IB SL Math Duck

Jonas Meyer-Ohle, Dsire Bergeron, Nalin Mathur, Arihant Mehta, Alex Van Ballaer, Joji
Horie
http://sites.acsindep.edu.sg/mathematics/sow/IBO%20SL%20Mathematics%20Guide.pdf
Topic 1 - Algebra
1.1 Sequences and Series
Arithmetic Sequences
Geometric Sequences
Compound interest
Series (Sum of a Sequence)
1.2 Exponents and Logs
Exponent Laws
Multiplication:
Logarithm Laws
1.3 The binomial Theorem
NOT IN EXAM
Topic 2 - Functions and Equations
2.1 - Concept of Functions
2.2 - Graphing Functions
2.3 - Transformations
This is the graph of the function f(x) = x2
2.4 - Reciprocal Functions
2.5 - Quadratic Forms
2.6 - Quadratic Formula and Discriminant
2.7 - Inverse Functions
2.8 - Exponential Functions
Topic 3 - Circular Functions and Trigonometry
3.1 - Radians
3.2 - To do with cos , sin , and tan
3.3 - Double Angle Formulae
3.4 - Circular Functions + Composite of f (x) = asin(b(x + c)) + d
3.5 - Solving Trigonometric Equations and their Graphs
3.6 - Solution of Triangles
Topic 4 - Matrices
4.1 - Definitions
4.2 - Algebra of Matrices
4.3 - Determinant of a Square Matrix
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4.4 - Solution of Systems of Linear Equations with Inverse Matrices

Topic 5 - Vectors
5.1 - Vector Basics
5.2 - Scalar Products
5.3 - r = a + tb and Angle between Two Lines
5.4 - Coincident and Parallel Lines and Intersections
Topic 6 - Statistics and Probability
6.1 - Concepts
6.2 - Presentation of Data
6.3 - Basic Statistics and Measures of the Average
6.4 - Cumulative Frequency
6.5 - Probability of Events and Complimentary Events
6.6 - Combined Events
6.7 - Conditional Probability
6.8 - Diagrams to Solve Problems
6.9 - Discrete Random Variables and Expected Value of Mean
6.10 - Binomial Distribution
6.11 - Normal Distribution
Topic 7 - Calculus
7.1 - Limits, Convergence, Derivatives.
7.2 - Differentiation, Chain Rule, Product/Quotient Rule, Second Derivatives
7.3 - Local Maximum and Minimum Points
7.4 - Indefinite Integration and Integral and Composites with Linear Function ax + b
7.5 - Anti-Differentiation, Definite Integrals, Curves, Volume of Revolution
7.6 - Kinematic Problems
7.7 - Graphical Behaviour of Functions, Significance of Derivative, Points of
Inflection.

Topic 1 - Algebra
1.1 Sequences and Series
Arithmetic Sequences
BasisofArithmeticSequences
- eg. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 +1
- eg. 4, 2, 0, -2, -4 -2
- A sequence is just a list of numbers.
- Numbers in a sequence are called terms.
- Distance between two terms is called the difference (d).
- To find the difference, subtract backwards. ([{2, 4, 6 } 4-2=2, 6-4=2] d=2)
- Arithmetic sequences have the same difference between each of their terms.

TheNthNumberofanArithmeticSequence
- Un=U1+(n-1)d
- Un Is the number you want
- U1 is the first number of the list
- n is the position of the number in the list
- d is the difference of the arithmetic sequence
- For example you have a sequence with the terms (1,3,5,7,9). Find the 10th term.
- Difference = 3-1 = 2
- U10 = 1+(10-1)2
- U10 = 19

Geometric Sequences
Nth Term of a geometric sequence
- Un = U1 x rn-1
- r is the common ratio (constant factor between consecutive terms)
- You can figure out r by dividing backwards. (n+1)/n= r
(n+2)/(n+1) = r
- Eg. You are trying to find the 10th term in a sequence with terms 3,9,27,81
- U10 = 3 x 310-1
- U10 = 59049

Compound interest
Compound interest is the interest calculated on both the principal (Starting money, objects) and the
accrued interest (eg. Interest gained every year, month).

