ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER

TONGUE INSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: THE CASE OF SIDAMA

ADAMU ASSEFA

JUNE, 2002
STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER TONGUE
INSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT: THE CASE OF SIDAMA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
OF MASTER OF ARTS IN
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

BY
ADAMU ASSEFA

JUNE, 2002
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS MOTHER TONGUE

INSTRUCTION AS A CORRELATE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT:
THE CASE OF SIDAMA

BY

ADAMU ASSEFA

Approved by board of examiners:

______________________________ _______________
Chairman, Department
Graduate Committee Signature

______________________________ _______________
Advisor Signature

______________________________ _______________
External Examiner Signature

______________________________ _______________
Internal Examiner Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all I would like to give thanks and glory to my Lord God for His

inseparable assistance in all my ways to complete my study successfully.

I am so thankful to my advisor Dr. Habtamu Wondimu for his intelligible guidance and

painstaking evaluation of this work. It is his skillful, sympathetic and considerate support that

makes the work to be accomplished.

I am grateful to my friends Ato Yohannes Latamo and Ato Shemelis Gizaw for their

translation of the questionnaire from English to Sidama and Amharic languages.

I want also to express my gratitude from my heart to my wife W/o Selamawit

Teferi and my daughter Bethel Adamu for their priceless spiritual support, tolerance of

financial deficit and longing for me during my departure in the study leave.

I would like to appreciate Ato Asamenew Assefa, W/o Zewdie Tilahun, Ato Urago

Ugamo, Mengsteabe Teferi for their help during data tallying, and teachers and school

directors who assisted me in data collection.

Many thanks go to SNNPR Education Bureau that sponsored me for the

postgraduate studies. My thankfulness also goes to colleagues of Awassa College of

Teacher education, especially for Distance Education Unit for their continuous provision of

computer and stationery materials.

And finally, I would like to say God bless my church leaders, Christian brothers,

and friends who have been wishing my successful accomplishment in my study and who

prayed for me for two years.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Acknowledgment i

List of Appendices vii

List of Tables viii

List of Figures x

Abstract xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of the Study 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem 3

1.3. Significance of the Study 4

1.4. Delimitation of the Study 5

1.5. Definition of Terms 5

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8

2.1. Attitude towards Language 8

2.2. The Effect of Language Attitude on Education 9

2.3. Pros and Cons of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 10

2.3.1. Arguments in Favor of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 11

2.3.2. Arguments against the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction 12

2.4. The Development of Sidama Language as Medium of Instruction 16

2.5. Change in the Medium of Instruction and Education Policyin Ethiopia 17

2.6. Attitudinal Development towards a Language 21

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 Page

2.7. Factors Affecting Language Attitude 22

2.8. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation 23

2.8.1. The Effect of Attitude on Achievement 23

2.8.2. The Effect of Attitude and Motivation on Achievement 24

2.9. Gender and Motivation on Second Language Learning 25

2.10. Gender Difference in Achievement 25

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD 27

3.1. Subjects 27

3.2. Instruments 29

3.3. Data Analysis 30

3.4. Variables 33

3.5. The Hypothesized Causal Model 34

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 35

4.1. Result of the Pilot Study 35

4.1.1. Reliability and Validity of the Instruments 35

4.1.2. The Discrimination Power of the Items 37

4.1.3. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation of

Students towards Mother Tongue Instruction 38

4.1.4. Attitudinal and Motivational Differences by Sex, Place

of Residence, and Mother Tongue 38

4.2. Results of the Main Study 39

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 Page

4.2.1. The Frequency Histogram and the Scatter Plot that

Shows the Test for Adequacy of the Regression Model

Used in the Analysis 40

4.2.2. Descriptive Statistics 42

4.2.3. Sex Differences on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 43

4.2.4. Attitudinal Orientation of Students towards Sidama

Language as Medium of Instruction 44

4.2.5. Place of Residence and Differences on Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement 45

4.2.6. Achievement Differences of Students with Low/High

Attitude and with Low/High Motivation 46

4.2.7. Mother Tongue and other Language Differences on

Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 47

4.2.8. Correlation Analysis of Variables in the Study for the

Pooled Subjects 48

4.2.9. Correlation Analysis of the Variables in the Study for

Sex Subgroups 50
4.2.10. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the

Study for the Pooled Subjects 52

4.2.11. Combined and Independent Contributions of Predictor

Variables 55

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 Page

4.2.12. Summary of Direct, Indirect and Spurious Effects on Achievement 58

4.2.13. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the Study for the Sex Subgroups 60

4.2.14. Impediments Affecting the Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction 63

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 65

5.1. The Relationship between Students' Attitude towards Sidama Language as a

Medium of Instruction and Sidama Language Achievement 65

5.2. Sex Differences on Attitude towards Sidama Language

as Medium of Instruction 67

5.3. Place of Residence Differences on Attitude towards

Sidama Language as Medium of Instruction 69

5.4. The Combined and Independent Contribution of the

Variables in the Study for the Variance of Sidama Language

Achievement 70

5.5. The Major Causes for Negative Attitude towards

Vernacular Language as Medium of Instruction 74

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 Page

CHAPTER SEX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 76

6.1. Summary of the Study 76

6.2. Conclusion 77

6.3. Recommendation 79

REFERENCES 81

vi
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1: Result of the Pilot Study 86

Appendix 2: Some Annexed Results of the Main Study 90

Appendix 3: The Questionnaire in English 91

Appendix 4:The Questionnaire in Sidama Language 98

Appendix 5: The Questionnaire in Amharic 106

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 LIST OF TABLES
Page

Table 3.1: Sex by Grade Cross Tabulation 28

Table 3.2: Sex by Place of Residence Cross Tabulation 28

Table 4.1: The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Considered

in the Study (N = 391) 42

Table 4.2: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys

and Girls on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 43

Table 4.3: Chi-square Test between Students Grouped under Positive

(above the Neutral Score) and Negative (below the Neutral

Score) with Regard to Attitude towards Sidama Language

as Media of Instruction 44

Table 4.4: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls

on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 45

Table 4.5: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of Achievement

for Students with Low/High Attitude and Motivation

towards Mother Tongue Instruction with Respect

to Upper and Lower 25% 46

Table 4.6: Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Sidama

and other Language Speakers as Mother Tongue on

Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 47

Table 4.7: Means, Standard Deviations and the Zero-Order

Correlation Matrix of the Variables in the Study

for the Pooled Subjects 48

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 Page
Table 4.8: Correlation Matrix of the Variables Treated forSex Subgroups 50
Table 4.9: Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis 53

Table 4.10: ANOVA Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis 55

Table 4.11: Model Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis 56

Table 4.12: Direct, Indirect, and Spurious Effects on Achievement 58

Table 4.13: Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis for Sex Subgroups 61

Table 4.14: Point-Biserial Coefficient Indices and Agreement and Disagreement Response

Distribution on some Selected Items That Show the Major Causes for Negative

Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction 63

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 3.1: Hypothetical Causal Relationship among Sex, Place of

Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement 34

Figure 4.1: Frequency Histogram Showing Residual Distribution 40

Figure 4.2: The Scatter Plot of the Predicted Scores against the

Residuals 41

Figure 4.3: A Path Model Portraying Causal Relationships

among Sex, Place of Residence, Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement for Pooled Samples (N = 391) 52

Figure 4.4: A Path Model Displaying Causal Relationships among,

Place of Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

for Sex Subgroups (N = 391) 60

x
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to investigate students' attitude towards Sidama

language as a medium of instruction and its determination on the language

achievement.

To carry out this aim, 391 students' were chosen from 7 Sidama Zone upper

primary schools. In addition to background information students were given with

attitude and motivation questionnaires to measure their inclination towards the native

language instruction. In the mean time students' one year cumulative GPA of Sidama

language were obtained from the record offices.

Stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to find out the combined

and independent effect of the independent variables. Path analysis was employed to

examine the relationships among the predictor variables and between the predictor

variables and the criterion variable. Comparison of means and chi-square techniques

were used to find out the significance of difference between sex subgroups and

between rural and urban dwellers.

As the result indicated students of grades 7 and 8 had positive attitude towards

their vernacular language instruction with out sex differences, and attitude was

identified as a vital predictor of Sidama language achievement.

On the basis of these results it was suggested that teachers and educational

practitioners should give due attention to attitude and motivation during instruction

besides the cognitive factors.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

The Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) issued a new education policy called

"Education and Training Policy" in 1994. This policy declares the use of nationality

languages as medium of instruction for primary level under section 3, subsection 3.5,

and Article 3.5.1. It says "Cognizant of the pedagogical advantage of the child in

mother tongue and the right of nationalities to promote the use of their languages,

primary education will be given in nationality languages" (TGE, 1994:23). On the

basis of this declaration, many nationalities became the beneficiaries. Sidama is one

of these nationalities that utilized the advantage and started providing instruction by

its own language in 1993. The Sidama Zone mainly inhabited by the Sidama

nationality (ethnic group) is one of the zones of Southern Nations, Nationalities and

Peoples Regional Government, which is located at 270 km South of Addis Ababa.

The Ministry of Education did not conduct research in introducing the vernacular

language as medium of instruction. As Seyoum pointed out:

The new educational policy took the unprecedented step to make the
mother tongue a medium of instruction of primary level of schooling. The
fact that Ethiopia is multilingual is not a debatable issue. Further
empirical evidence substantiates that it is advantageous for a child to
learn in its own mother tongue . . . to rush things for the sake of political
expediency would be courting and disaster whose consequences would
be difficult to fathom to generation to come (Seyoum, 1996: 27-28).

1
On the other hand, authorities that support the use of mother tongue as medium of

instruction suggest their belief too. For instance the stand of Unesco, as Fasold put it:

It is axiomatic that the best medium of teaching a child is his mother

tongue. Psychologically, it is system of meaningful for expressing and
understanding. Sociologically, it is a means of identification among the
member of the community to which he belongs. Educationally, he learns
more quickly through it than through an unfamiliar linguistic medium
(Fasold, 1984:293).

The purpose of the study is not to give "empirical evidence," as Seyoum said. To this

debatable issue implying advantages and disadvantages of using mother tongue, as

medium of instruction is out of the scope of this paper. But this is presented to make

the reader clear that the controversy among scholars on the issue gives clear picture

about the attitude of the users too. That is, as scholars debate with each other, the

users (students) could also have similar notions.

The attitude of students, in turn, whether it is favorable or unfavorable, will affect their

academic performance positively or negatively. As Yoseph pointed out, "the

achievement of educational objectives partly requires pupils' positive attitude towards

learning that pupils' attitude is an important factor in their potential to receive

education" (Yoseph, 1997:21). More specifically, Yoseph emphasized the point as

follows:

As positive attitude towards learning facilitates pupils' progress in

school, a negative attitude is a hindrance to pupils' successful progress
in schoolwork. The value one attaches to school learning influences
pupils' effort, which, other things being equal, may determine their
success or failure. A positive attitude towards schoolwork . . . helps
pupils attain higher achievement scores and, thus, meet school
requirements for grade promotion. More precisely achievement
differences among pupils may, partly, be explained by 'affective states as
attitudes, motivation, self perceptions, intentions and expectations'
(1997:21).

2
That is why the researcher wanted to find out what kinds of attitudes students had

about the use of mother tongue as medium of instruction; how did their attitude affect

their academic achievement; and also what factors contributed to their present

attitude.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Research works are hardly existent regarding attitude of students towards vernacular

language as medium of instruction. The few available foreign studies considered only

the relationship between language attitudes of teachers, and language attitude of

second language learners and its effect on learning progress (e.g., Fasold, 1984:

170). These studies did not address the issue in focus. Thus, the main purpose of the

study was to examine the relationship between academic achievement and students'

attitude towards vernacular language as medium of instruction. Attempts have been

made to answer the following major questions:

1. Do pupils with high attitude towards mother tongue instruction significantly differ

from pupils with low attitude in academic achievement?

2. Is there sex difference on students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction?

3. Is there a difference in students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction due

to place of residence?

4. What is attitudinal orientation of grades 7 and 8 students towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction?

5. How much does each major variable (such as attitude, motivation, sex and

place of residence) in the study add to the estimation of academic

achievement?

3
 6. What are the major causes for unfavorable attitude towards mother tongue as a

medium of instruction?

7. What kinds of relationship exist between the independent variables and the

dependent variable, and among the independent variables themselves? (To

determine causal model and the direct and indirect effects among the

variables)

1.3. Significance of the Study

In the bilingual or multilingual community, language choice for every day ordinary

communication or for instructional purpose is inevitable. For every day

communication, language choice is personal, but for instructional purpose the

language choice can be made collectively by the community and/or by the

government. The government can decide on the language of education based on the

community or on its own political interests. If the government decided on instructional

language on the basis of political purpose, it cannot satisfy the interest of the majority.

The attitude of people on that language therefore could be negative. Even if

educational language decision was made on the basis of attitudinal survey,

unfavorable attitude cannot be completely avoided because the interest of all people

could not be the same. So the need to carry out research on the effect of student's

attitude on instructional language is very vital and timely in our country.

Secondly, as mentioned earlier, research findings on the area of students' attitude

towards vernacular language as an instructional medium and its effect on academic

4
performances was scarcely existent in Ethiopian context. This study endeavored to

contribute some theoretical and practical basis for such relationship.

It is also expected that the result would point out some of the reasons for the

unfavorable attitude of students toward mother tongue as medium of instruction.

Fourthly, the findings anticipated in helping the people, who speak the language, to

be aware of the factors that affect the attitude towards their language and hence work

towards the development of better understanding.

Furthermore, the result of the study would serve as a baseline for further study.

1.4. Delimitation of the Study

This study is delimited to some selected upper primary school grades of the Sidama

Zone (i.e. grades 7 and 8). The use of nationality language as medium of instruction

is in the primary level (up to grade 6). But some zones and regions (including Sidama

Zone in SNNPR) started instruction with the nationality language as a subject while

the medium of instruction for other subjects is English. Their interest is to substitute

the medium of instruction from English to the native language for grades 7 and 8.

Therefore, no need to study attitude of students over these grades.

1.5. Definition of Terms

According to their usage in this study the following terms are defined in the manner

stated below.

5
Achievement: It refers to pupils' academic performance on Sidama language as

shown by their average scores of two semesters of grades 6 and 7. The

phrase "academic performance" is also used interchangeably with this word.

Attitude: According to Gilbert, Fiske and Lindzey (1998) "Attitudes express passions

and hates, attractions and repulsions, likes and dislikes. People have

attitudes when they love or hate things or people and when they approve or

disapprove of them... In formal terms, an attitude is a psychological tendency

that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor

or disfavor." Attitude in this context could be considered as pupils' feelings

about mother tongue as medium of instruction, or their liking or disliking of

getting instruction in their own mother tongue.

Upper primary grades: refers to the second cycle according to the new education

and training policy (i.e. from grade 5 to 8). But for the study only grades 7

and 8 are included.

Mother tongue: According to Unesco as cited in Fasold (1984), mother tongue is the

language which a person acquires in early years and which normally

becomes his natural instrument of thought and communication.

Motivation: Generally, as to Corsini and Auerbach (1996) "it refers to internal states

of the organism that lead to the instigation, persistence, energy, and

6
 direction of behavior.'' The definition given by Gardner and Lambert as cited

in Spolsky (1989) is more related to the context used in this study:

"Motivation ...refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the

goal of learning plus favorable attitudes towards learning the language."

Motivation here can be also equated with 'need for achievement' (n-ach) or

'achievement motivation,' which is defined as "A stable, learned

characteristic in which satisfaction comes from striving for and achieving a

level of excellence" (Feldman, 1987: 252).

Vernacular language: According to Unesco as cited by Bull in Hymes (1964),

vernacular language is "a language which is the mother tongue of a group

which is socially or politically dominated by another group speaking a

different language". Similarly, the term vernacular in this study refers to the

mother tongue of the Sidama people, which is now serving as working

language of the Zone and instructional language mainly for primary level.

The term "mother tongue" is used interchangeably with the term "vernacular

language" in the study.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Attitude towards Language

Unfavorable attitude towards their mother tongue or preference to some language

over the mother tongue could develop due to unawareness and prejudices (Assebe,

1981: 42). In other instances dislike toward language arises due to political bias,

social stratification, economic incongruity, and other socio-psychological factors. As

Assebe (1981) pointed out by referring to Leach, preference of one language over the

other is not because of instinct but for other reason. As Leach argued:

If . . . we find political system which embraces several language groups,

and these language groups are ranked in a class hierarchy, superior and
inferior, there is a prima facie probability that the language situation is
unstable, and that the higher ranking groups are tending to assimilate
the lower ranking groups . . . it follows from very simple economic
causes. It is advantageous for the individual to identify himself with
those who posses political and economic influence (as quoted by
Assebe, 1981:43).

Holmes shares the same idea with Leach with respect to attitude towards language.

According to Holmes, "attitudes to language are strongly influenced by social and

political factors." Then what do we understand from people's attitude towards

language? For this question Holmes further indicates that some people "develop

attitudes towards languages which reflect their views about those who speak the

languages, and the contexts and functions with which they are associated" (Holmes,

1992:346).

8
2.2. The Effect of Language Attitude on Education

Many social psychologists argue that an attitude is an internal state that affects the

overt behavior. There are different views regarding the effect of attitude on behavior

and vise versa. The mentalist Williams, as cited by Fasold, forwarded that an attitude

is an internal state aroused by stimulation of some type and may mediate the

organism's subsequent response (Fasold, 1984: 147).

