professional botanist.
Methods of finding answers to questions, testing hypodegree.
ant thing
is
many forms of
is
one of reading
rele-
is
ments.
flection,
experiment,
etc.
larger process
which
observation,
components of the
and
testing the
Research
be more
odd world
in
training can
tools of research
tools. It
points of knowledge.
it
can give
in the arts
research reports.
is
Not
least
important
is
the training
of communication, in writing
To keep
alive
and canalize
curiosity
It is also
the
much
By
1961
110
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
RESEARCH
his
in
re-
skill in
The two-year-old
cannot report
skill
discoveries.
At school and
at
the
science,
others.
is it
to suggest remedies.
certain inhibitions and emotional attitudes which interfere with communication. Indeed, it is perhaps more a
it is
first
From
first
no
Day
in
from
writing his
first
is
will
then be ready
on 'Physical
experimental project or
field study.
properties of beryllium'.
be cases that will be found to differ in their requirements - the thesis presented for a higher degree, and
what may be called for short 'a report to management will
'
that
is,
member of a
At each
from a teacher, a
But
how
1.
report
is
in
advance
to
whom
the
addressed.
For
is
whom
a social art,
is
Rule
is
this
is
is
as
as
Golden
eye
The
Country'.
Its content,
according as
'correct'
it
its
first
all
essay
form and
on 'A Day
its
is
or written as a letter
home
The
in the
style will
to
vary
mark and
intelligent,
principle applies
The
it
is
some
Not
less
important
term are
letters
vacation.
It is
fellow-student about
or attacking
espoused.
some
writer's characteristic
and individual
style
readers.
mind
some larger
members of which are well placed to turn
the results of research to some useful account. Those who
write theses for higher degrees could be encouraged more
research might be published or readers in
public, the
examiners as
their
113
in a
form
and they
supported by the
evidence adduced.
Similar
apply
considerations
addressed to Management.
is
research
reports
and a
statement of the conclusions reached and some
clear
to
studied,
2.
in
reporting on
research.
follows, inescapably,
skill in trans-
is
form
suit-
is
make
on the feedback
The same
and improve
back information as to
the lesson across.
can be a
The
learns to teach
test
It is
his teaching
teacher
by receiving
is
returned.
The
research
or failure
is
returned. This
is
why
upon a
fellow
reader for
whom
the report
is
intended.
INDEX
INDEX
Active and passive repetition, 39
Inhibitions, 106
Instinct.
See Propensities
41
lOff.
Adler, Alfred, 94
Assimilation, 100
55
ff.
Attitudes and
Learning, methods
sets, 59ff.
Auto-suggestion, 90
98ff;
44ff.,
Bacon, Francis, 31
of,
Chap.
by 'wholes' or
38;
distributed,
99;
3,
'parts',
through expression, 41
Lectures, listening to, 48
Controls
in
thought,
55ff.
ing habits of
Libraries, working
Locke, John, 35-6
in,
87
mind
McDougall, William, 13-15, 58
Depth psychology, 14
Descartes, Rene, 69
Difficult subjects,
88-9
Newton,
Isaac, 66
Night work, 83
Note
taking, 101
Examinations, 95-107
Exercises in perception, 28ff.
Objectivity of perception, 26
Originality,
91
Chap.
Propensities,
14ff.
18ff.
influence
observation, 24ff.
remembering,
Guessing,
4, 54ff.
influence
on
on
36ff.
62ff.
in-
62ff.
Ideals, educational, 80
Idle reverie, 60
Recreation and
Imagination, 61 ff.
119
rest, 84ff.
INDEX
Research, 108ff.
Selectivity in perception,
Selectivity in
memory, 36
Self-confidence, 90ff.
Timetables, 82
24-5
Torricelli,
30
Transference of traimng,
7
Wandering
.
thoughts, 83
Will to work,
77ff., 95ff.
33^
A. Hadfield
A531
Parents in these days are often caught between distaste for Victorian
its
and
as intelligent as
its
nature allows.
PSYCHIATRY TODAY
David Stafford-Clark
A262
For
is news today
it is also frequently
on the films, on television, on the radio,
books and a plot for plays. Although it
a feature of entertainment
D. Vernon
A530
When we look
at the
eyes,
do we
see
it
as
it
really is?
around
us.
book, which
chological research at
is
factors.
J.
I.Q.
Eysenck
A516
has
Paper, drawing
is
determine his
own
I.Q. In the
in
test.
first
part of
it
to
Psychology and Uses and Abuses of Psyis, how it can be applied, and
The second
this
part of the
system of rating
book contains
may
be.
problems each, and these are graduated from 'quite easy' to 'very
difficult'. There are tables for converting results into an I.Q. rating,
and also explanations of the problems, together with the right
answers, at the end of the book.
5 2 2 "HF
DATE DUE
iWL
lf
W"
DUE
JUN
b f,998
it:
K?
A 1 #rt
AUG
l 6 2002
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4yG 1
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j.
2DD2
The psychology
of study,
154.4M141p 1962 C
main
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