Simple interest on the other hand is interest paid on the principal alone.

Another way you can think of it, is that compound interest is a geometric sequence while simple
interest is an arithmetic sequence.
SIMPLE INTEREST CALCULATION
In simple interest the difference is always the same.
Eg. Your starting investment is 100 Dollars. There is a fixed addition of 50 dollars per year.
U1 = 100
d = 50
What is your investment in 10 years?
Use the formula: I = PrT
P = Principal (starting, 100)
R = percentage rate (IN DECIMAL FORM 50/100 = 0.5)
T = Time (IN YEARS, 10)
I = 100 x 0.5 x 10
I = 500
This is your interest gained. To find the end money of your investment, add the principal.
COMPOUND INTEREST
In compound interest, the interest is added to the initial investment and every interval
You can use the formula:

Other geometric sequences problems

Series (Sum of a Sequence)

A series is just the sum of all the terms in a sequence
Soifwehavethesequence2,4,6,8,10
Theserieswouldbe2+4+6+8+10=30

Sigma notation

Arithmetic series
- Sn = (n/2)(2U1 + (n-1)d)
- or

Eg.k=0
n=7
d=2
U1=0
Gofrom0to(71)so6terms
(0+6x2)=12

Sum of a finite geometric sequence

Sn=U1(1rn)/(1r)
rcannotbe1

Sum of an infinite geometric sequence

- When r is a decimal between 0 and 1, rnconvergesto0asnapproachesinfinity
The (1rn)partoftheformulabecomes1
SothetoppartoftheformulabecomesU1(1)whichisU1
SotheformulaforaninfinitegeometricsequenceisS=U1/(1r)

1.2 Exponents and Logs

Exponent Laws
Multiplication:
When you multiply two numbers with the same base, you add the exponents.
ax x an = ax+n
eg. 42 x 43 = 45
Division:
When you divide two numbers with the same base, you subtract the exponents.
ax / an= ax-n
eg. 42 / 43 = 4-1
Brackets:
When you have a number in brackets with an exponent outside of the brackets, you can multiply the
exponents.
(ax )n = ax n
eg. (42)3 = 46
Multiplication Number Two:
If you are multiplying two numbers with different bases and the same exponent, you can multiply the
bases together and keep them in a bracket, with the exponent outside of the bracket.
ax x bx = (ab)x
eg. 42 x 52 = 202
Division Number Two:
If you are dividing two numbers with different bases and the same exponent, the same logic applies.
ax / bx = (a/b)x
eg. 42 / 52 = 0.85

Logarithm Laws
Why we use logs
Logs are used when we have a variable in the exponents. If we had to solve 2x=16, how would you do it?
Its pretty obvious that x = 4, but with larger and more complicated numbers, we need to use logs
Take the log of both sides - log2x = log16

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Bring the x down Divide both sides by log2 Put it in your calculator! -

x log2 = log16
x = log16/log2
x=4

Adding Logs
When you are adding two logs with the same bases, the values in the brackets can be multiplied together
to form one log.
loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy)
eg. log 10 + log 5 = log 50
Subtracting Logs
When you are subtracting logs with the same base, the values in the brackets can be divided to form one
log.
loga (x) - loga (y) = loga (x/y)
eg. log 10 - log 2 = log 5
Floating Exponent
When there is an exponent in your log, the exponent can float down in front of your log to multiply
everything instead.
loga (x)2 = 2 loga (x)
eg. log (10)2= 2 log 10
Same Base and Variable
When the value of the log and the base are the same, the solution will always be 1.
loga (a) = 1
Changing Base Rule
To change bases of logs, divide log base x (new base) of the value divided by log base x of the old base.
logb (a) = logc a/logc b
eg. log10 5 = log2 5/log2 10
Changing numbers to logs
To change numbers into logs, raise the base of the log by that number.
a = logb(ba)
eg. 2 = log10(10^2)
2 = log10100
Watch Out!
- Logs can never be negative
- Logs cant be zero
- There are other small rules but if we understand the concepts above, WE will be OK
This is a graph for Y=log2(x)