More specifically, "language attitude can have a great influence in areas such as

education" (Holmes, 1992: 146). Furthermore, Fasold pointed out that "there is some

evidence that language attitudes may influence how teachers deal with pupils; . . .

and other evidence suggests that attitudes about language affect second language

learning" (Fasold, 1984: 348).

As to Fasold, attitude studies conducted so far are two types, language attitude of

teachers, and language attitudes of second language learners. The first type of study

reveals the effect of teachers' attitudes towards language of instructional medium on

students' academic performance. While the second type of study is usually conducted

to find out whether the learners' attitudes toward the language they are learning affect

their progress (Fasold, 1984: 170).

In our country such kinds of studies on language attitude and its effect on education

are few, if any. So this study tries to put its outstanding effort in filling the gap of

knowledge. More specifically, it studied the students' attitudes toward their mother

tongue as medium of instruction and its effect on their academic achievements.

9
2.3. Pros and Cons of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

There is a controversy about the importance of mother tongue instruction and second

and/or foreign language instruction on the child's achievement, intellectual

development and the socio-cultural involvement for a long period of time.

In bilingual or multilingual countries, language-planning decision is a crucial issue

especially in the determination and choice of instructional language. Some

governments and responsible institutions try to solve the issue by forwarding certain

criteria to be fulfilled in order to choose certain language as instructional medium.

However, conflicts stay unresolved, because on one hand the proposed criteria may

satisfy one group and may not the other. On the other hand, within the proposed

criteria, some points may not be accepted by any. For example, as Fasold pointed

out, in Ireland and Tanzania three main considerations were postulated to choose

language of instruction. They are stated as follows:

(1) do the prospective students know the language well enough to learn
effectively through it;
(2) would the proposed choice be consistent with overall nationalist
aims; and
(3) are the language itself, the material written in it, and the number of
people able to teach in it adequate for use at the proposed level?
(Fasold, 1984: 292)

As Fasold (1984) concluded, even if the considerations are set, conflicts could not be

prohibited because no language had been identified which satisfy the above three

conditions in both countries. In Tanzania, the third condition is not fulfilled. Whereas,

in Ireland, the first condition is not satisfied; so Irish cannot be universally used

language of education.

10
2.3.1. Arguments in Favor of the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

First the important authority to mention in favor of mother tongue instruction is

Unesco (The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization).

Unesco assembled a Committee to study about the language in instructional medium

at global level. And the Committee came up with the position that "the language that

children can effectively use, should be given priority in selecting the medium of

instruction. If this is done, then it becomes clear that the choice in virtually every case

will be the child's mother tongue" (Fasold, 1984: 293).

California State Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Bicultural Education

(CSDE) (1991) experts forwarded reasons why they need and make real effort to

maintain first language as follows:

1. Speakers of a language other than English can make priceless contribution

for their countries so it is very important to maintain this natural resource.

2. Sustaining the first language and culture of 'non-English proficient' (NEP)

children may help to put up their self-importance and reciprocate

unfavorable attitude of linguistic minority. According to Gardner and

Lambert cited in CSDE (1991) those individuals who accept their own

language and culture do well in second language learning than those who

have unfavorable attitude towards their own group.

3. According to Cummins as referred in CSDE (1991) so as to sustain in

subject matter and maintain normal mental development, students need

to build up high stage of first language capability.

11
Thirdly, Chumbow (1990) like Unesco listed out the importance of mother tongue

instruction in education by providing more scientific arguments. First, mother tongue

has psychological value to the child. That is, it serves very important role in shaping

the child's early perception because language and thought are highly interrelated. No

one can think with out using language in its any form (articulated, symbolic, etc.).

Second, mother tongue has socio-cultural significance since it would help the

member of the target group to express its common cultural familiarity and tendency.

Thirdly, the early school use of mother tongue in the child's life will give permanence

for the child's course of learning and which in turn enhance its cognitive development.

Early switch of language from mother tongue to second or foreign languages will

create feeling of insufficiency, low self-esteem and develop dislike toward his

teachers and school. And finally, ' mobilization of rural communities' for agriculture,

adult education, vocational training etc could best be attained by the use of native

languages. This kind of community mobilization can provide a lot of contribution for

national development and to build modern society.

2.3.2. Arguments Against the Use of Mother Tongue Instruction

Fasold reviewed the objections forwarded about the recommendations of Unesco's

Committee on the use of mother tongue instruction. The objections are:

(1) Some languages, it may seem, have no grammar or alphabet;

(2) ...it is useless to teach a mother tongue, since a child already knows
it;
(3) to teach in mother tongue will make it more difficult for a youngster to
learn a second language later; and
(4) ...using vernacular languages would impede national unity (Fasold,
1984:293-294).

12
He also compiled the responses to the Committee Report and for the above

objections as follows:

1. Even though some languages may not have written grammar, any language

must have grammar otherwise it should not have been spoken.

2. For the second objection the Committee provided two replies; first, "children know

their mother tongue well enough to serve a child's purposes, but their facility in it

needs to be increased; and second, the point is not so much that the school would

be teaching the mother tongue as teaching other subjects in the mother tongue"

(Fasold, 1984:294).

3. The response to the third objection is that current knowledge in several places

proposes that a healthier way to launch a second language may be to teach it first

as a subject, using the native language as an instructional media.

4. However the Unesco Committee admits that it is easier to govern a country with

the same language, persistence on the national language might motivate some

minority groups to be offended by their national government and repudiate to

accept the national identity.

On the first three objections, Unesco Committee responded satisfactorily and the

responses were accepted by most linguists as to Fasold. But on the last objection, the

answer is more political than logical for linguists. In addition, there is another set of

serious objections on which Unesco Committee responded with less success. This

set of objections is more concerned with readiness of the language to be used in

education:

13
 (1) The lack of textbooks and other educational materials;
(2) The lack of general reading material;
(3) A shortage of trained teachers; and
(4) Inadequacy of vocabulary (Fasold, 1984: 294).

For the above four objections Unesco Committee recommended two suggestions:

...first, either supply what is lacking, or use the vernacular as far into the
educational process as possible and then make a carefully planned
transition to a second language. The second recommendation is made
with extreme reluctance, since it contradicts the Report's fundamental
point. Therefore, the Committee urges governments to remedy
shortcomings in readiness by encouraging the printing of books,
magazines, newspapers, and official notices in bilingual versions, and by
training mother-tongue speakers of vernaculars to teach in their native
languages, including practice teaching opportunities using the
vernacular (Fasold, 1984:294-295).

Furthermore, Bull (1964) reviewed Unesco's Report of 1953. In his review he raised

some objections and some of which were similar to that of Fasold's (1984), discussed

above. The objection and responses of the Committee are as follows:

1. Like Fasold, Bull too raised the deficiency of vocabulary in many languages or

even in the majority of the world languages. For this objection Unesco Committee

forwarded two responses: first, "the mother tongue may be used as a bridge to

learning an adequate language and, thereafter, education may be carried on in this

second vehicle; second, planned experiences of the vocabulary can be

undertaken, as in Arabic, Hungarian, Finish and Estonian" (Bull, 1964:528).

2. The Committee's response for the question that 'if the child's mother tongue is not

the official language of his country,' a child has to learn a second language. But

Bull's reservation for this answer is that this will result in a 'mild kind of linguistic

schizophrenia,' which is revealed by confusion to express one's interest of

personal, political and academic issues. In turn, for such kind of doubt the

Committee recommended, "the mother tongue be used as the medium of

14
 instruction as far up the education ladder as possible (through college if the

language is adequate) (Bull, 1964:528).

3. In general, the preference of mother tongue instruction of the Committee is based

on what is best for the child psychologically and pedagogically. But Bull put his

opposition for this belief of the Committee as follows:

This proposition appears; however, to be somewhat unrealistic.

What is best for the child psychologically and pedagogically may
not be what is best for the adult society, economically or
politically and, what is even more significant, what is best for both
the child and the adult may not be best or even possible for the
society..." (Bull, 1964:528).

4. "...the writing system of a number of languages does not lend itself readily to
the exigencies of the modern world and, especially, to the use of
typewriters and typesetting machines which are essential to the
rapid and economical reproduction of educational materials" (Bull,
1964:529).

According to Chumbow (1990) some of the arguments forwarded by individuals who

favor the use of foreign languages against the use of mother tongue (particularly of

African languages) as an instructional medium are as follows:

a. The need for an international language by African nations so

as to relate to the world community easily. Languages like
English or French serve such a purpose readily.
b. Given the multilingualism in African nations; national unity
would be best achieved by using a foreign language like
English because it is neutral.
c. African languages are not adequately developed to express
modern scientific and technical knowledge.
d. It is better to go straight for English than starting off with an
indigenous language only to return to English later. Such a
switch, it is feared, may result in cognitive deficits and low
productivity.
e. It is expensive to provide educational materials and train
teachers to undertake education in African languages.

Regarding the use of script to write in Ethiopian nationality languages, there are

different opinions forwarded by various writers. Among the oppositions toward the

15
kind of script to be used Teshome (1997) mentions that some: "...Latin characters are

far removed from any other used in Ethiopia, and therefore adopting the Latin

alphabet would create further disparity among the country's languages and would be

detrimental rather than beneficial to the lasting interests of all concerned." Further he

seriously criticized the present use of Latin script in ‘Oromiffa’ and the language in

schools and other organizations as follows:

...there are serious disagreements among the Oromogna speakers, and

the government, aware of the political ramifications of the controversy, is
keeping silent. No final decision has been made about which form to
adopt. Meanwhile the use of the Oromogna language is being
implemented in the schools, courts, and other institutions. Neither the
necessary teaching skills nor materials have been developed for this de
facto movement, and I fear that if they insist on implementation before
the necessary foundations are properly laid down, more harm than good
will ensue, especially for the children and youth in schools (Teshome,
1997:392).

2.4. The Development of Sidama Language as Medium of Instruction

Teshome (1997) mentioned that the use of Latin script in Ethiopian languages is

controversial; however, its use in Sidama language is old history, since 1933. As

Desalegn (1994) pointed out in 1933 religious missionaries using Latin character

translated the Gospel of Mark in Sidama language. Secondly, Sidama language

grammar was studied and written in Latin script in December 1937 by Mariyo Martino

Morrino, who was the chief political director of African-Italian Minister. Thirdly, after

1976 by the request of some Sidama volunteers, the Provisional Military Government

of Ethiopia, Adult Education Department of the Literacy Campaign translated many

texts into the Sidama language. This was carried out not only by Sidama language

but also other native languages were used; yet the script was in Amharic. In 1983

Armido Gasparini published the ‘Sidamo-English Dictionary’ in Latin character. And

16
finally, in 1993 the Sidama language was introduced as medium of instruction and

language of work in the Zone.

2.5. Change in the Medium of Instruction and Education Policy in Ethiopia

The origin of education in Ethiopia as most scholars agree, was based on traditional

religious centers of monasteries and mosques. As Ministry of Education (MOE)

pointed out "the development of Ethiopian educational system was deeply rooted in

religious education of which the two main streams were Christian and Islam" (MOE,

1996:89). These religious institutions also were the sources of distribution of

education. As to Seyoum, "in traditional Ethiopia, the Orthodox Church and the

mosque were the major institutions that were responsible for the dissemination of

religious education (Seyoum, 1996:2).

In 1908 modern education was introduced into Ethiopian educational system by

Emperor Menelik, and by a tremendous intervention of foreign religious missionaries

(MOE, 1996: 66;Seyoum, 1996:3). As to Seyoum (1997) this was with the aspiration

of endorsing the French language. Tesfaye (1971), too, agreed that English has been

introduced in education from that time on. But it was taught as a subject, while French

was used as instructional medium. Whereas, the intercession of religious

missionaries in the system of Ethiopian education was by introducing mother tongue

as a medium of instruction as a means of spreading Christianity. But this was aborted

by the proclamation, which prohibited the use of mother tongue officially as instruction

medium unless to use it for oral preaching and local use (Fisseha, 1994:169).

17
The impact of foreigners, then after, went on the educational system in many

directions, politically, socially, economically etc. Because the curriculum content, the

methodology and even the medium of instruction and teachers were foreigners. In

general, as Ministry of Education report indicates, it is better to look at the

chronological stages to note how far foreigners dominated Ethiopian education:

1909_1941 _Fascist Instruction [SIC]

1941_1952 _British Influence

1952_1974 _Canadian and American Influence

1974_1991 _Ex-Soviet Influence (MOE, 1996:92)

Even though the influences of foreigners were bound to happen, there were attempts

to make the educational system Ethiopian and to change medium of instruction to

native languages other than English and French.

After 1917 until the late forties, Amharic and Giiz (customarily used in Coptic

Orthodox Church sermon) were encouraged. Between 1947 and 1958, English was

the medium of instruction in all schools and Amharic was taught as a subject. But the

medium of instruction changed to Amharic for primary schools and to English for

secondary schools in 1958 (Seyoum, 1997:157). But as to Seyoum (1996), the

medium of instruction was changed from English to Amharic at the primary level in

1963. Yet according to Fisseha (1994) the use of Amharic in the primary level and

English and French for secondary level began in 1955. That is, there is slight

disagreement among scholars about the date of change of instructional medium from

foreign languages to Amharic at the primary level.

18
The military government, in 1974, in its proclamation known as National Democratic

Revolution Program (NDRP) stated that "No nationality will dominate another one

since the history, culture, language and religion of each nationality will have equal

recognition in accordance with the spirit of socialism...each nationality... has the right

to determine the contents of its political, economic, and social life, use its own

language and elect its own leaders and administrators to head its internal organs"

(The Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs; Agitation, Propaganda and

Education Committee, 1977:13-14). Similarly, in the constitution of People's

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Article 2, sub-article 5, says, "the People's

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia shall ensure the equality, development and

respectability of the languages of nationalities"(InterAfrica Group, 1993:127). Due to

this proclamation, adult education texts were translated to fifteen nationality

languages during the National Literacy Campaign Program. However, it was

ineffective because of some 'orthographic' and dialectal problems and lack of trained

taskforce in some native languages (Fisseha, 1994:169).

Since then, until the declaration of 'the new educational and training policy' by TGE in

1994, the predomination and "the move towards Amharicsation of the curriculum was

all too apparent with associate tendency of power centralization..." (Seyoum,

1997:157). Even though the nationality languages enjoy the right to use their native

languages as a medium of instruction and as a language of work, the 'new

educational and training policy' does not ensue perfection and not free from criticism.

As to Teshome:

19
 financial implications of the various policies. ...The language policies
seem to be primarily formed and guided by political ideology rather than
pedagogical merits.

Then to its logical conclusion, ...Since Amharic remains very powerful

both as a national language and language of education, those whose
home language is Amharic will continue to enjoy the advantage of using
their own language throughout the schooling years and beyond. Also
most of the curricular materials are written in the Amharic language and
the others are translated from the Amharic texts. That, too, works to the
disadvantage of those whose home language is other than Amharic.
Speakers of the other languages, on the other hand, will have to deal
with three or more languages, i.e. their mother tongue, Amharic, and
English. Since teachers are not yet trained in most of the other
languages and teaching aids are very undeveloped, and since
examinations will continue to be conducted in Amharic and English, the
non-Amharic speaking students will continue to be in a very
disadvantageous position (Teshome, 1997:398).

In August 21, 1995 the government of the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia

published the constitution under which proclaimed the right with respect to the use of

languages in Ethiopia. It stated that "All Ethiopian languages shall enjoy equal state

of recognition" and "Members of the Federation may by law determine their

respective working languages" under article 5, No. 1 and 3 (Federal negarit gazeta of

the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia, 1995:78).

Ethiopia, like other African countries, is multilingual nation where over eighty

languages and dialects are spoken. For a long period of time the controversy on the

use of language of instruction has been sustained and will sustain until more

scholarly, logical, democratic and participatory decisions could be made and

implemented.

20
2.6. Attitudinal Development towards a Language

In the life span of a language, attitude is fundamental. For death or survival of any

language, attitude could be the corner stone. Specially, the issue of attitude towards

language arises when there is preference between two or more languages to use as

instructional medium or for other purposes (Baker, 1988:112).

As to Baker (1988), favoring mother tongue or any other language is due to social,

economic and political reasons. As research indicates maintaining or shifting

language to or from mother tongue is related with sentimental and instrumental

orientation toward that language. But maintaining mother tongue is mainly associated

with sentimentalism. Whereas, shifting from mother tongue to other language is due

to instrumentalism (Hofman & Cais, 1984:151). By sentimentalism to Hofman and

Cais mean that the preference of mother tongue is simply based on emotionalized

attitude, without satisfactory reasons. Preference of a language with respect to

economic importance refers to instrumentalism.

Hofman and Cais (1984) indicated that Zimbabwean Africans favor their native

tongue due to sentiment and use English mainly as an instrument.

Similarly, according to Zughoul and Taminian (1984)

...the average Arab university student strongly favors the use of his own
language - Arabic- as the medium of instruction at the university level,
although he views English as more instrumental than his native
language...Arab students do have strong feelings about their language.
They view Arabic as more expressive, more beautiful, more logical, and
particularly more sacred than English (Zughoul and Taminian, 1984:174).

