Rheology

Rheology is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as 'soft solids' or solids under
conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied
force.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress.
Viscosity is a property arising from friction between neighboring particles in a fluid that are moving at different
velocities. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which comprise the fluid generally move faster
near the tube's axis and more slowly near its walls: therefore some stress, (such as a pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube), is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers and keep the
fluid moving. For the same velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity
The dynamic (shear) viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers
move parallel to each other with different speeds.
Kinematic viscosity
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid .
Bulk viscosity
When a compressible fluid is compressed or expanded evenly, without shear, it may still exhibit a form
of internal friction that resists its flow. These forces are related to the rate of compression or expansion
by a factor , called the volume viscosity, bulk viscosity or second viscosity.

Newtons law of viscosity :Newtons law of viscosity states that shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient. That is the shear
stress between the two adjacent layers of fluid is directly proportional to the negative value of the velocity
gradient between the same two adjacent fluid layers.

Newtonian fluids
The fluids that obey the newtons law of viscosity are known as newtonian fluids.
Non newtonian fluids
The fluids that do not obey newtons law of viscosity are called as non-newtonian fluids.

Viscosity measurements
Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers.
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with
viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used.
U-tube viscometers
These devices are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers, named after Wilhelm
Ostwald. Another version is the Ubbelohde viscometer, which consists of a U-shaped glass tube held vertically in
a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow bore (the capillary).
Above there is a bulb, with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In use, liquid is drawn into the upper
bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and

one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between
these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity
Falling sphere viscometers
Stokes' law is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A
sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid
Rotational viscometers
Rotational viscometers use the idea that the torque required to turn an object in a fluid is a function of the
viscosity of that fluid.
'Cup and bob' viscometers work by defining the exact volume of a sample which is to be sheared within a test
cell; the torque required to achieve a certain rotational speed is measured and plotted. There are two classical
geometries in "cup and bob" viscometers, known as either the "MacMicheal (cup moves)" or "Stormer (cup
stationary)" systems - distinguished by whether the cup or bob rotates.
'Cone and Plate' viscometers use a cone of very shallow angle in bare contact with a flat plate. With this system
the shear rate beneath the plate is constant; a graph of shear stress (torque) against shear rate (angular velocity)
yields the viscosity in a straightforward manner.
Types of rheometer

Pipe or Capillary
Rotational cylinder
Cone and plate
Linear Shear

One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.

Thixotropy
Thixotropy is a shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick (viscous) under static conditions will
flow (become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed (Time Dependent
Viscosity). They then take a fixed time to return to a more viscous state. In more technical language: some nonNewtonian pseudoplastic fluids show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear
stress, the lower its viscosity
Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity or even
solidification. Constant shear stress can be applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which exhibit this property are
usually called rheopectic. They are much less common.

References:

Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy

MARTINS PHYSICAL PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
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