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As we can see, x never reaches 0 or negative

This proves :
Logs can never be negative
Logs cant be zero
This is a log question that I found interesting and may be on the exam paper
log3(x)+log3(x+8)=log9
log3(x2+8x)=log9
x2+8x=9
x2+8x-9=0
(x-1)(x+9)=0
x=1 or x=-9
What is wrong with this student answer?
Answer is log cannot be negative that (-9) is wrong

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1.3 The binomial Theorem

NOTINEXAM

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Topic 2 - Functions and Equations

2.1 - Concept of Functions
- A relation is any set of points on the cartesian plane
- A function is a relation such that no two ordered pairs have the same x-coordinate.
- (Xs dont repeat!)
Recognizing if a set is a function:

Use the Vertical line test

If the line touches two points, the set of points are not a function
The set of values that x can be is called the domain
The output of the domain is called the range (values that y can be)

How to find the domain and range of a function

Basicallyyouhavetofindcertaininputvalueswhichdonotproduceavalidoutput.
Letsusetheexample:f(x)=3/(x1)
Sowhatxvalueswillmakef(x)undefined?
Ifx=1,thedenominatorwillbe0.Dividingby0isundefined.Thereforethedomaincannot
includex=1
Keeplookingforundefinederrorsandyouwillfindthedomain.

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Tofindtherangeofagraph,checkifthegraphisaparabolaandfindthevertex.Thisisyour
minimumyvalue.Fromthereonyoucanfindtherange.
Ifthefunctionisexponential,theyvalueswillnevertouch0orgounderneath.y>0

2.2 - Graphing Functions

There are various different ways of graphing functions, and each should show the most important
elements of the function. Ultimately, you are required to clearly indicate the y and x intercepts (there can
be no or multiple x - intercepts) and also the the minimum/maximum point of the graph.
Methods of graphing functions:
- Graphic Display Calculator
- Simple sketch (has to include most important details)
Graphic Display Calculator:
To graph a function on your GDC, press the y= button on the top right corner of your calculator. Insert
the function provided, and use f(x) as Y. Make sure to include brackets where necessary (especially with
fractions!). Now press graph on the top right corner. This will direct you to a grid that showcases your
graph. If you cannot see the graph, go to the zoom menu and adjust accordingly (zoom 6 is usually best).
Y intercept: locate your y intercept by pressing 2nd followed by calc. Choose the first option and let X =
0. The following y - coordinate will be your y intercept.
X intercept: For the x intercepts, repeat the previous step, but select the second option in the calc
menu, and set a left and right bound for the chosen x intercept. Press guess and you will receive the
coordinates for one of your x - intercepts.
Maximum/Minimum: Again, proceed to the calc menu, but this time, select the maximum or
minimum option. Set a left and right bound for your maximum/minimum and press guess. This will
give you the coordinates of your maximum/minimum point.
Sketch:
You can use the equation given to you to find the main features of the graph you are looking for and
create a rough sketch of it. To do this, you are often required to alternate between different quadratic
forms.
Vertex form: Gives you the vertex and the line of symmetry a(x - p)2 +h.
- eg. 3(x-6)2 + 3 Vertex: (6,3) , equation of symmetry: x = 6
Factored form: Provides you with both the x intercepts a(x-y) (x-z).
- eg. 2(x-5) (x-6) X intercepts: 5 and 6
Standard form: Provides you with the y intercept ax2 + bx + c.
- eg. 2x2 + 5x + 7 Y intercept: 7

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2.3 - Transformations
A graph can be transformed in various ways by moving it around or even changing the graph itself.
I will show you all the different ways by using the function f(x) = x2.
Thisisthegraphofthefunctionf(x)=x2
This graph can be changed in several ways
- Translating the graph in the y and x axis.
- Stretching the graph in the y and x axis.