21
Zughoul and Taminian's findings highly agree with Hofman and Cais's finding. That is,

Arab university students maintain their language for sentimentalism, and prefer

English as instrument.

The preference towards second language learning could be one's heritage language

that the learners do not know before. Otherwise the language could be that of another

group. In any case the motive is either instrumental or integrative according to R.C.

Gardner as cited by Berry (1992). That is, if the interest is purely for occupational or

economic advantage, the motive is called instrumental. Whereas, if the learners are

interested to learn the language for the sake of joining the group of target language or

to enter into the cultural life, the motive is called integrative.

2.7. Factors Affecting Language Attitude

Baker (1988) reviewed different research reports on factors affecting language

attitude. The variables (factors) are gender, length of residence, attainment in school,

ability and density of neighbor hood speaking Welsh language. Baker put the

situations as follows:

... attitude to Welsh was connected with gender (girls more favorable in
attitude than boys), length of residence in Wales (a less favorable
attitude tends to be held by immigrants), attainment in school (a more
favorable attitude to Welsh is linked with higher attainment with some
age...); ability (younger children of high ability tend to be more
favorable), and the Welsh-speaking density of neighborhood (the higher
the density of Welsh speakers, the more favorable the attitude) (Baker,
1988: 119-120).

22
2.8. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation

As cited in Spolsky (1989) Gardner and Lambert consider that motivation comes from

attitude. That is, from language learning point of view, attitudes do not have direct

influence on learning, but they lead to motivation, which has straight effect on learning

performances. In Gardener and Lambert's words:

Motivation in the present context refers to the combination of effort plus

desire to achieve the goal of learning plus favorable attitudes towards
learning the language. Attitude itself is to be measured by asking a
subject to evaluate an object: ...from an operational point of view, an
individual's attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referents or
attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs of
opinions about the referent (as cited in Spolsky, 1989:149).

Nunan and Lamb (1996) also agreed with the point of view of Gardner and Lambert in

that attitude is strongly linked with motivation. Actually it could be claimed that

students' motivation will be mostly determined by their attitude toward the culture of

interest group, language, and learning surroundings.

Beliefs or opinions about the attitude object can be rated by the use of instrument

called attitude scale. But there is some doubt about the validity and reliability of the

instrument.

In practical terms, then, an attitude is a construct derived from a

subject's answers to a number of questions about an object. Its
establishment is subject to all the normal worries of validity of the
instrument used and of the honesty of the subject's answer to the
questions (Spolsky, 1989:149).

2.8.1. The Effect of Attitude on Achievement

Attitude towards a certain language can serve as a means to an end and as an end

by it self as well. That is, attitude can serve as a promoter of a certain behavior. For

example, if a person has a positive attitude towards that language, he would have

23
interest to learn that language. On the other hand, if a person is exposed to a T.V

program of that language and/or given school lesson, as a result the individual

develops positive attitude and also enculturation takes place (Baker, 1988: 112-113).

Nunan and Lamb (1996) put the effect of attitude on learning as follows:

The attitude of learners toward the target language, the learning

situation, and the roles that they are expected to play within that learning
situation will have an important effect on the learning process. It will
therefore have implications for the management of learning. If the learner
has a negative attitude towards the language, the culture, the classroom
or the teacher, learning can be impaired or even rendered ineffective
(Nunan and Lamb, 1996:216).

However, in the case of mother tongue, attitude necessarily comes at first because

mother tongue as the name implies, develops from the very beginning of early child

hood. And as "...an important component of culture, it is also a salient feature of the

individual's social, cultural or ethnic identity" (Hamers and Blanc, 2000:202). Similarly,

from statistical point of view, in order to consider certain variable as a cause for the

other, it should fulfill different requirements suggested by Cook and Campbell as cited

in Cohen (1983). The first criterion to classify the first variable as a cause of the

second variable, the first should proceed the second in time even if both may be

measured at the same time.

2.8.2. The Effect of Attitude and Motivation on Achievement

As to Nunan and Lamb (1996), the majority of researches explain a high correlation

between motivation and achievement, and this relationship is considered, as

confirmation that highly motivated students will perform well in school. Yet, they did

not veil the reciprocal effect of achievement on motivation, but the former relationship

is strongly supported by many researchers as indicated above.

24
The relationship or role of attitude and motivation towards mother tongue instruction

and their effect on achievement was scarcely studied. Where, the effect of attitude

and motivation on second language learning was highly researched. That is, as

research demonstrated many times, attitude and motivation measures could be used

to predict achievement in second language (Gardner, 1985: 207).

2.9. Gender and Motivation on Second Language Learning

As reviewed by Bacon (1992), Gardner and Lambert found that female language

learners were more motivated than male language learners. Females were also found

to have more positive attitudes toward speakers of the target language than males.

Bacon also reviewed the research report of Muchnick and Wolfe, which shows gender

difference in language attitude and motivation. Similarly, as to Bacon, Ludwig found

out significant difference between male and female university students; however,

males tended to be more instrumentally oriented.

2.10. Gender Difference in Achievement

Many authors consistently mention two areas that males and females vary. However,

the variation is very low. These gender differences are on verbal and quantitative

tasks. That is, " Girls typically perform better than boys on verbal tasks, whereas boys

perform better than girls on quantitative tasks; these difference however, are quite

small " (Eccles, 1984: 26).

25
Matlin (1996) also holds the same idea and further elaborates the causes of such

small variations on verbal, quantitative and on other tasks between males and

females. But her argument slightly seems to diminish even that of " low" variation

proposed by other authors. According to Matlin, there is no gender difference in

general intelligence, as it is indicated in total IQ test scores. Nowadays some test

items that negatively affect female test- scores tend to be eliminated from the tests

during standardization process. So that, gender differences unlikely occur in general

intelligence. In the mean time, Matlin pointed out that males and females show no

difference in learning and memory; however, the nature of task or material to be

learnt or remembered can make a difference. The author also insisted on the small

gender difference on verbal ability, by providing different research evidences.

According to her, the verbal portion of SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) in the earlier

times favors females because it consists items regarding humanities. But later as the

test-designing corporations started to include items from science and business, males

started to surpass females by 11 points. So her argument is that it is the nature of

content that the test is drawn, not the true inherent ability of males and females that

brought this difference (Matlin, 1996:179).

And finally, on mathematics ability, the author disagrees with media report that

advertises higher gender difference favoring males in mathematics achievement. On

this issue she wrote her conclusion as follows:

Media reports might lead you to expect large gender difference favoring
males in mathematics skills. Instead, there are gender similarities in
much of the mathematics research. Females receive higher grades in
mathematics courses, and substantial gender difference favoring males
occur only on the mathematics section of the SAT (Matlin, 1996:185).

26
 CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

3.1 . Subjects

The study considered pupils of grades 7 and 8 in selected upper primary schools in

the Sidama Zone. According to the formula or Table of determining sample size used

by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), out of the total population of students in grades 7 and

8, nearly 410 students participated in the study. After rejecting 19 questionnaires for

some kinds of incompleteness, 391 respondents were neatly included in the study.

Out of 69 junior schools in the Zone, 14 of them were in the urban areas (i.e. the

regional town Awassa and woreda towns of Yirgalem and Aleta-wondo). The

remaining 55 schools were in the rural part of the Zone. From these schools, the

study included 7 schools. 3 schools were included from towns that were purposely

selected (Awassa, Yirgalem and Aleta-wondo). These towns were relatively big

compared to the remaining woreda towns and perhaps fulfill the characteristics of an

urban setting.

Since the number of students was not equal in each grade level and in each sex

category, the stratified random sampling was employed to select the participants. But

the stratification was based on grade level only. Regarding the sex almost equal

number was considered. Since 1994 E.C. statistical data of students' enrollment was

not ready (available) at that time, grades 6 and 7 data of 1993 E.C. (i.e. 39,350

27
students) were used to estimate grades 7 and 8 enrollment of 1994 E.C. Therefore,

proportionally 190 and 201 students are allocated for grades 7 and 8 respectively.

From grade 7, 100 male and 90 female students were selected. From grade 8, 105

male and 96 female students were selected. That is, 186 females and 205 males

were involved in the study. The tables for cross tabulation of sex by grade and place

of residence are very important for further clarification. So the tables are presented as

follows:

Table 3.1. Sex by Grade Cross Tabulation

Grade Total Percent

7 8
Sex Female 90 96 186 47.57%
Male 100 105 205 52.43%
Total 190 201 391
Percent 48.59% 51.41%

Table 3.2. Sex by Place of Residence Cross Tabulation

Place of Residence Total Percent

Urban Rural
Sex Female 124 62 186 47.57%
Male 97 108 205 52.43%
Total 221 170 391
Percent 56.52% 43.48%

28
3.2. Instruments

A Likert type 5-point attitude scale rating of "strongly agree", "agree", "undecided",

"disagree", and "strongly disagree" was used to test students' attitude towards

Sidama language as medium of instruction. The scale was adapted from Taylor's

Language Attitude Scale, Gardner Attitude/Motivation Scale and other scales. The

scale consisted of 36 items. Secondly a close-ended questionnaire of multiple-choice

form was used to measure students' motivation to perform Sidama language in the

classroom. It was adapted from Gardner Attitude/Motivation Scale and consisted of

20 items. The items were constructed in simple language and translated into the

Sidama language and Amharic so as to be understandable for the level. The students'

achievement scores of one year (of 1993 E.C.) were collected from the record offices

and transformed into standardized scores (z-scores) in order to make comparison

possible. The internal consistency of the items of both questionnaires was determined

during the pilot study by using split-half (Gronlund, 1981) and Kuder-Richardson

methods. In the case of split-half method, the items in each instrument were divided

into two halves by using odd and even numbers; then the two halves were correlated

to give the reliability coefficient of the half tests. These coefficients later were

upgraded into full-length test by Spearman Brown formula (Best and Kahn, 1989). In

the mean time, regarding Kuder-Richardson, the other version of formula 20 (cited in

Ebel, 1979) that is usually used for estimating reliability of essay test scores or of

multiple ratings of the same performance was used. The formula called 'the other

version of Kuder-Richardson formula 20' by Ebel (1979) more reasonably preferred to

be called Cronbach alpha or alpha coefficient because it considers variances of each

29
item unlike Kuder-Richardson formula 20 which considers variances of subsections in

the total test (Ebel 1991). In addition, item discrimination power for each item was

determined in order to select good items for the main study and/or to modify bad

items accordingly. Moreover, during the pilot study, some of the results like zero-order

correlation, attitudinal and motivational differences by sex, place of residence and

mother tongue had been computed (by using t-test).

On the cover page of the attitude scale and motivation questionnaire, about 11 items

were prepared and presented to gather some information about the students'

personal background. Out of this personal information, two of the variables other than

attitude and motivation, sex and place of residence were collected from this part of

the data. That is, the sex and place of residence of the respondents are coded 0 and

1 since they were dummy variables.

Before implementing the major study, a pilot study was conducted in other schools,

which were not part of the main study. The pilot study helped to examine the

instrument of the study and thereby to improve the items according to the feedback.

For the pilot study 43 students from grade 7 and 30 students from grade 8, or in terms

of sex, 34 female and 39 male students were involved (i.e. 73 students for the whole

pilot study).

3.3. Data Analysis

As major statistical technique, linear multiple regression analysis was conducted. To

carry out this technique, the linearity and normality of the distribution was analyzed by

30
using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) computer program. That is, by

using SPSS program the scatter plot of predicted values against residuals was drawn

to see the trend of linearity and absence of curvilinearity, the existence of outliers,

heteroscedasticity and the like. Students' two semesters average scores of Sidama

language of grades 6 and 7 was considered as a dependent variable. And students'

attitude scores, motivation scores, sex, and place of residence were employed as

independent variables. This method was used to investigate the joint effect of the

predictor variables on criterion variable, that is, to determine the strength of estimate

of all independent variables on dependent variable. In addition, stepwise (forward)

multiple regression analysis was employed to examine the independent contribution

of each variable. In other words, it was used to determine how much of each

independent variable adds to the estimation of dependent variable. In the mean time,

F-test was carried out to find out the significance of the contribution of each

independent variable. It also helped to learn the significance of the combination effect

of all independent variables.

Mean differences by sex, across the variables (attitude, motivation, and achievement)

were examined by using t-test to investigate attitudinal, motivational and achievement

differences between boys and girls.

Similarly, mean differences by place of residence across the variables (attitude,

motivation and achievement) were examined by using t-test so as to identify

differences between students who dwell in urban and rural areas.

31
The t-test was computed to test achievement difference with respect to high and low

attitude towards mother tongue instruction. In this case, the upper and the lower 25%

attitude scores were taken into account. That is, the mean and variance of the

achievement scores corresponding to the upper and lower group of the attitude

scores were separately computed. To carry out the analysis, the SPSS program was

employed.

Furthermore, causal relationship model was hypothesized and path analysis was

carried out in order to determine direct and indirect effects. Meanwhile, the

consistency of the model with the sample data was confirmed on the basis of path

analysis technique. On the basis of path analysis technique (by using path

coefficients), the causal model was reconstructed. The paths with significantly low

coefficient identified by broken lines while the paths with strong coefficients were

identified by hard lines. And magnitude of direct and indirect relationships was

indicated on the new causal model. The coefficients of determination were calculated

to show the extent of effects of extraneous or unmeasured variables on the

endogenous dependent and independent variables. In view of path analysis, spurious

relationship of each variable with the criterion variable was computed. This helped to

depict the deceiving nature of zero-order relationship due to redundancy of

intercorrelations among independent variables so that it would clear the cloud of the

effects of independent variables.

And finally, the major factors affecting attitude towards mother tongue instruction was

analyzed with percentage and point-biserial correlation to assist the weakness of

32
percentage. According to Ebel (1991) the point-biserial coefficients are used as

discrimination indices between two variables like score on test item and score on the

total test. That is why point-biserial correlation is also called item-test correlation. The

factors that were considered as major causes for the development of negative attitude

towards the use of vernaculars as medium of instruction were incorporated in the

attitude questionnaire as independent items. So to differentiate the significance of

contribution of each item to the total test score, item-test correlation is suitable index.

3.4. Variables

3.4.1. Dependent variable: The dependent variable used in the study was

Sidama language achievement score. The Sidama language exam

results or the cumulative averages of one year (of 1993 E.C.) were

collected from the record offices of the schools.

3.4.2. Independent variables: The independent variables instituted in this

study were two types: namely, sex and place of residences, which were

those variables that were collected from biographical data of the

respondent; and attitude and motivation scores, which were gathered

through students' self-response to the attitude scale and motivation

questionnaire.

33
The linear regression equation that was employed in the study is presented as

follows:

Y' = α + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4

Where: Y' = criterion variable (Sidama language achievement score)

X1 = attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction

X2 = place of residence (dichotomized as rural/urban and coded as

rural = 0, and urban = 1)

X3 = sex (coded as male = 1, and female = 0)

X4 = motivation to learn Sidama language and/or use it as a medium of

instruction

3.5. The Hypothesized Causal Model

Attitude
towards
Sex mother
tongue Sidama
instruction language
achievement

Place of
Motivation
residence

Fig.3.1. Hypothetical Causal Relationship among Sex, Place of Residence, Attitude,

Motivation and Achievement

34
Where: Sex Exogenous variables
Place of residence

Attitude
Endogenous independent variables
Motivation

Achievement Endogenous dependent variable

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In this chapter the pilot and main study findings will be presented.

4.1. Results of the Pilot Study

The pilot study was conducted on 73 students (34 females and 39 males) of grades 7

and 8 at Awassa Hayk Elementary and Junior Secondary School. The school is one

of the junior schools at Awassa town. The main purpose of the study was to identify

and test the psychometric qualities of the research instruments. That is, to determine

the reliability coefficients of the instruments and to find out item discrimination power.

Secondly, the pilot study was aimed at identifying any construction problems and

thereby sharpening the instruments for the study.

4.1.1. Reliability and Validity of the Instruments

The reliability of the instrument was determined by the split half and Kuder-

Richardson methods. As the split-half method indicates the reliability coefficients of

the attitude questionnaire was 0.88 and that of the motivation questionnaire was 0.87.

Similarly, as to Kuder-Richardson method depicted, the reliability coefficient of both

attitude and motivation questionnaire was 0.87, which means almost the same result

with that of split-half method. That is, the reliability coefficients of both instruments

were very high (see Appendix 1, Tables 1 and 2). Regarding validity of the

instruments, one can comment only about content validity. This kind of validity is not

36
statistical but experts could judge it. Therefore to keep the content validity of the

instruments, the items of each instrument were adopted from relevant standardized

tests and from some other questionnaires developed by investigators. The motivation

questionnaire was adopted from R. C. Gardner's "The Attitude/Motivation Test

Battery: Technical Report (1985)," which was requested by the researcher and used

by the permission of the author. In addition, the attitude questionnaire was adopted

from Taylor's (1973) Language Attitude Scale, Hofman and Cais's (1984) Language

maintenance and shift questionnaire, Fasold's (1984) and Bull's (1964) comment on

Unesco's committee report, and Zughoul and Taminian's (1984) language attitude

questionnaire.

4.1.2. The Discrimination Power of the Items

Regarding attitude questionnaire, out of 36-attitude items, item numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 10,

12, 23, 24, and 32 were with low discrimination power (see Appendix 1, Table 3).