How will this affect the graph?

The simplest transformation is the translation in the y axis.
To this you just add a number behind the x term without
brackets.
Eg. f(x) = x2 + 3
As you can see the graph of f(x) = x2 + 3 has moved the first
function (x2) 3 up!

To translate the function in the x axis, you add the inverse of a

number right behind the x term in brackets.
Eg. f(x) = (x-1)2
As you can see the graph f(x) = (x-1)2 has moved one to the right
on the x axis from the original f(x) = x2 function!

Now youre probably wondering why the graph moved in the

opposite direction of what you added to x.
Well let me show you some proof.
When x is one in f(x) = x2, y is one.
When x is two in f(x) = x2, y is 4
When x is one in f(x) = (x-1)2, y is 0
When x is 2 in f(x) = (x-1)2, y is 1. As you can see, the y values are one behind compared to when f(x) =
x2 and therefore the inverse of the number you want the graph to translate is used.

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Now what happens if you multiply the whole function by a number?

Eg. f(x) = 0.35(x2)
As you can see from the graph, the number before the
whole function stretches/ compresses the graph in the y
direction.
For this to happen, the whole function has to be affected
so the brackets are needed.
C > 1 Stretches it
0 < C < 1 Compresses it

What happens when you multiply x by a number?

Eg. f(x) = 2x2
As you can see from the graph, the number multiplying the x value
stretches/ compresses it in the x-direction.
The bigger the x value, the larger the compression is (compared to
y axis stretch).
C > 1 Compresses it
0 < C < 1 Stretches it

What happens if the sign is negative in f(-x) or like this -f(x)?

Eg. f(x) = x
f(-x) reflects the original function in the y axis
-f(x) reflects the original function in the x axis

As a Summary:

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2.4 - Reciprocal Functions

- These functions take the form f(x) = k/x, where k is a number and x can not be 0
Graph of y = 1/x

Graph of y = -1/x

Graph of y = 2/x

Graph of -0.5/x

2.5 - Quadratic Forms

Vertexform: y = a(x h) + k
- (h, k) tells you the vertex of the graph. If they both at 0 then the vertex is at the origin.
- If a is positive then the graph opens upwards like a smiley face.

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- If a is negative then the graph opens downwards like a sad face cause nobody likes them
negatives.
- To find a you first find the vertex coordinates, and then use substitution from another point on
the graph.
e.g. y = a(x 3) 4 and (2.6, 3.2)
3.2 = a(2.6 3) 4
3.2 = a( 0.4)-4

0.8 = 16a
5 = a
- Changing the a value makes the graph wider or thinner.
- Changing the h translates the graph to the right or to the left.
- Changing the k value translates the graph up or down.

Factorizedform: y = (x q)(x p)
- q and p are the x-intercepts. Knowing these can help you make quick sketches.

Standardfrom: y = ax + bx + c
- The a , b, and c values refer to the values of the quadratic formula.
- The c value is the y-intercept.
- The formula for the axis of symmetry can be found from this form as well. It is known as
x = b 2a . (This is the x coordinate of the vertex)

- Here is a great chart to show how to convert between the different quadratic forms:

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Examples:

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2.6 - Quadratic Formula and Discriminant

- There are many ways to solve quadratic equations:
- Quadratic Equation
x = (b b

4ac)/2a
- Calculator
- Graphing it and finding the intercept of the two sides of the equation.
- Factoring into either double or single brackets but nobody likes factoring so just use the
equation, yo. Or you know, completing the square somehow. I think that goes in the algebra
category.
- Guessing.
- The Discrimination.
= b 4ac
The discriminant gives an indication of the type of root that the quadratic will give. If the discriminant is
equal to zero, there are two identical roots which will give one real solution. If the discriminant is
greater than zero, the equation will have two distinct roots which means two solutions. If the
discriminant is less than zero, there will be no solution.
e.g For the equation y= x2-4x+4, there is only one solution which means that on the parabola
there is only one x intercept.

2.7 - Inverse Functions

All an inverse function is when a function is reflected in the equation y=x.
So on the left we see the original function of x^2 which is reflection in the
y=x (the grey line) to give the inverse of x.
(the reason the blue line doesnt go under the x axis is because if it did, a
single x value would have 2 y values, rendering it a non-function)

Solving for the inverse

The general method for this is to switch the x and y values in the equation.
What this means is
y=(2x-3)/12 will become x=(2y-3)/12
Now all that needs to be done is solve for y.
12x=2y-3
12x+3=2y
(12x+3)/2=y
This will be the inverse function.

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Another example could be

log(base3)2x+9=y
The inverse function of this will be:
log(base3)2y+9=x
3^x=2y+9
((3^x)-9)/2=y this would be the inverse.

The above graph shows the general relationship between exponential functions and their inverses.
We see that the e^x graph is the inverse of the lnx graph.
This will work when we switch the variables and prove that it is so.
e^x=y
switch variables
e^y=x
lnx=y

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2.8 - Exponential Functions

- Exponential functions are functions where the variable is now the power, rather than the base.
- Previously you have dealt with functions such as f(x) = x2, where the variable was the base and the
number 2 was the power.
- Exponential functions on the other hand look like this: f(x) = 2x
Lets evaluate this function by creating a table of points.

Remember that when the x values are negative, the y values will become smaller and smaller.
Thats why a exponential graph will never touch the x axis due to the function converging to y = 0
You can see this behavior from the graph below:

This is where the term exponential growth comes from.

Also expect most exponential functions to have a positive number other than 1 as their base. If you think
about it having a negative number would result in a very wonky graph. Even powers would give you
positive answers (-2)2 = 4, while odd powers would give you negative answers (-2)3 = -8.

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Topic 3 - Circular Functions and Trigonometry

3.1 - Radians
3.2 - To do with cos , sin , and tan
3.3 - Double Angle Formulae
3.4 - Circular Functions + Composite of f (x) = asin(b(x + c)) + d
3.5 - Solving Trigonometric Equations and their Graphs
3.6 - Solution of Triangles

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Topic 4 - Matrices
4.1 - Definitions
4.2 - Algebra of Matrices
4.3 - Determinant of a Square Matrix
4.4 - Solution of Systems of Linear Equations with Inverse Matrices

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Topic 5 - Vectors
5.1 - Vector Basics
5.2 - Scalar Products
5.3 - r = a + tb and Angle between Two Lines
5.4 - Coincident and Parallel Lines and Intersections

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Topic 6 - Statistics and Probability

6.1 - Concepts
6.2 - Presentation of Data
6.3 - Basic Statistics and Measures of the Average
6.4 - Cumulative Frequency
6.5 - Probability of Events and Complimentary Events
6.6 - Combined Events
6.7 - Conditional Probability
6.8 - Diagrams to Solve Problems
6.9 - Discrete Random Variables and Expected Value of Mean
6.10 - Binomial Distribution
6.11 - Normal Distribution

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Topic 7 - Calculus
7.1 - Limits, Convergence, Derivatives.
7.2 - Differentiation, Chain Rule, Product/Quotient Rule, Second Derivatives
7.3 - Local Maximum and Minimum Points
7.4 - Indefinite Integration and Integral and Composites with Linear Function
ax + b
7.5 - Anti-Differentiation, Definite Integrals, Curves, Volume of Revolution
7.6 - Kinematic Problems
7.7 - Graphical Behaviour of Functions, Significance of Derivative, Points of
Inflection.

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