Especially item number 12 discriminated negatively. Therefore, item numbers 1 and

12 were discarded and item numbers 2, 3, 5, 10, 23, 24, and 32 were discarded or

modified. But for high reliability coefficient of the instrument as we have seen above

(0.88), all the items with low discrimination indices were modified and the final

questionnaire of the main study also contains 36 items.

Regarding motivation questionnaire, item numbers 11, 12, 18 and 19 were with low

discrimination power (see Appendix 1, Table 4). Item number 12 would be discarded

due to zero discrimination indexes. Whereas item numbers 11, 18 and 19 were

37
modified; however, all the items were retained with the necessary modifications

because of high reliability coefficient of the instrument.

4.1.3. The Relationship between Attitude and Motivation of Students towards

Mother Tongue Instruction

The zero order correlation coefficient of attitude and motivation scores was 0.69. That

is, the relationship between attitude and motivation of students towards mother

tongue instruction was moderate. This shows that those students who had positive

attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction were motivated to learn in

Sidama language.

4.1.4. Attitudinal and Motivational Differences by Sex, Place of Residence, and

Mother Tongue

There was no significant difference between rural and urban dwellers regarding

attitude and motivation towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71) = 1.83, p>0.05)

and (t(0.05/2, 71) = 1.19, p>0.05) respectively (see Appendix 1, Tables 5 and 6).

There was no significant difference between male and female students' attitudes and

motivation towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71) = -0.69, p>0.05) and (t(0.05/2, 71)

= 0.51, p>0.05) respectively (see Appendix 1, Tables 7 and 8).

There was significant difference between students whose mother tongue is Sidama

and non-Sidama with respect to attitude towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71)

= -2.54, p<0.05) (see Appendix 1, Table 9). But there was no significant difference

38
between students whose mother tongue is Sidama and non-Sidama with respect to

motivation towards mother tongue instruction (t(0.05/2, 71) = -1.99, p>0.05) (see

Appendix 1, Table 10).

4.2. Results of the Main Study

As to the main purpose of the study, the result focuses on the relationship between

academic achievement and students' attitude and motivation towards vernacular

language as a medium of instruction. And sex and place of residence were

considered as secondary variables in the investigation.

To achieve the objective of the study two types of questionnaire were used. The first

questionnaire deals with attitude and the other with motivation of students towards

mother tongue instruction. The other two variables: sex and place of residence were

obtained from the respondents' background information whereas the achievement

data were taken from the record offices.

Since all the data are numeric and are suitable to feed to the computer, the SPSS

was used to analyze the data. According to these analyses, the results are presented

as follows:

39
4.2.1. The Frequency Histogram and the Scatter Plot that Shows the Test
for Adequacy of the Regression Model Used in the Analysis

50

40

30

20
Frequency

10
Std. Dev = .99
Mean = 0.00
0 N = 391.00
-2

-2

-1

-1

-.7

-.2

.2

.7

1.

1.

2.

2.
5

25

75

25

75
.7

.2

.7

.2

5
5

Regression Standardized Residual

Fig.4.1. Frequency Histogram Showing Residual Distribution

40
 4

-1
Achievement

-2

-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Regression Studentized Deleted (Pr ess) Residual

Fig.4.2. The Scatter Plot of the Predicted Scores Against the Residuals

As we can observe from Fig. 4.1 and 4.2, the trends of graphs show normality and

linearity assumptions respectively. In addition, Fig. 4.2 indicates the absence of major

sources of inadequacy of the regression model, curvilinearity, the existence of

outliers, heteroscedasticity and the like. Therefore, the actual regression model that

was employed to the task of describing the data and projecting the description to the

population was appropriate.

41
4.2.2. Descriptive Statistics

Table 4.1. The Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Considered in the Study (N =

391)

Statistics

Range of scores

Variables Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Sex - - - -

POR - - - -

Att. 116.08 19.28 65.00 168.00

Mot. 40.53 4.84 21.00 48.00

Ach. 0.293 0.998 -2.46 3.03

Note: POR = The respondents' place of residence

Att. = Students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction

Mot. = Students' motivation towards mother tongue instruction

Ach. = Students' achievement scores on Sidama language in terms of z-score

42
4.2.3. Sex Differences on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

Table 4.2. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls on Attitude,
Motivation and Achievement
Male (n = 205) Female (n = 186)
Variables M SD M SD t p
Att. 117.68 20.45 114.21 17.78 -1.784 0.075
Mot. 40.60 4.87 40.46 4.82 -0.281 0.779
Ach. .483 10.04 .082 .951 -4.046 0.000

Note: Att. = Attitude Mot. = Motivation Ach. = Achievement

As we can see from Table 4.2 the mean scores of male and female students of

grades 7 and 8 on attitude and motivation were not significantly different at t(α/2, 389) = -

1.784, p>.075 and t ((α/2, 389) = -0.281, p>.779 respectively. Where as the mean scores

of male and female students of grades 7 and 8 on achievement were significantly

different at (t((α/2, 389) = -4.046, p<.000), showing that the boys have high achievement

scores than girls.

The result shows that both males and females of grades 7 and 8 have the same

attitude and motivation towards mother tongue instruction though they differ in

academic achievement of Sidama language.

43
4.2.4. Attitudinal Orientation of Students towards Sidama Language as Medium

of Instruction

Table 4.3. Chi-square Test between Students Grouped under Positive (above the

Neutral Score) and Negative (below the Neutral Score) with Regard to

Attitude towards Sidama Language as Media of Instruction

Positive (above the Negative (below the χ2 Sig.

neutral score) neutral score)
Observed 265 126 49.414 .000
Expected 195.5 195.5

Note: The neutral scores (108) added to the negative side since the score was low

The result indicates that the number of students in the upper group (those students

who had been considered to had positive attitude) significantly different from the

number of students in the lower group (those students who had been considered to

had negative attitude) at χ2 = 49.414, p < .000. This indicates that those students who

had positive attitude were more than those who had negative attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction. Furthermore, more significant result would be

achieved if we use the method of liquidating neutral scores (Babbie, 1995: 381-384)

into both positive and negative sides instead of adding them to negative side only

(see Appendix 2, Table 2).

44
4.2.5. Place of Residence and Differences on Attitude, Motivation and
Achievement

Table 4.4. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Boys and Girls on Attitude,
Motivation and Achievement.

Urban (n = 221) Rural (n = 170)

Variables M SD M SD t p
Att. 112.40 19.36 120.76 18.17 4.344 .000
Mot. 39.74 5.27 41.56 4.00 3.754 .000
Ach. 0.056 0.975 0.598 0.946 5.518 .000

Note: Att. = Attitude Mot. = Motivation Ach. = Achievement

As Table 4.4 indicates the mean scores of urban and rural students of grades 7 and 8

on attitude, motivation and achievement were significantly different at t (α/2, 389) =

4.344, 3.754, 5.518, p < .000 respectively. This shows that those students who dwell

in the rural part scored higher in attitude, motivation and achievement than those who

dwell in urban areas.

45
4.2.6. Achievement Differences of Students with Low/High Attitude and with

Low/High Motivation

Table 4.5. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of Achievement for Students with

Low/High Attitude and Motivation towards Mother Tongue Instruction with

Respect to Upper and Lower 25%

Achievement
Variables Group No. M SD t p
Att. Lower 98* 0.003 0.901
Upper 98* 0.788 0.931 -5.997 .000
Mot. Lower 98* -0.078 0.861
Upper 98* 0.501 1.045 -4.236 .000

* The lower and upper 25% of the 391 respondents who scored low and high on
attitude and motivation with respect to achievement are equal (98 persons)

From Table 4.5, the mean score of achievement of students who scored high and low

on attitude scale differ to a statistically significant extent at t(α/2, 194) = -5.997, p<.000.

This indicates that those students who have high attitude towards mother tongue as a

medium of instruction have a high achievement on Sidama language.

Likewise, the mean score of achievement of students who scored low and high on

motivation scale differ to a statistically significant level at t(α/2, 194) = -4.236, p<.000.

This shows that those students of grades 7 and 8 who have high motivation towards

mother tongue instruction are superior in Sidama language achievement than those

who have low motivation.

46
To strengthen this result, comparison of means were undertaken to test achievement

differences of students with low and high attitude and motivation with consideration of

the median score (i.e. with respect to the upper and lower 50%). The result was

exactly similar with Table 4.5 above (see Appendix 2, Table 1).

4.2.7. Mother Tongue and other Language Differences on Attitude, Motivation

and Achievement

Table 4.6. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values for Sidama and other Language

Speakers as Mother Tongue on Attitude, Motivation and Achievement

Sidama mother Others (n = 140)

tongue (n = 251) t p
Variables M SD M SD
Att. 122.04 17.83 105.26 17.01 -9.065 .000
Mot. 41.82 3.86 38.24 5.53 -7.497 .000
Ach. .6156 .9269 -.2889 .8491 -9.529 .000

As Table 4.6 indicates the mean scores of Sidama mother tongue speakers and other

language speakers of grades 7 and 8 students were significantly different with regard

to attitude, motivation and achievement in favor of Sidama language speakers (t (α/2,

389) = -9.065, -7.497, -9.529, p < .000 respectively). This shows that Sidama language

speakers had favorable attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction

than other language speakers. This in turn perhaps helped them to be more

motivated to use and learn Sidama in classroom situation.

47
4.2.8. Correlation Analysis of Variables in the Study for the Pooled Subjects

Table 4.7. Means, Standard Deviations and the Zero-Order Correlation Matrix of the

Variables in the Study for the Pooled Subjects

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Sex - -
2. POR - - -.195**
3. Att. 116.08 19.28 .090✝ -.215**
4. Mot. 40.53 4.84 .014✝ -.187** .363**
5. Ach. 52.92 9.98 .201** -.269** .290** .241**

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

✝Correlation is not significant

As Table 4.7 shows attitude was positively and significantly related with Sidama

language achievement (r = .290, p<.01) revealing that those students who have

positive attitude towards Sidama language as instructional media scored high on that

language. Likewise, sex was positively and significantly related with achievement (r =

.201, p<0.01). To clarify this kind of relationship, correlation coefficient only is not

enough because the types of variables are different. That is sex is dichotomous

whereas achievement is continuous. So in order to see the relationship between such

kinds of variables, difference of means or other kind of statistical analysis should be

carried out as we have seen on Table 4.2 above. As to Table 4.2, boys scored high

on Sidama language than girls, since the mean score of boys was high. Table 4.7

also shows that sex has negative and significant relationship with place of residence

(r = -0.195, p<0.01) and the correlations of sex with attitude and motivation were

48
positive and not statistically significant (r = 0.090, p>0.01 and r = .014, p>0.01

respectively).

In contrast, place of residence was negatively and significantly related with attitude,

motivation and achievement (r = -0.215, p<0.01, r = -0.187, p<0.01 and r = -0.269, p<

0.01 respectively). The relationship has similar interpretation with Table 4.4 since the

interrelationship among the variables is a kind of dichotomous and continuous.

And finally, the relationship between achievement and motivation was positive and

statistically significant (r = .241, p<.01). This shows that those students with high

motivation score high grades or those students who have low motivation, score low

on Sidama language. Furthermore, the relationship between attitude and motivation

was positive and significant (r = .363, p<.01). This reveals that those students who

have high attitude towards mother tongue instruction are also highly motivated to use

mother tongue as medium of instruction.

49
4.2.9. Correlation Analysis of the Variables in the Study for Sex Subgroups

Table 4.8. Correlation Matrix of the Variables Treated for Sex Subgroup

Variables 1 2 3 4
1. POR -.297** -.318** -.255**
2. Att. -.076✝ .484** .354**
3. Mot. -.034✝ .210** .194**
4. Ach. -.221** .178* .301**

Note: The correlation coefficients above the main diagonal are for males and below

the diagonal are for females.

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

✝Correlation is not significant

As Table 4.8 indicates achievement was positively and significantly related with

attitude for both boys and girls (r = 0.354, p<0.01 and r = 0.178, p<0.05 respectively).

That is, those students who have high attitude towards mother tongue instruction

were superior in Sidama language achievement. Similarly, achievement was

positively and significantly related with motivation for both boys and girls (r = .194,

p<.01 and r = .301, p<.01 respectively). This reveals that those students who are

highly motivated in learning in Sidama language are superior in Sidama language

achievement.

50
Secondly, the relationship between attitude and motivation for both males and

females was positive and significant (r = .484, p<.01 and r = .210, p<.01 respectively).

This indicates that high attitude on mother tongue instruction describe high motivation

for both sexes.

Finally, the relationship between place of residence and attitude, motivation and

achievement for boys was negative and significant (r = -.297, p<.01, r = -.318, p<.01

and r = -.255, p<.01 respectively), whereas for girls place of residence related with

attitude and motivation negatively but not statistically significant. In the mean time

place of residence for girls related with achievement negatively at a statistically

significant level (r = -0.076, p>0.01, r = -0.034, p>0.01 and r = -0.221, p<0.01

respectively).

51
4.2.10. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the Study for the Pooled

Subjects

0.148

0.05 Att. (X3)

Sex R2 = 0.049
(X1)
0.189
-0.040 Ach. (X5)
0.340 R2 = 0.165

-0.205 0.138
POR
Mot. (X4)
(X2)
R2 = 0.146
-0.122

-0.174

Fig.4.3. A Path Model Portraying Causal Relationships among Sex, Place of

Residence, Attitude, Motivation and Achievement for Pooled Samples (N =
391)
Note: Path coefficients are standardized betas (β's);
Dotted lines indicate path coefficients not statistically significant.

52
Table 4.9. Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis

Effect Standardized coefficients R2 t p

(Betas)
On Achievement - 0.165 .000
Sex 0.148 3.114 .002
POR -0.174 -3.568 .000
Att. 0.189 3.729 .000
Mot. 0.138 2.740 .006
On Attitude - 0.049 .000
Sex 0.050 - 0.992 .322
POR -0.205 - -4.067 .000
On Motivation - 0.146 .000
Sex -0.040 - -0.837 .403
POR -0.122 - -2.486 .013
Attitude 0.340 - 7.062 .000

Note:

✒ Table 4.9 shows what is presented on Fig. 4.3 except t-value and its

significance correspondingly

✒ N = 391

As we can observe from Fig. 4.3 and Table 4.9, the effect of sex on achievement (β =

0.148, t = 3.114, p<0.002), attitude on achievement (β = 0.189, t = 3.729, p<0.000),

and motivation on achievement (β = 0.138, t = 2.740, p<.006) were positive and

statistically significant. However, the effect of place of residence on achievement (β =

-0.174, t = -3.568, p<0.000) was negative and statistically significant. This shows that

positive statistically significant path coefficients predict that the independent variables

have positive relationships with the dependent variable. That is sex, attitude and

motivation are indicators of Sidama language achievement. On the other hand,

53
negative statistically significant coefficients predict that the predictor variable has

negative relationship with the criterion variable. That is, in the case of coded

variables, if those variables that were given code "1" correlate with high scores, the

coefficients will be positive and if those variables coded "0" associated with high

scores the coeficients will be negative. This means that place of residence also is

indicator of Sidama language achievement. Meanwhile the effect of place of

residence on attitude (β = -0.205, t = -4.067, p<0.000) was negative and statistically

significant. While on the contrary the effect of sex on attitude (β = 0.050, t = 0.992,

p>0.322) was positive and not statistically significant. The effect of place of residence

on motivation (β = -0.122, t = -2.486, p<.013) was negative and statistically

significant, and attitude on motivation (β = 0.340, t = 7.062, p<.000) was positive and

statistically significant. In the meantime the effect of sex on motivation (β = -0.040, t =

-0.837, p>0.403) was negative and not significant. This indicates that there is no sex

differences on attitude and motivation (see Appendix 1, Table 8 and 9) whereas place

of residence creates difference on attitude and motivation of students (rural dwellers

exceed on attitude and motivation) (see Appendix 1, Table 6 and 7). Similarly we can

predict students' motivation on Sidama language from their attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction.

54
4.2.11. Combined and Independent Contributions of Predictor Variables

Table 4.10. ANOVA Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis

Model SS df MS F Sig.
1 Regression 3262.805 1 3262.805 35.663 .000
Residual 35589.503 389 91.490
Total 38852.308 390
2 Regression 5010.144 2 2505.072 28.721 .000
Residual 33842.164 388 87.222
Total 38852.308 390
3 Regression 5767.193 3 1922.398 22.486 .000
Residual 33085.115 387 85.491
Total 38852.308
4 Regression 6398.288 4 1599.572 19.025 .000
Residual 32454.020 386 84.078
Total 38852.308 390

Notes:

Model 1. Attitude scores

2. Attitude scores, Place of residence

3. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex

4. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex, Motivation scores

Dependent Variable: Achievement

55
 Table 4.11. Model Summary Table for Multiple Regression Analysis

Combined effect Independent Change Statistics

contribution
R R2 df1 df2 F Sig. F Model R R2 R2 F df1 df2 Sig. F
Change Change Change Change
.406 .165 4 386 19.025 .000 1 .290 .084 .084 35.663 1 389 .000
2 .359 .129 .045 20.033 1 388 .000
3 .385 .148 .019 8.855 1 387 .003
4 .406 .165 .016 7.506 1 386 .006

Notes:

Model 1. Attitude scores

2. Attitude scores, Place of residence

3. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex

4. Attitude scores, Place of residence, Sex, Motivation scores

Dependent Variable: Achievement

The combined effect of sex, place of residence, attitude and motivation explained

16.5% of the total variability in Sidama language achievement (F(4, 386) = 19.025,

p<.000). That is, variables other than those considered in this study accounted for by

83.5% of the variability in students' Sidama language achievement. Therefore this

indicates the presence of other ample unmeasured causes of Sidama language

achievement other than the variables considered in the study.

56
As stepwise regression analysis indicates the independent contribution of each

independent variable (sex, place of residence, attitude and motivation) to Sidama

language achievement was as follows: attitude towards language added significantly

to the prediction of Sidama language achievement (F(1,389) = 35.663, p<.000),

accounting for 8.4% of the variance. The addition of place of residence to the original

equation (attitude towards language) added significantly to the predication of Sidama

language achievement (F(2,388) = 28.721, p<.000), accounting for 12.9% of the

variance. The addition of sex to the original equation (attitude towards language and

place of residence) added significantly to the predication of Sidama language

achievement (F(3, 387) = 22.486, p<.000), accounting for 14.8% of the variance. And

finally, the addition of motivation to the original equation (attitude towards language,

place of residence, and sex) added significantly to the predication of Sidama

language achievement (F(4, 386) = 19.025, p<.000), accounting for 16.5% of the

variance. That is each independent variable had significant contribution for Sidama

language achievement. In other words, as the change statistics shows attitude

towards Sidama language independently contributed 8.4% to the model (F(1,389) =

35.663, p<.000), place of residence independently contributed 4.5% to the model

(F(1,388) = 20.033, p<.000), sex independently contributed 1.9% to the model (F(1,387) =

8.855, p<.000), and motivation independently contributed 1.6% to the model (F(1,386) =

7.506, p<.000) and all of which were statistically significant.

57
4.2.12. Summary of Direct, Indirect, and Spurious Effects on Achievement

Table 4.12. Direct, Indirect, and Spurious Effects on Achievement

Zero- Spurious Direct Indirect Total

order (β
β)
Sex
Via Mot. (-0.040 X 0.138) -0.006
Via Att. [(0.05 X 0.011
.189)+(0.05 X 0.34
X 0.138)]
0.201 0.048 0.148 0.005 0.153

POR
Via Mot. (-0.122 X 0.138) -0.017
Via Att. [(-0.205 X -0.049
0.189)+(-0.205 X
0.34 X 0.138)
-0.269 0.029 -0.174 -0.066 -0.240

Att
Via Mot. (0.34 X 0.138) 0.047
0.290 0.054 0.189 0.047 0.236

Mot. 0.241 0.103 0.138 - 0.138

As Table 4.12 indicates the direct effect of attitude was stronger on achievement than

that of other variables. The next strong direct effect that we see on achievement was

by place of residence. The direct effect of sex and motivation on achievement follows

the subsequent order respectively. On the other hand in the case of total effect place

of residence takes the leading position and then attitude, sex and motivation follow

58
succeeding order respectively. Even though the direct effect of sex, place of

residence, attitude and motivation on achievement are statistically significant, as we

have seen on Fig. 4.3 above, each independent variable was spuriously related with

the criterion variable due to common causes. That is, firstly in the case of sex, out of

the total effect (0.153), 0.148 or about 96.73% was direct and the rest 3.27% was

indirect. In respect to zero-order relationship with achievement, about 23.88% was

spurious due to significant correlation with place of residence (r = -0.195, p<.01).

Secondly, relatively speaking, place of residence is less spuriously related with

achievement at about 10.78%. However there was significant correlation with sex,

attitude (r = -0.215, p<.01), and motivation (r = -0.187, p<.01) (see Table 4.6). Out of

the total effect of place of residence on achievement (-0.240), 72.5% were direct and

27.5% were indirect. Thirdly, attitude had 80.08% direct and 19.92% indirect effect on

achievement. And it was spuriously related with achievement (0.054) or about

18.62% of the zero-order relationship were spurious due to significant correlation with

place of residence (the correlation indicated above), and motivation (r = 0.363,

p<.01). And finally, motivation had only direct effect on achievement (0.138) and

about 42.74% of its zero-order relationship was spurious, due to significant correlation

with attitude and place of residence.

59
4.2.13. Causal Relationship of the Variables Treated in the Study for the Sex
Subgroups

-0.204

-0.166

-0.076 0.105
Att. (X2)
[R2 = 0.006]
R2 = 0.088
-0.297 0.309
Ach. (X4)
POR [R2 = 0.146]
(X1) 0.208 R2 = 0.150
0.427

0.272
-0.018 Mot. (X3)
[R2 = 0.044]
R2 = 0.268
-0.008
-0.192

Fig.4.4. A Path Model Displaying Causal Relationships among, Place of Residence,

Attitude, Motivation and Achievement for Sex Subgroups (N = 391)

Notes:

✒ Path coefficients (β's) above the path lines are for girls and coefficients below

the path lines are for boys (n = 186 and n = 205 respectively)

✒ The top path lines refer to girls and the bottom path lines refer to boys.

✒ Dotted lines indicate path coefficients not statistically significant, while the solid

lines indicate the path coefficients that are significant.

✒ Coefficients of determination (R2) in the parentheses are for females and

outside the parentheses are for males.

60
Table 4.13. Decomposition of Effects from the Path Analysis for Sex Subgroups

Effect Standardized R2 t p
coefficients
(βs)
On Achievement 0.146[0.150]
POR -0.204[-0.166] -2.966[-2.267] .003[.018]
Att. 0.105[0.309] 1.502[4.092] .135[.000]
Mot. 0.272[-0.008] 3.888[-0.111] .000[.912]
On Attitude 0.006[0.088]
POR -0.076[-0.297] -1.033[-4.424] .303[.000]
On Motivation 0.044[0.268]
POR -0.018[-0.192] -0.251[-3.042] .802[.003]
Attitude 0.208[0.427] 2.876[6.775] .005[.000]

Notes:
✒ The numbers in the parentheses are for boys and out side the parentheses are

for girls

✒ Table 4.13 shows what is presented on Fig. 4.4 except t-value and its

significance correspondingly

As indicated on Fig. 4.4 above, the direct effect of place of residence on achievement

for both boys and girls were β = -0.204, t = -2.966, p<.003 and β = -0.166, t = -2.267,

p<.018 respectively. That is, for both sex subgroups were negative and statistically

significant. In other words, the contribution of the sex subgroups on achievement was

equally significant. Similarly, the direct effect of attitude on motivation for both females

and males were statistically significant (β = 0.208, t = 2.876, p<.005 and β = 0.427, t =

6.775, p<.000 ) respectively. However, the significant direct effect of place of

residence on motivation that was observed on Fig. 4.3 above was due to the

significant contribution of males' effect. This means that the direct effect of place of

61
residence on motivation for boys was statistically significant (β = -0.192, t = -3.042,

p<.003) but for girls was not significant (β = -0.018, t = -0.251, p>.802). In a like

manner, the significant direct effect of attitude on achievement that was observed on

Fig. 4.3 above was due to the significant contribution of boys' effect. That is, the direct

effect of attitude on achievement for boys was significant (β = 0.309, t = 4.092, p <

.000), in contrast, for girls was not significant (β = 0.105, t = 1.502, p > .135). As path

analysis further depicts, the significant direct effect of motivation on achievement that

was observed on Fig. 4.3 above was due to the significant contribution of females'

effect. This means that the direct effect of motivation on achievement for females was

significant (β = 0.272, t = 3.888, p<.000), but for boys it was not significant (β = -

0.008, t = -0.111, p>.912).

The coefficient of determination associated with the model for boys as stepwise

regression analysis indicates, place of residence, and attitude together accounted for

15% of the explained variance of achievement. That is, motivation had contributed

none. Meanwhile, the coefficient of determination associated with the model for girls

indicates that, place of residence, attitude and motivation together accounted for by

14.6% of the total variance of achievement. Out of this, motivation and place of

residence together contributed 13.5%, and attitude contributed only 1.1%. From this

we conclude that place of residence was strong predicator of achievement than the

other variables for both sex subgroups.

62
4.2.14. Impediments Affecting the Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction

Table 4.14. Point-Biserial Coefficient Indices and Agreement and Disagreement

Response Distribution on Some Selected Items That Show the Major

Causes for Negative Attitude towards Mother Tongue Instruction

Negative factors affecting individuals' Item-test Agree Disagree

Item
No. attitude in using vernacular language as correlation

medium of instruction coefficients

28 Lack of textbooks and other educational 0.33 55% 45%

materials
29 Lack of general reading materials 0.31 58.15% 41.85%

30 A shortage of trained teachers 0.26 59% 41%

31 Inadequacy of vocabulary 0.44 52% 48%

34 The writing system of many languages 0.55 52% 48%

does not agree with the pressing need
of the modern world

As we can see from Table 4.14, "A shortages of trained teachers" (r = 0.26 or 59%)

and "Lack of general reading materials" (r = 0.31 or 58.15%) were the most important

factors that lead students towards negative attitude. "Lack of textbooks and other

educational materials" (r = 0.33 or 55%) was a bit lesser cause for negative attitude.

The third and fourth crucial factors that affect the students' attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction negatively were "Inadequacy of vocabulary" (r =

0.44 or 52%) and "The problem of disagreement of writing system with the modern

63
world" (r = 0.55 or 52%) respectively (See Appendix 2, Table 2 for untreated

responses). To clear the cloud, according to Ebel (1991) high positive correlation

coefficients are obtained for items that high-scoring students on the test tend to get

highest weight (item weight = above 3) and low-scoring students on the test tend to

get low weight (item weight = below 3). The high score in this study indicates positive

attitude and low score indicates negative attitude due to the weight assigned to the

items. Therefore the low correlation coefficient could indicate more significant

contribution for negative attitude.

64
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

The main purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between students'

attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction and their academic

achievement on that language. To handle this problem zero-order correlation

coefficients across the variables were calculated and comparisons of means among

students who scored low and high on attitude with respect to achievement were

computed. The secondary purpose of the study was to investigate the sex difference

on attitude towards mother tongue instruction. Path analysis and comparisons of

means among sex subgroups with respect to attitude were carried out. Thirdly the

combined and independent contribution of each variable to Sidama language

achievement and the relationship among the variables in the study were investigated

through multiple regression and the path analysis techniques. And finally, the major

causes for negative attitude towards vernacular language as instructional medium

were also identified.

4.1. The Relationship between Students' Attitude towards Sidama Language as

a Medium of Instruction and Sidama Language Achievement

As the test of means differences indicate positive relationship between students'

attitude towards Sidama language as a medium of instruction and achievement was

evident. Those students who had positive attitude scored higher in Sidama language

65
than those who had negative attitude (t(194) = -5.997, p < .000). Likewise the

comparison of means on the basis of above and below the median score showed

similar result that students with positive attitude towards Sidama language as medium

of instruction scored high on Sidama language (t(388) = -5.929, p < .000). The zero-

order correlation also indicated that attitude related positively and significantly with

achievement (r = 0.290, p < .01).

The finding is congruent with some available foreign studies. According to Fasold

(1984) even though there are no abundant studies on the area - attitude towards

mother tongue - there is some evidence that language attitude may influence

learning. However, studies were conducted mainly on attitude towards second

language, the learners' attitudes toward the language that they are learning affect

their academic progress. As to Fasold, not only students' attitude but also teachers'

attitudes toward language of instruction affect students' academic performance. On

the other hand, as for Nunan and Lamb (1996), in the condition of a learner's negative

attitude towards language, learning can be handicapped or even tend to be impotent.

From this result we can deduce some possible explanation about the relationship

between attitude and achievement. In the first place, as many social psychologists

agree, attitude is an internal state that affects any overt behavior; it can negotiate the

students' response toward learning by their own vernacular language. Secondly,

favoring native language is due to sentimentalism (Hofman & Cais, 1984; Zughoul &

Taminian, 1984; Baker, 1988; R. C. Gardner as cited by Berry, 1992). Such

66
'emotionalized attitude' encompasses very strong feeling that motivates and triggers

the individual to perform better than those who have negative and/or neutral attitude.

4.2. Sex Differences on Attitude towards Sidama Language as Medium of

Instruction

When pooled subjects are considered, the comparison of means for the main study

agreed with the pilot study that girls attitude towards Sidama language (M = 114.21)

was not significantly different from that of boys (M = 117.68, t(389) = -1.784, p > .075).

Similarly, path analysis shows that the effect of sex on attitude was not significant for

pooled subjects (β = 0.050, t = 0.992, p > .322). Once the effect for pooled subject

was not statistically significant, it is known that the effect of sex by subgroup would

not be significant. This result contradicts the study conducted by Sharp as cited in

Baker (1988). According to Sharp and his colleagues, attitude towards language

varies by gender. That is, the study conducted about attitude towards Welsh

language revealed that girls had more favorable attitude towards Welsh than boys

did. Regarding second language learning, according to the study conducted by

Gardner and Lambert as reviewed by Bacon (1992), females were found to have

more positive attitude towards speakers of the target language. Besides, as Bacon

examined the study by Muchnick and Wolfe, gender difference has been found in

language attitude. Furthermore, Ludwig has reported significant difference between

male and female university students with regard to language attitude as cited in

Bacon (1992).

67
From this we can draw some possible explanation. In the first place, in our case the

study was conducted on mother tongue since it would have equal feelings for both

girls and boys. It is expected that attitude towards mother tongue develops from early

childhood and it gets deep rooted in course of development. It develops as strong

feeling with out sex variations as 'an important component of culture, and as

remarkable feature of the individual's social, cultural or ethnic identity' (Hamers &

Blanc, 2000).

Unlike sex similarities in attitude and motivation, there was achievement difference

between male and female students of grades 7 and 8 of the Zone in favor of males (M

= 0.483, t = -4.046, p < .000). This result is incompatible with that of many authorities

who consistently agreed on achievement differences of boys and girls with regard to

verbal and quantitative tasks. That is, as to Eccles (1984) though such kinds of

differences were very small, girls usually accomplish better than boys on verbal

duties, whereas boys accomplish better than girls on quantitative duties. But as to

Matlin (1996) boys can perform better than girls in verbal tasks if contents like science

and business that favor males are included. The research result which agreed with

Matlin's view, where male students of grades 7 and 8 of the Zone surpassed female

students might be due to the nature of contents included in tests rather than the true

inherent ability differences of boys and girls.

68
5.3. Place of Residence Differences on Attitude towards Sidama Language as

Medium of Instruction

Unlike the pilot study result, comparison of means for the main study indicates that

rural dweller students of grades 7 and 8 of the Sidama Zone had more positive

attitude towards Sidama language as medium of instruction than that of urban

dwellers (M = 120.76, t = 4.344, p < .000). This result agreed with the study

conducted on Welsh language as reviewed by Baker (1988), which revealed that the

length of residence could affect language attitude (a less favorable attitude tends to

be held by immigrants). This was because of those immigrants who came from other

communities that speak different languages other than Welsh. Likewise in the case of

this study the reason that urban dwellers had less favorable attitude towards Sidama

language as instructional media might be due to the number of different languages

spoken in towns. Secondly the effect of globalization, TV, contact with diversified

ethnic groups, loss identification with their ethnic identity, mixed cultural exposure and

the like could have negative impact on urban students' attitude. On the other hand,

those students of rural parts had no other chance of speaking other languages widely

in community than Sidama language, except Amharic and English in the classroom

as medium of instruction. So students of the rural parts of the Zone prefer Sidama to

express themselves and use it as medium of instruction than urban students.

That might be the main reasons why those students of rural dwellers had more

favorable motivation to learn Sidama language in the classroom (M = 41.56, t =

3.754, p < .000) and achieve more in Sidama language (M = 0.598, t = 5.518, p <

69
.000) than those who dwell in urban areas. That is, as the study result indicates and

mentioned above, generally those students who had favorable attitude towards

Sidama language as medium of instruction scored higher grade in Sidama language

than those who had less favorable attitude.

5.4. The Combined and Independent Contribution of the Variables in the Study

for the Variance of Sidama Language Achievement

As multiple regression analysis reveals sex, place of residence, attitude and

motivation to use Sidama language as medium of instruction contributed statistically

significant portion of the variance of the Sidama language achievement (R2 = 0.165, p

< .000). In other words, as multiple regression ANOVA confirms, in general 16.5%

(F(4,386) = 19.025, p<.000) of the Sidama language achievement was accounted for by

the combined effects of the variables entered in the equation. Out of the combined

effect (16.5%), the largest portion (12.9%) of the Sidama language achievement

variance is accounted for by attitude and place of residence (i.e. 8.4% and 4.5%

respectively). While on the contrary, very small part (3.5%) was accounted for by sex

and motivation. This shows that, students' attitude towards Sidama language as a

medium of instruction had critical contribution on students' achievement in relation to

those variables considered under the study. Nevertheless, the effects of other

variables were not as such less since the independent contribution was statistically

significant.

Regarding the relationship among the variables, as path analysis depicts, sex, place

of residence, attitude and motivation had significant direct effect on achievement with

70
congruent order as to their contribution mentioned above. The direct effect of attitude

on achievement (β = 0.189, t = 3.729, p<0.000), place of residence on achievement

(β = -0.174, t = -3.568, p<0.000), sex on achievement (β = 0.148, t = 3.114, p<0.002),

and motivation on achievement (β = 0.138, t = 2.740, p<.006) were all significant. But

each independent variable had very low indirect effect on achievement. That is,

attitude had 19.92% of indirect and 80.08% direct effect on achievement out of the

total effect; place of residence had 27.5% indirect and 72.5% direct effect; sex 3.27%

indirect and 96.73% direct; and motivation had no indirect effect on achievement at

all.

Besides, in relation to zero-order relationship between each independent variable and

the criterion variable a spurious relationship was also observed due to inter-

correlation among the independent variables. This kind of analysis helped the

investigator to recognize the pure relationship between the independent variable and

the criterion variable with removal of the effect of exaggerated betas due to

redundancy or overlapping among predictor variables. That is, first, at about 23.88%

of the zero-order relationship of sex with achievement were spurious. The rest

76.12% were pure direct and indirect effect (73.63% and 2.49% respectively) of sex

on achievement. Second, about 10.78% of the zero-order relationship of place of

residence with achievement was spurious. The remaining 89.22% were authentic

direct and indirect effect (64.69% and 24.53% respectively) of place of residence on

achievement. Third, about 18.62% of the zero-order relationship of attitude with

achievement were spurious. The largest portion (81.38%) was actual direct and

71
indirect effect (65.17% and 16.21% respectively) of attitude on achievement. And

finally, about 42.74% of the zero order relationship of motivation with achievement

was spurious. And the left over (57.26%) was genuine direct effect of motivation on

achievement.

In harmony with the results indicated above many scholars agree that especially

attitude and motivation are significant contributors of achievement. As to Baker (1988)

there is a positive correlation between attitude and achievement. Those individuals

who have positive attitudes towards target language tend to learn that language

better. The result slightly deviates with regard to motivation. Despite the fact that

motivation contribution was significant, the percentage of its contribution was low

(only 1.7% out of 16.5% of the total variance accounted for by joint effect of the

variables) than the other variables under study. Nunan and Lamb (1996) reported

high correlation between motivation and achievement. They confirmed that, highly

motivated students perform better in school. This is also true in the case of this study.

Students who had high motivation performed better in schools with respect to Sidama

language achievement (M = 0.501, t = -4.236, p < .000). Therefore, we can conclude

that attitude and motivation are very good predictors of Sidama language

achievement.

Regarding the direct and indirect effect, literature supports that with respect to

language learning, attitude has no direct effect on achievement otherwise it has

indirect effect through motivation (Gardner and Lambert as cited in Spolsky, 1989;

Nunan and Lamb, 1996). But in contrast, this study reveals that out of the direct effect

72
that the other variables under study contributed, attitude shared the highest weight (β

= 0.189, t = 3.729, p<0.000). In the mean time it had intermediate percentage of

indirect effect (19.92%) out of those variables that had indirect effect on achievement.

This may be due to very low motivational variation among individuals to perform

Sidama language in classroom (SD = 4.84 through out all students, 1.7 among those

students who scored low in motivation and 4.44 among those students who scored

high in motivation). This in turn indicates that all students tried their best in performing

Sidama language in the classroom. This might not be because of their high attitude to

use Sidama language as medium of instruction but due to the interest that students

had to score high on every subject. Low score on any subject decrease their total

cumulative grade point average. As we have said above, this assumption is based on,

first the motivation scores of students were very close to each other or the standard

deviation was vary small. Secondly, the correlation between attitude and motivation

was low (r = .363, p < .01) though the relationship was significant unlike other study

results reported above. Thirdly, attitude had direct effect as immediate cause for

achievement in this study, holds similar reason as raised under section 5.2 above. As

Cook and Campbell (cited in Cohen, 1983), have indicated a variable that has been

considered as cause should proceed the variable that was taken as caused in time.

Similarly, attitude can be considered as cause for achievement in the case of this

study because attitude towards Sidama language happened at first as mother tongue.

Since the language and the attitude towards it developed from early infancy, attitude

towards Sidama language had strong direct effect on achievement unlike other

studies. Here one can raise a question that individuals included in this study were not

73
only Sidama language speakers but also non-Sidama mother tongue speakers. 140

non-Sidama mother tongue speakers were included in the study (out of 391

participants). To depict the variation between students of Sidama and non-Sidama

mother tongue speakers with respect to attitude, motivation and achievement, the

comparison of means where carried out. This result indicates that attitude of Sidama

mother tongue speakers is significantly different from non-Sidama mother tongue

speakers in favor of the former (M = 122.04, t = -9.065, p < .000). That is, non-

Sidama mother tongue speakers had less favorable attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction. Therefore, definitely the inference that 'attitude

was the cause since the mother tongue and attitude towards it developed prior to

Sidama language achievement' could not be violated yet. For further confirmation,

among 140 non-Sidama mother tongue speakers the largest portion (104) fall under

students with low attitude scores (or below the median score). Only 36 non-Sidama

mother tongue speakers were with students of high attitude scores (or above the

median score), yet they had low attitude scores in relation to Sidama mother tongue

speakers.

5.5. The Major Causes for Negative Attitude towards Vernacular Language as

Medium of Instruction

The result indicates the factors according to their significant importance. That is, first,

'A shortage of trained teachers' was classified as a superior contributor (r = 0.26 or

59%). Second, ' Lack of general reading materials' (r = 0.31 or 58.15%) and ' Lack of

textbooks and other educational materials' (r = 0.33 or 55%) were placed as

subsequent contributors. And finally, ' Inadequacy of vocabulary' (r = 0.44 or 52%)

74
and 'problem of writing system' (r = 0.55 or 52) were labeled as least contributors

from the given factors.

This result is similar to the findings of other scholars (Bull, 1964 and Fasold, 1984).

Those scholars have pointed out the major cons on vernacular language instruction.

Likewise the study also revealed these arguments as major causes for the

development of negative attitude towards the use of mother tongue as medium of

instruction.

75
 CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1. Summary of the Study

In this study endeavors were made to investigate students' attitude and motivation

towards Sidama language instruction as determinant of achievement.

To gather the necessary data, two major instruments were employed: namely, an

attitude scale and a motivation questionnaire.

To carry out this investigation, the following basic questions were posed:

1. Do pupils with high attitude towards mother tongue instruction significantly differ

from pupils with low attitude in academic achievement?

2. Is there sex difference on students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction?

3. Is there a difference in students' attitude towards mother tongue instruction due

to place of residence?

4. What is attitudinal orientation of grades 7 and 8 students towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction?

5. How much does each major variable (such as attitude, motivation, sex and

place of residence) in the study add to the estimation of academic

achievement?

6. What are the major causes for unfavorable attitude towards mother tongue as a

medium of instruction?

76
 7. What kinds of relationship exist between the independent variables and the

dependent variable, and among the independent variables themselves? (To

determine causal model and the direct and indirect effects among the

variables)

6.2. Conclusion

This study attempted to examine Sidama Zone students' attitude towards their

vernacular language as a medium of instruction. The results indicated that grades 7

and 8 students had favorable attitude towards their native language as instructional

medium and attitude was an important predictor of Sidama language achievement.

Therefore, from the aforementioned discussions one arrives at the following

conclusion:

1. Comparison of means between upper and lower 25% and above and below the

median score indicated that there was a significant difference between pupils with

high and low attitude and motivation scores regarding achievement. That is those

students who scored high on attitude and motivation achieved better in Sidama

language and those who had low score in attitude and motivation also achieved

low in Sidama language.

2. There was no sex difference regarding attitude towards Sidama language as a

medium of instruction. Both boys and girls had positive attitude towards their

native language being used as a medium of instruction.

77
3. There was significant difference between rural and urban dwellers regarding

attitude and motivation towards the use of Sidama language as a medium of

instruction. That is rural students had favorable attitude and motivation towards

Sidama language as a medium of instruction and achieved high than urban

students.

4. All the variables incorporated in the study contributed significantly to Sidama

language achievement. More precisely, among the variables added to the model,

attitude had strong direct effect and was the superior predictor of Sidama

language achievement.

5. The major causes for the development of negative attitude towards Sidama

language as medium of instruction were 'A shortage of trained teachers', ' Lack of

general reading materials', ' Lack of textbooks and other educational materials', '

Inadequacy of vocabulary' and 'problem of writing system'. Their degree of effect

follows the order they are presented here.

6. Attitude, motivation, sex and place of residence had significant direct effect on

achievement.

7. Sex has no significant direct effect on attitude and motivation.

78
6.3. Recommendation

Based on the aforementioned discussions and conclusions the following

recommendations are made:

1. It would be advisable for educators, curriculum designers, counselors, family and

the society at large to bear in mind that affective factors like attitude, motivation

etc. had significant importance in influencing students' academic achievement as

cognitive factors do.

2. Individuals with low attitude and motivation towards their mother tongue seem to

be impeded in performing their vernacular language achievement and even the

performance of other subjects since it was used as a medium of instruction.

Therefore, teachers and school practitioners should pay attention to students'

attitude and motivation towards medium of instruction, as they are important

predictors of academic performance.

3. Unfavorable attitude and misperceptions towards the media would prudently be

investigated through student self-report checklist or questionnaire and early

appropriate interventions could be taken by arranging special program such as

persuasion, modeling and by rendering counseling services.

4. The Zone administration should prepare job opportunities for those students who

graduated from high school and even for those who dropped out from schools to

encourage students who learn in Sidama language.

79
5. The Zone administration and education bureau should prepare and deliver enough

textbooks and other educational materials to the student within appropriate time

schedule of the academic year. Also highly trained and pedagogically equipped

teachers should participate into the teaching learning process in order to correct

the misconceptions held towards vernacular language instruction. In addition,

encouraging fiction, short story, poetry and other general reading materials writers

in order to have ample reading materials would be necessary. Furthermore,

preparation of dictionary and developing vocabularies in all subject areas to satisfy

the need of the modern science and technology are worth the effort.

6. Endeavors should be made to educate the grade levels with the objectives to alter

the unfavorable attitude held by the students towards native language instruction

by preparing some kind of experience sharing conferences, workshops and

seminars as extra curricular activities.

7. Finally, future researches should deal with additional affective variables, which

hinder Sidama language achievement like anxiety and other cognitive variables

(like language aptitude and cognitive abilities). In addition further studies should

assess the effect of attitude on achievement on large scale including elementary

and junior schools, teachers' and parents' attitude towards vernacular language

instruction, etc.

80
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Appendix 1: Results of the Pilot Study

Table 1. The Reliability Coefficients Computed by Split-Half Method

Attitude Motivation
Reliability coefficient of half
test 0.79 0.78
Reliability coefficient of Full-
length 0.88 0.87

The formula used for Kuder-Richardson 20 (version for essay and rating scales or
also called alpha coefficient)

r = k/k - 1 [1 - (Σσi2)/ σi2]

Where: k = number of items

σi2 = variance of the total test
Σσi2 = sum of variances of items in the test
Therefore:

♦ Kuder-Richardson reliability ♦ Kuder-Richardson reliability

calculation for attitude questionnaire calculation for motivation
questionnaire
k = 36 k = 20
σi2 = 504.3374 σi2 = 48.5502
Σσi2 = 76.3764 Σσi2 = 8.5574
r = 0.87 r = 0.87

86
Table 2. The Reliability Coefficients Computed by Kuder-Richardson Method
Attitude Motivation
Reliability
coefficient 0.87 0.87

Table 3. Item Discrimination Indices of Attitude Questionnaire

Item No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Disc.Ind. 0.17 0.50 0.83 1.85 1.06 1.45
Item No. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Disc.Ind. 2.56 2.00 1.56 0.50 2.78 -0.05
Item No. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Disc.Ind. 1.73 1.28 2.56 1.39 2.06 1.94
Item No. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
Disc.Ind. 1.94 1.77 1.73 2.78 1.00 0.94
Item No. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Disc.Ind. 2.45 2.34 1.67 2.05 1.28 1.67
Item No. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
Disc.Ind. 1.66 0.77 1.23 1.50 1.66 1.39

Table 4. Item Discrimination Indices of Motivation Questionnaire

Item No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Disc.Ind. 1.22 1.12 1.45 0.72 1.17
Item No. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Disc.Ind. 1.28 1.28 1.05 1.33 1.50
Item No. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Disc.Ind. 0.17 0.00 0.78 0.77 0.50
Item No. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Disc.Ind. 0.56 0.44 0.34 0.33 0.72

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Table 5. Attitudinal Differences among Students towards Mother Tongue
Instruction Regarding Place of Residence

No. of Mean SD t
Students
Rural 10 121.7 27.86 1.83
Urban 63 108.17 20.72

 t- observed value 1.83, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

Table 6. Motivational Differences among Students towards Mother Tongue

Instruction Regarding Place of Residence
No. of Mean SD t
Students
Rural 10 41.00 5.73 1.19
Urban 63 38.16 7.15

 t- observed value 1.19, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

Table 7. Attitudinal Differences among Students towards Mother Tongue

Instruction in Sex Variation
No. of Mean SD t
Students
Male 42 111.57 21.28 -0.69
Female 31 107.94 23.33

 t- observed value -0.69, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

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Table 8. Motivational Differences among Students towards Mother Tongue
Instruction in Sex Variation
No. of Mean SD t
Students
Male 42 38.19 7.83 0.51
Female 31 39.03 5.79

 t- observed value 0.51, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

Table 9. Attitudinal Differences among Students whose Mother Tongue is

Sidama and Non-Sidama in Using Sidama Language as Medium of
Instruction
No. Of Mean SD t
Students
Sidama Mother 15 122.47 24.67 -2.54
Tongue
Non-Sidama Mother 58 106.81 20.41
Tongue

 t- observed value -2.54, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

Table 10. Motivational Differences among Students whose Mother Tongue is

Sidama and Non-Sidama in Using Sidama Language as Medium of
Instruction
No. Of Students Mean SD t
Sidama Mother 15 40.13 6.24 -1.99
Tongue
Non-Sidama Mother 58 38.14 7.18
Tongue

 t- observed value -1.99, t-critical value 1.98, at α 0.05

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Appendix 2: Some Annexed Results of the Main Study

Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Achievement for Students with

Low/High Attitude and Motivation towards Mother Tongue Instruction
with Respect to the Median Score
Achievement
Variables Group No M SD t p
Attitude below the 195 0.004 0.929
median -5.929 .000
Above the 195 0.579 0.987
median
Motivation below the 195 0.046 0.985
median -4.953 .000
Above the 195 0.533 0.954
median

Table 2. Chi-Square Test between Students Grouped under Positive (Above the
Neutral Score) and Negative (Below the Neutral Score) with Regard to
Attitude towards Sidama Language as Media of Instruction
positive (above the negative (below the χ2 Sig.
neutral score) neutral score)
Observed 269 122 55.266 .000
Expected 195.5 195.5

Note:

♦ The neutral scores (108) liquidated into both positive and negative sides
(one individual added to negative and four individuals added to positive)

♦ This method was used by Babbie 1995

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 Appendix 3: The Questionnaire in English

Addis Ababa University

Faculty of Education
Psychology Department

General Direction: the objective of this questionnaire is to collect data about

students' attitude and motivation on Sidama language as medium of instruction. The
result of the study will be used to write my Master's Thesis as partial fulfillment of the
program of graduate studies in the Addis Ababa University. This questionnaire has
three parts. Please provide your responses according to the direction at the beginning
of each part. Thus you are kindly requested to complete the questionnaire carefully
and honestly for your responses are the only way to reach a reliable research results.
Your responses will be kept confidential. Please do not write your name on any place
of the questionnaire.

Language Attitude/Motivation Questionnaire

Section One: Personal Information

Direction: Please mark "" in blank spaces of the following 10 items

1. Sex: Male ____, Female ____

2. Place of residence: Urban ____, Rural ____
3. Grade: 7 ____, 8 ____
4. Schooling: Government ____, Private (NGO) ____
5. Language used at home: Sidama ____, others ____
6. Mother tongue: Sidama ____, others ____
7. Father's ethnic group: Sidama ____, others ____
8. Mother's ethnic group: Sidama ____, others ____
9. Father's education: Illiterate ____, First cycle (1-4) ____, Second cycle (5-8) ____,
Secondary ____, College (University) ____
10. Mother's education: Illiterate ____, First cycle (1-4) ____, Second cycle (5-8) ____,
Secondary ____, College (University) ____
11. Age: ____

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 Section Tow: Language Attitude Questionnaire

Direction: Please show the extent of your agreement or disagreement for the
following 36 statements using the 5-point scale which are given in front of
each statement by marking "" on your answer

Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree

SA A U D SD

SA A U D SD
1. The scholastic level of school will fall if the mother tongue is
used as instructional medium.
2. Attempts to avoid Sidama language as medium of instruction
can be psychologically damaging to the students of native
speaker.
3. Continual usage of the mother tongue in the classroom
instruction would accomplish nothing worthwhile for the
society.
4. The Sidama language could be used as efficient instructional
language as other languages.
5. The mother tongue should be discouraged from being used as
medium of instruction.
6. The Sidama language must be accepted as instructional
medium if pride is to develop among students of the native
speakers.
7. If use of the Sidama language were encouraged, speakers of
the Sidama language would be more motivated to achieve
academically.
8. The Sidama language is clear, thoughtful, and expressive.
9. The Sidama language has a faulty grammar system.
10. When teachers reject the native language of a student, they
do him great harm.

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 SA A U D SD
11. Widespread acceptance of the Sidama language as medium
of instruction is absolutely necessary.
12. The sooner we eliminate second and foreign language
instruction, the better.
13. The acceptance of mother tongue instruction will lead to a
lowering of standards in school.
14. Mother tongue instruction should be accepted socially.
15. The Sidama language is as effective for communication as
are other languages.
16. One successful method for improving the learning capacity of
speaker of the Sidama language would be to replace their
language with second and foreign languages.
17. I prefer Sidama language to be the medium of instruction at
the junior level.
18. Given the chance, I would study all my subjects in Sidama
language.
19. I believe my results would be better if I studied all the subjects
in Sidama language.
20. I believe that students' participation would be more effective if
the Sidama language were the medium of instruction at junior
level.
21. I believe the curriculum would serve the learners more
efficiently if it were in the Sidama language at junior level.
22. I believe that the Sidama language is capable of handling
modern science.
23. My knowledge of second and foreign language makes me
feel superior to those who don't know it.
24. I believe that studying second and foreign languages helps
me to get a better job than studying in the mother tongue.

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 SA A U D SD
25. It is unsuccessful to use a mother tongue as medium of
instruction, since a child already knows it.
26. To teach in the mother tongue will make it more difficult for a
youngster to learn a second language later.
27. Using mother tongue instruction would impede national unity.
28. It is unsuccessful to use a mother tongue as medium of
instruction, because of lack of textbooks and other educational
materials.
29. It is unsuccessful to use a mother tongue as medium of
instruction, because of the lack of general reading materials.
30. It is unsuccessful to use a mother tongue as medium of
instruction, because of a shortage of trained teachers.
31. It is unsuccessful to use a mother tongue as medium of
instruction, because of inadequacy of vocabulary.
32. Second and foreign languages create difficulty to express
one's interest clearly.
33. The use of mother tongue instruction is the best for the child
psychologically and pedagogically.
34. It is unsuccessful to use mother tongue instruction because
the writing system of a number of languages does not agree
with the pressing need of the modern world.
35. In my opinion it is desirable to use mother tongue instruction
because it helps to get a job.
36. One should try to use the mother tongue as much as
possible.

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 Section Three: Motivational Questionnaire

Direction: Read the following statements carefully and choose one of the given
options that you agree with and circle the letter of your choice

1. If it were impossible for me to attend Sidama language classes at my school, I

would
a. Try and pick the language up out of class (e.g. read books and newspapers
written in Sidama language, find people to have conversation with).
b. Not bother learning Sidama language at all.
c. Try to get Sidama language lesson somewhere else.

2. Compared to others in my Sidama language class, I think I:

a. Do more studying than most of them.
b. Do less studying than most of them.
c. Study about as much as most of them.

3. When I think about how I study Sidama language, I can honestly say that I
a. Do just enough work to get along
b. Will pass my exams on the basis of luck or intelligence, not because of the
amount of work that I do.
c. Really try to learn Sidama language.

4. I actively think about what I have learned in my Sidama language class

a. Very frequently
b. Hardly ever
c. Once in a while
5. When I have a problem understanding something we are learning in Sidama
language class, I:
a. Immediately ask the teacher for help.
b. Only seek help just before the examination.
c. Just forget about it.

6. When it comes to studying and doing homework of the Sidama language out of
class, I:
a. Put some effort into it, but not as much as I could.
b. Work very carefully, making sure I understand everything.
c. Just forget about it.

7. If my Sidama language teacher wanted someone to do an extra assignment, I

would:
a. Definitely not volunteer.
b. Definitely volunteer.
c. Only do it if the teacher asked me directly.

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8. After I get my Sidama language assignment back, I:
a. Always rewrite them, correcting my mistakes.
b. Put them away and forget them.

9. When I am in Sidama language class, I:

a. Volunteer answers as much as possible.
b. Answer only the easier questions.
c. Never say anything.

10. When I hear a song in Sidama language, I:

a. Listen to the music, paying attention only to the easy words.
b. Listen carefully and try to understand all the words.
c. Turn the music off.

11. At the beginning of a lesson or unit of work, I:

a. Immediately want to get on with language practice.
b. Like the teacher to explain what I am going to learn.

12. During the Sidama language lesson, I like:

a. The teacher to tell me what to do at all times.
b. To make choices between different tasks from time to time.

13. Outside of the Sidama language classroom, I:

a. Am not interested in using the language.
b. Try to find opportunities to practice Sidama language.

14. In Sidama language class, I:

a. Am not really bothered about how tasks help me learn, as long as they work.
b. Like the teacher to explain to me how the tasks help me to learn.

15. In Sidama language class, I like to spend some time:

a. Discovering how the rules of Sidama work.
b. Being told how the rules of Sidama work.

16. During a teaching-learning process, I:

a. Like to assess my own progress occasionally.
b. Am not interested in assessing my own progress.

17. During the Sidama language lesson, I:

a. Practice using the language.
b. Listen to the teacher talking about the language.

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18. During the Sidama language lesson, I like opportunities to:
a. Listen to language that is specially produced for language classrooms.
b. Listen to native speakers using the language.

19. During the Sidama language lesson I:

a. Prefer to work with the whole class.
b. Like opportunities to do pair and small group work.

20. I would:
a. Like to set my own language goals eventually.
b. Not be interested in setting my own goals.

97
Appendix 4: The Questionnaire in Sidama Language

Addis Ababu Yuniversite

Rosu Faakalite
Saykolojete Dipartmente
Tenne xa'mo hexxo, rosaano afuu aana noonsa hedonna kao afateeti. Tenne xiinxallo
gumino Addis Ababu Yuniversite xiinxallo horora hosanno. Konni daafira
leellanno'nerenna wodani'nera nooha halaalunni qoltinanni gede ayirrinynyunni
xa'meemmo'ne. Tenne xa'mo aana ayee bayichchono su'ma diborreessinanni.
Assitinanni kaa'lora balaxe galateemmo'ne.

Afuu Rosi Aana noo Hedonna Kao Xa'mo

Gafa Mite: Meessi Badhe Mashalaqqe

Biddishsha: Kunni woroonni kiiro 1-10 geeshsha xa'minoonni garinni, umokki la'anno
mashalaqqe konne "" malaate borreessitanni wonshi. Kiiro '11' giddo
xa'minoonni garinni dirokki borreessi

1. Koo-tee: Labbaaho _____, Meyaate _____

2. Heeshshote darga: Katamaho _____, Gaxarete _____
3. Kifile: 7 _____, 8 _____
4. Rosu mini: Mangistenniho _____, Dimangistenniho _____
5. Mine Coy'ratto/tta afii: Sidaamu afoo _____, Wole _____
6. Afoo dadhoottohu (tidhoottohu): Sidaamu afiinniiti _____, Woleho ____
7. Annu gosa woy sircho: Sidaamaho _____, Wolete/woleho _____
8. Amate gosa woy sircho: Sidamaho _____, Wolete/woleho _____
9. Annu Rosi Deerra: Ronsokkiho _____, Umi doyichcho (1-4 kifile) _____,
Layinki doyichcho (5-8 kifile) _____, Layinki drima (9-
12 kifile) _____, Kolleje (Yuniversite) _____
10. Amate Rosi Deerra: Rossinokkite _____, Umi doyichcho (1-4 kifile) _____,
Layinki doyichcho (5-8 kifile) _____, Layinki drima (9-
12 kifile) _____, Kolleje (Yuniversite) _____
11. Dirikki: _____

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 Gafa Lame: Afuu Rosi Aana noo Hedo Xa'mo
Biddishsha: Aante shiqqinote 36 assaawe (hedo) ledo mageeshsha sumuu
yaattoronna mageeshsha sumuu yaattokkiro leellishate, mitte mittente
assaawe albaanni worroonni 5-bikkote (bikkate) naxiwe giddonni mittete
hunda konne "" malaate borreessi

Lowo geeshsha Sumuu Murate Sumuu Horontanni Sumuu

Sumuu Yeemmo Yeemmo Didandeemmo Diyeemmo Diyeemmo
LS S MD SD HS

LS S MD SD HS
1. Tidhinoonni (dadhinoonni) afoo rosoho horonsi'niro, rosu
minihu rosu deerri wororrichcho ha'ranno.
2. Sidaamu afoo rosoho hosannokki gede assate wo'naala,
afoonsa kunni afiinni tidhitino (dadhitino) rosaano wodanu
xisso heedhannonsa gede assa dandiitanno.
3. Tidhinoonni (dadhinoonni) afoo sammi yine baalanka wote
kifilete rosira horonsi'ra, dagate horo afi'nore diuyitanno.
4. Sidaamu afoo wole afuubba gede ikkadu rosu afii gede
assine horonsi'ra dandiinanni.
5. Tidhinoonni (dadhinoonni) afoo ruso afiimmara
horonsi'nannikki gede assa hasiissanno.
6. Afoonsa isinni tidhitino rosaano naaxitanno gede assate,
Sidaamu afoo rosunniha assine adha hasiissanno.
7. Sidaamu afii rosu horora hosanno gede jawaachchiinshiha
ikkiro, Sidaamu afoo coyidhanno rosaano rosoho
jawaattinore ikkate roore kakka'anno.
8. Sidaamu afii xawadoho, seekkine assaambanni gede
assannohonna assaawe (hedo) seekke xawisannoho.
9. Sidaamu afii busha afuu jirte afi'rinoho.
10. Rosiisaano, rosaanchu tidhino afoo mishshuro, hakko
rosaancho lowo geeshsha gawajjitanno.

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 LS S MD SD HS
11. Sidaamu afii rosunniha ikkasi, lowo geeshsha haa'nanni
coyeeti.
12. Tidhinoonnikki afuubba gobbaanni uyinanni roso rahe
hunna hasiissanno.
13. Tidhinoonni afii roso smuu yee adha, rosu miniha rosu
deerra ajishshannota ikkitanno.
14. Tidhinoonni afii roso daga adhitinoha ikka noosi.
15. Wole gobba gede, Sidamu afii xaadooshsheho
(hasaawate) guutataho (ikkadoho).
16. Sidaamu afiinni coyidhannori rosaano rosi dandoo
woyyeessate kaa'litanno doogo (hayyo) giddo mitte, kunni
afii darga dadhitinokki afiinni rosiisate.
17. Mereerimunna layinki dirimira (7 nna 8 kifilera) Sidaamu
afii rosunniha ikkanno gede doodheemmo/-a.
18. Rosate kaayyo heedhoommeha ikkoommero, baalanka
rosu dana Sidaamu afiinni rosate halcheemmo/-a.
19. Baalanka rosu dana Sidaamu afiinni roseemmoha/-aha
ikkoommero, fonqolote gumi'ya woyyinoha ikkanno yee
hedemmo/-a.
20. Mereerimunna layinki dirimira (7 nna 8 kifilera) rosu
Sidaamu afiinni ikkoommero, rosaanote millimmo deerri
roorinoha ikkanno yee hedeemmo/-a.
21. Mereerimunna layinki dirimira (7 nna 8 kifilera) rosu
Sidaamu afiinni ikkoommero, rosu budi rosaano roore
ikkado ikkino garinni kaa'lannoha ikkanno yee
hedeemmo/-a.
22. Sidaamu afii tenne yannara sayinse iillitino deerrinni
rosiisate dandiissannoho yee hedeemmo.

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 LS S MD SD HS
23. Tidhoommo afii gobbaanni wole afuubba aana nooe
egenno'ya umo'ya tenne afuubba affinokkirinni aliidiha
asse laeemmo gede assitinoe.
24. Tidhoommo afii gobbaanni wole afoo rosa'ya, tidhoommo
afiinni rose afi'reemmohunni sao woyyino looso afi'rate
kaa'lannoe yee heddeemmo/-a.
25. Tidhinoonni afoo qaaqqu anfoha ikkinohura, konne afoo
rosunniha asse horonsi'ra qara difushshitanno.
26. Tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa, rosaanchu gedenaanni layinki
afoo rosate qarramanno gede assitanno.
27. Tidhinoonni afoo rosoho horonsi'ra, dagate mittimmara
gufichcho ikkitanno.
28. Rosu maxaaffanna wolu rosu uduunni nookkihura,
tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa qara difultanno.
29. Xaphoomunniti nabbambanni maxaaffa nookkiura,
tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa qara difultanno.
30. Qajeeltino rosiisaano nookkihura, tidhinoonni afiinni
rosiisa qara difultanno.
31. Qaallate anje (xe'no) noohura, tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa
qara difultanno.
32. Tidhinoonnikki afuubba meessi hasatto (assaawe) xawise
kulate qarra kalaqqanno.
33. Tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa, rosu (peedaagojete) nna akkatu
sayinse (saykolojete) ragaanni qaaqqoho lowo geeshsha
danchate.
34. Lowo afuubbahu borreessate budi, xaa yannara lexxitanni
hadhanni noo hasatto ledo xaaddannokkihura, tidhinoonni
afiinni rosiisa qara difultanno.

101
 LS S MD SD HS

35. Looso afi'rate kaa'lannohura, tidhinoonni afiinni rosiisa ane

hedo garinni hasiissannote.
36. Tidhinoonni (dadhinoonni) afoo dandiini geeshsha
horonsi'rate wo'naala hasiissanno.

Gafa Sase: Afuu Rosi aana noo kao xa'mo

Biddishsha: Aante shiqqino hedo seekkite nabbabbe ka’e, uyinoonni doorshi

giddonni mitto sumuu yaattoha doorte, doorshikki fidale qoqqowi

1. Rosi’ya mine Sidaamu afoo rosa dandeemmokkiha ikkommero,

A. Sidaamu afoo kifilete gobbaanni rosate wo’naaleemmo (lawishshaho,
Sidaamu afiinni borreessinanni maxaaffanna gaazeexxa nabbawatenni;
Sidaamu afiinni coyi’ranno manna hasi’re hasaawatenni).
B. Sidaamu afoo rosate horontanni diqarrameemmo.
C. Sidaamu afii roso wolewa hasi’re rosate wo’naaleemmo.

2. Wolu rosi ledo taashshine la’niha ikkiro, Sidaamu afii roso:

A. wolu rosinni roorse xiinxaaweemmoha lawannoe.
B. wolu rosinni ajishe xiixaaweemmoha lawannoe.
C. wolu rosi ledo taalo xiinxaaweemmoha lawannoe.

3. Sidaamu afoo roseemmo gara hedeemmo wote, addintanni:

A. hasi’nanni deerra iillate ikkadu garinni loosanni noommo.
B. fonqolo xiinxaawotenni ikkikkinni, kaayyotenni woy nooe egennonni
saeemmo yeemmo.
C. rosate seekke wo’naalanni noommo yeemmo.

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4. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara marichcho rosoommoro
A. lowo geeshsha duuchcha wote assaaweemmo.
B. hakkeeshshi geeshsha diassaaweemmo.
C. sae sae calla assaaweemmo.

5. Sidaamu afoo ronsanna einoekkirichchi hee’re qarrisannoe wote:

A. hakka wotenni rosiisaancho’ya kaa’lannoe gede xa’meemmosi.
B. kaa’lo fonqolu yannara calla xa’meemmo.
C. kaa’lo xa’ma horontanni haweemmo.

6. Kifilete giddo Sidaamu afoo xiinxaaweemmonna kunni afiiha mini looso

looseemmo wote:
A. boode geeshsha ikkinnina, danduummo geeshsha wo’naalsha
diasseemmo.
B. baalankare wodanchanni lowo geeshsha qorophphe looseemmo.
C. isire horontanni haweemmo.

7. Sidaamu afii rosiisaanchinke baxxinnoha afuu looso loosannoha xa’miha

ikkiro:
A. umi’ya hasattonni loosate sumuu diyeemmo.
B. umi’ya hasattonni kae looseemmo.
C. rosiisaanchu umisi loosi yee xa’miero calla looseemmo.

8. Sidaamu afii looso’ya rosiisaanchu lae qolannoe wote:

A. so’ro’ya taashshanni galagalche borreesseemmo.
B. facci asse wore aguroommowa haweemmo.
C. laeemmo ikkinnina, so’ro taashshate diqarrameemmo.

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9. Sidaamu afii rosi kifilera noommo wote:
A. danduummo geeshsha xa’mo umi’yanni kae qoleemmo.
B. shota xa’mo calla qoleemmo.
C. cuqqi curuqqino diyeemmo.

10. Sidaamu afii faarso teeppetenni macciishsheemmo wote:

A. wodana shota qaalla aana calla tugatenni macciishsheemmo.
B. qorophphe, baalanta qaalla wodanchatenni macciishsheemmo.
C. hattee faaraso cufe agureemmo.

11. Sidaamu afii rosi hanafora:

A. hakka wotenni afuu rosiishsha loosa hasi’reemmo.
B. rosiisaanchi’ya aanche roseemmore xawisannoe gede baxeemmo.

12. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. duuchchanka wote marichcho asseemmoro rosiisaanchi’ya kulannoe
gede hasi’reemmo.
B. addi addi yannara babbaxxino loosi giddonni umi'yanni doodhe loosa
hasi’reemmo.

13. Sidaamu afoo kifilete rosate gobbaanni:

A. horonsi’rate halcho dinoe.
B. kunni afiinni wo’naalate kaayyo afi’reemmo gede badadeemmo.

14. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. addi addi loosi rosate kaa’lie geeshsha, hiittoonni kaa’lannoro kayinni
afate diqarrameemmo.
B. addi addi loosi rosate kaa’lanoe gara rosiiaanchu xawisannoe gede
hasi’reemmo.

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15. Sidaamu afoo roseemmo wote, gama yanna:
A. Sidaamu afii jirte loossanno gara afate hasanni sayiseemmo.
B. Sidaamu afii jirte loossanno gara rosiisaanchi’ya kulannae sayiseemmo.

16. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. sae sae qaafo’ya keena (bikka) baxeemmo.
B. qaafo’ya keenate (bikkate) halcho dinoe.

17. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. isinni coyi’ranninna borreessanni rosiisi’reemmo.
B. rosiisaachu kunni afiire kulanna macciishsheemmo.

18. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. afuu rosira yine qixxeessinoonnire macciishshate elto heedhannoe gede
hasi’reemmo.
B. Sidaamu afii afoonsa ikkinori coyidhanna macciishshate elto
heedhannoe gede hasi’reemmo.

19. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara:

A. baalante kifilete rosaano ledo mittimmatenni loosa doodheemmo.
B. lamu lamunninna manaado gaamonni loonsanni looso baxeemmo.

20. Sidaamu afii rosi yannara ani baxeemmohu:

A. umi’yata afuu hexxo wodhate (fushshi’rate).
B. umi’yata afuu hexxo wodhate (fushshi’rate) halcho di-ikkitino.

Kaa'lo'nera xaano lede galateemmo.

105
Appendix 5: The Questionnaire in Amharic

xÄ!S xbÆ †n!vRStE

yTMHRT Í÷LtE
yúY÷lÖ©! Ä!­RTmNT
yz!H m-YQ ›§¥ Sl¥St¥¶Ã ÌN̽ t¥¶ãC çcWN xStÃyT S»T
l¥wQ nWÝÝ W-@t$M y¸ÃglGlW l†n!vRStEW yMRMR |‰ nWÝÝ
y¸s¥Ch#NÂ yM¬Mn#TN XNDTgL[# bTHTÂ X-Y”lh#ÝÝ bm-Yq$ §Y
b¥N¾WM ï¬ SM xYÚFMÝÝ SlTBB‰Ch# bQD¸Ã xmsGÂlh#ÝÝ

bÌNÌ TMHRT §Y Ãl ZNÆl@Â tnú>nT ”lm-

”lm-YQ
KFK xND½
xND yGL h#n@¬
mm¶ÃÝ−
mm¶ÃÝ kt‰ q$_R 1-10 xNtN /CN / b¸mlkT g#ÄY §Y bts-W KFT ï¬
y"" N MLKT bmÚF xmLKT / cEÝÝ t‰ q$_R 11 :D»HN / >N /
ÚF / ð /

1. ò¬½ wND_____½ s@T_____

2. ymñ¶Ã ﬽ kt¥______ ½g-R ______
3. yTMHRT dr©½ 7¾ ______½8¾ ______
4. yTMHRT b@T ›YnT½ ymNG|T______½ ymNG|T ÃLçn¼yGL_____
5. bb@T WS_ yMT-qÑbT ÌN̽ s!ÄM¾ ______½ l@§______
6. yxF mFÒ ÌN̽ s!ÄM¾ ______½ l@§______
7. yxÆT BÿR¼BÿrsB½ s!Ä¥ ______½ l@§______
8. yXÂT BÿR¼BÿrsB ½s!Ä¥ ______½l@§_______
9. yxÆT yTMHRT h#n@¬½ ÃLt¥„______½xNd¾ dr© ymjm¶Ã úYKL
(1-4)_____ ½xNd¾ dr© h#lt¾ úYKL(5-8)_____ ½h#lt¾ dr©
(9-12)_____ ½÷l@J ¼†n!vRStE¼______
10. y:ÂT yTMhRT dr©½ ÃLt¥„______½xNd¾ dr© ymjm¶Ã úYKL
(1-4)_____ ½xNd¾ dr© h#lt¾ úYKL(5-8)_____ ½h#lt¾ dr©
(9-12)_____ ½÷l@J¼†n!vRStE ¼ E______
11. :D» ______

106
 KFK h#lT½
h#lT bÌNÌ TMHRT §Y Ãl ZNÆl@ m-
m-YQ

mm¶Ã½
mm¶Ã y¸ktl#TN 36 ;&rFt ngéC b_N”q&½ kxnbBK / > / b“§
yMTS¥¥bT/¸bT wYM y¥TS¥¥bT/¸bT mçn#N kz!H b¬C
kts-#T 5 dr©ãC byT¾W dr© §Y XNdçn y"" N MLKT bts-
W KFT ï¬ §Y bmÚF xmLKT/cE $½

XS¥¥lh# xLwsNk#M xLS¥¥M bÈM

xLS¥¥M
bX X x xL bxL

bX X x xL bxL
1. yxF mFÒ ÌNÌ b¥St¥¶ÃnT µglgl½yTMHRT b@t$
yTMHRT dr© ZQ Y§L ÝÝ
2. ys!d¸¾ ÌNÌ b¥St¥¶Ã ÌNÌnT XNÄÃglGL ¥DrG
yÌNÌWN tÂU¶ t¥¶ãC SnLï Y¯ÄLÝÝ
3. yxF mFÒ ÌNÌN bm¥¶Ã KFL WS_ btk¬¬Y
m-qM l¥Hbrsb# y¸ÃbrKtW _QM ylMÝÝ
4. XNd l@lÖC ÌNÌãC h#l# ys!ĸ¾ ÌNÌM
b¥St¥¶ÃnT y¥gLgL B”T xlWÝÝ
5. yxF mFÒ ÌNÌN b¥St¥¶ÃnT m-qM mbr¬¬T
ylbTMÝÝ
6. bÌNÌW tÂU¶ t¥¶ãC zND b‰S mt¥mNN
l¥ÄbR ktflg s!ĸ¾N b¥St¥¶Ã ÌNÌnT mqbL
ÃSfLULÝÝ
7. ys!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ x-”qM y¸br¬¬ kçn½tÂU¶ãC
bTMHR¬cW _„ W-@T l¥MÈT Ynúúl#ÝÝ
8. s!ĸ¾ GL{½_LQ húB yÃz ymGl{ B”T ÃlW
nWÝÝ
9. s!ĸ¾ ytúút yÌNÌ SRxT xlWÝÝ
10. mMH‰N yt¥¶WN yxF mFÒ ÌNÌ xlmqb§cW
t¥¶WN bÈM Y¯ÄLÝÝ

107
 bX X x xL bxL
11. ys!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ b¥St¥¶ÃnT bSÍT tqÆYnT
¥GßT ÃlbTÂ bÈM xSf§g!M g#ÄY nWÝÝ
12. xF mFÒ ÆLçn ÌNÌãC m¥R bxScµ*Y mQrT¼
mwgD¼ xlbTÝÝ
13. bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥RN mqbL yTMHRT
b@èCN dr© ZQ ÃdRULÝÝ
14. bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R bHBrtsb# zND
tqÆYnT ¥GßT xlbTÝÝ
15. s!ĸ¾½XNdl@lÖC ÌNÌãC h#l# Bq$ mGÆb!à nWÝÝ
16. ys!ĸ¾ tÂU¶ãCN ym¥R ClÖ¬ l¥údG xND
_„ yçnW mNgD ÌNÌcWN bh#lt¾ wYM bWÀ
ÌNÌãC mtµT nWÝÝ
17. s!ĸ¾½bmlSt¾ h#lt¾ dr© ¼7 X 8¼
b¥St¥¶ÃnT b!ÃglGL XmRÈlh#ÝÝ
18. :Dl# kts-"½ h#l#NM TMHRèC bs!ĸ¾ m¥R
XmRÈlh#ÝÝ
19. h#l#NM TMHRèC bs!ĸ¾ B¥R W-@t&½ _„
XNd¸çN xMÂlh#ÝÝ
20. s!ĸ¾½bmlSt¾ h#lt¾ dr© ¼7 X 8¼
b¥St¥¶ÃnT b!ÃglGL yt¥¶ãC túTæ bÈM _„ E
XNd¸çN xMÂlh#ÝÝ
21. SR›t TMHRt$½bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ bmlSt¾ h#lt¾
dr© ¼7 X 8¼ tzUJè b!çN ñé t¥¶ãc$N ybl-
XNd¸-QM xMÂlh#ÝÝ
22. s!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ zmÂêE úYNSN ymGl{ B”T XNÄlW
xMÂlh#ÝÝ
23. kxF mFÒ ÌNÌü W+ l@lÖC ÌNÌãCN b¥wq&
k¥ÃWq$T ytšLh# XNdçNk# Ys¥¾LÝÝ

108
 bX X x xL bxL
24. xF mFÒ ÆLçn ÌNÌ m¥R½bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ
km¥R ybl- yS‰ :DL XNd¸kFTL" xMÂlh#ÝÝ
25. xND t¥¶ wd TMHRT b@T kmMÈt$ bðT
ÌNÌWN Sl¸ÃWqW xûN yf¬bTN ÌNÌ bTMHRT
b@T WS_ b¥St¥¶ÃnT m-qÑ _„ xYdlMÝÝ
26. bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R t¥¶W bl@§ wQT
y¸ÃgßWN yh#lt¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT kÆD ÃdRgêLÝÝ
27. bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R lBÿ‰êE xNDnT XNQÍT
nWÝÝ
28. km¥¶Ã mÚHFT kl@lÖC yTMHRT mú¶ÃãC
X_rT ytnú bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R W-@¬¥
xYdlMÝÝ
29. bÌNÌW ytÚû ytlÆ yNÆB mÚHFT X_rT ytnú
bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R W-@¬¥ xYdlMÝÝ
30. ksl-n# mMH‰N X_rT ytnú bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ
¥St¥R W-@¬¥ xYdlMÝÝ
31. ÌNÌW bqE y”§T KMCTN µlmÃz# ytnú bxF
mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R W-@¬¥ xYdlMÝÝ
32. xND sW F§¯t$N bnÚnT XNÄYgL{ kxF mFÒ
ÌNÌãC W+ l@lÖC ÌNÌãC CGR Yf_‰l#ÝÝ
33. bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R lt¥¶W kSnLïÂM çn
kSn TMHRT ¼p&į©!¼ xNÚR kFt¾ -q»¬ xlWÝÝ
34. yxÃl@ ÌNÌãC yxÚÚF SR›T kzmÂêE xlM wQ¬êE
FL¯T UR Sl¥YÈÈM bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ ¥St¥R
W-@¬¥ xYdlMÝÝ
35. bXn@ xStÃyT yS‰ :DL Sl¸kFT bxF mFÒ
ÌNÌ ¥St¥R YmrÈLÝÝ
36. btÒl m-N bxF mFÒ ÌNÌ lm-qM mäkR
YgÆLÝÝ

109
 KFL îST½ bÌNÌ TMHRT §Y Ãl tnú>nT m-
m-YQ

mm¶Ã½ y¸ktl#TN ZRZR hœïC b_N”q& kxnbBK/> b“§

yMTS¥¥bTN/¸bTN MRÅ çÿ b¥KbB xmLKT/cE

1. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ m¥R y¥LCL b!çN ñé

h¼ ÌNÌWN kKFL Wu lm¥R _rT xdRG nbR ¼bs!ÄM¾ ytÚû
mÚ?FTÂ Uz@õC b¥NbB½ sãCN fLg@ b¥nUgR½
l¼ ÌNÌWN lm¥R f{ä xL=nQM nbR½
m¼ ys!ĸ¾N ÌNÌ TMHRT kl@§ ï¬ l¥GßT XäKR nbR½
2. Xn@ kl@lÖC ys!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT k¸k¬tl#T UR s!nÚoR½
h¼ kxB²¾ãc$ ybl- x-Âlh#
l¼ kxB²¾ãc$ Ãns x-Âlh#
m¼ kxB²¾êc$ :k#L x-Âlh#
3. ys!d¸¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT XNÁT XNdMk¬tL XNdM¥R úSbW½ bXRG-
¾nT mÂgR yMClW
h¼ TMHRt$N lmk¬tL y¸ÃSCl"N ÃHL BÒ XNdM\‰ nW
l¼ ft y¥LfW b|‰ü œYçN b:DL wYM btf_é XWqt& mçn#N nW½
m¼ bTKKL ys!ĸ¾N ÌNÌ l¥wQ yM_R mçn@N nWÝÝ
4. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@ Sl xgßh#T TMHRT bN”T y¥SbW
h¼ zwTR nW
l¼ XJGM nW
m¼ xNÄNÁ nW
5. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@ xND ngR ymrÄT CGR s!g_m"
h¼ mMH„ XNÄ!rÄ" X-Y”lh#
l¼ XRĬ yMfLgW LK kftÂW TN> qdM BlÖ BÒ nW½
m¼ Sl CG„ u‰> x§SBM
6. ys!ĸ¾N ÌNÌ TMHRT b¥_Ât$ yb@T |‰N kKFL Wu bm|‰t$ bk#L½
h¼ yMClWN ÃHL úYçN ytwsn _rT xdRUlh#
l¼ h#l#NM ngR mrÄt&N XÃrUg_k# bÈM b¥StêL X\‰lh#
m¼ Sl TMHRt$Â yb@T |‰W MNM x§SBM

110
7.ys!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT mMHÊ t=¥¶ |‰ l¥s‰T xND t¥¶ s!fLG Xn@
h¼ bXRG_ f”d¾ xLçNM
l¼ bXRG_ f”d¾ XçÂlh#
m¼ f”d¾ yMçnWÂ yM\‰W mMH„ bq_¬ k-yq" BÒ nW½
8. ls!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT y¸s-"N |‰ kmMH„ mL¹@ ktqbLk# b“§
h¼ h#L g!z@ SHtèc&N b¥StµkL mL¹@ AØêlh#ÝÝ
l¼ wÄ!Ã xSqM_Â twêlh#
m¼ Xmlktêlh# GN SHtèc$N l¥StµkL xL=nQM
9. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ KFL WS_ SçN
h¼ yÒLk#TN ÃHL mLS lmmlS f”d¾ XçÂlh#ÝÝ
l¼ bÈM q§L yçn#TN _Ãq&ãC BÒ mLúlh#
m¼ =Rî MNM xLÂgRM
10. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ y¸zmR Ñz!” Ss¥
h¼ qlL Ãl#TN ”§T BÒ b¥Stêl Ñz!”WN xÄMÈlh#½
l¼ bÈM b¥StêL XÃÄm_k# h#l#NM ”§T lmrÄT XäK‰lh#½
m¼ yÑz!” ¥ÅwÒWN XzUêLh#
11. bs!ÄM¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@ wYM |‰ mjm¶Ã §Y
h¼ ÌNÌWN yml¥mD tGÆR wÄ!ÃWn# mjmR XfLUlh#½
l¼ mMH„ MN l!ÃStM„" XNdçn XNÄ!gLo#L" XfLUlh#½
12. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@
h¼ mMH„ bh#l#M s›T MN ¥DrG XNÄlB" XNÄ!nG„" XfLUlh#½
l¼ kg!z@ wd g!z@ ktlÆ mfoM µlÆcW tGƉT m¦L mR˜
m|‰T XfLUlh#½
13. ks!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ m¥¶Ã KFL Wu
h¼ ÌNÌWN ym-qM F§gÖT yl"M
l¼ ÌNÌWN yml¥mD xUȸ l¥GßT _rT xdRUlh#½
14. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@
h¼ lGz@W XSks„ DrS ym¥¶Ã zÁãC MN ÃHL yrÇ" SlmçÂcW
l¥wQ xL=nQM
l¼ mMH„ ym¥¶Ã zÁãc$ l:WqT MN ÃHL y¸rÇ" XNdçn#
XNÄ!glo#L" XfLUlh#ÝÝ

111
15. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT KFl g!z@
h¼ yÌNÌW ?gÖC XNÁT XNd¸s„ l¥wQ Xm‰m‰lh#
l¼ yÌNÌW ?gÖC XNÁT XNd¸s„ XNÄ!ngr" XfLUlh#ÝÝ
16. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT £dT WS_½
h¼ xLæ xLF y‰s@N lW_¼mššL mmzN XfLUlh#
l¼ yX‰s@N lW_¼mššL lmmzN F§gÖT xYñr"M
17. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT wQT
h¼ yÌNÌN x-”qM Xl¥mÄlh#
l¼ mMH„ Sl ÌNÌW s!Âg„ xÄMÈlh#½
18. bs!ÄM¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT wqT
h¼ lÌNÌ m¥¶ÃnT ytzUj TMHRT ¥Äm_ XfLUlh#½
l¼ yÌNÌW tw§J tÂU¶ãC s!Âg„ ¼ÌNÌWN s!-qÑ ¥Äm_
XfLUlh#ÝÝ
19. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT wQT
h¼ k-Q§§W yKFl# t¥¶ãC UR bxND §Y m|‰T XmRÈlh#Ý
l¼ b_NDÂ bxnSt¾ b#DN tkÍFlÖ m|‰TN XmRÈlh#½
20. bs!ĸ¾ ÌNÌ TMHRT wQT
h¼ yX‰s@N GïC mtlM XfLUlh#
l¼ yX‰s@N GïC lmtlM F§gÖT yl"M

SlTBB‰Ch# bDU¸ xmsGÂlh#ÝÝ

112