Analysing Tibetan Titles-Towards A Genre-Based Classification of Tibetan Literature

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES:

TOWARDS A GENRE-BASED CLASSIFICATION
OF TIBETAN LITERATURE*
Orna ALMOGI
Cet article porte sur les titres des ouvrages littraires tibtains, en
particulier sur les critres qui ont prsid leur choix et sur leurs
incidences pour les bibliothcaires ainsi que sur les lecteurs de
littrature tibtaine. La premire partie prsente les thories des
auteurs tibtains contemporains et passs relatives aux titres littraires.
Tout dabord, les deux points qui sont souvent prsents dans les
sources traditionnelles, savoir la ncessit dun titre et les critres de
son choix, sont prsents. Par ailleurs, lopinion rcemment exprime
par un auteur tibtain contemporain sur la diffrence entre le mode
traditionnel du choix dun titre et le mode actuel (au regard de la posie
moderne) est analyse. Dans la seconde partie, les titres tibtains
littraires sont analyss et valus en tant que vecteurs potentiels
dinformation permettant la dtermination du genre littraire (en termes
de fond et de forme) Dans ce contexte, les titres descriptifs et
ornementaux sont discuts. Cette partie se conclut avec une brve
allusion limportance des diffrents types de titres, qui tous peuvent
tre utiles aux diffrents genres littraires. Les diffrents titres et leur
signification sont discuts dans lappendice. Ces titres incluent les titres
originaux, tels que ceux crits dans le colophon de lauteur, les titres
ditoriaux trouvs sur la page de garde, dans les marges, dans les
index, etc. ainsi que ceux qui sont bien connus et dun usage rpandu.
En conclusion sont discuts les titres sanskrits des ouvrages tibtains.
1. General Remarks
In the last decades the number of available Tibetan works has increased
dramatically and with it the need to systematically catalogue the existing
collections found in libraries around the world. Tibetan literature, as is well
known, includes a great variety of genres and topics, some of which are unique to
the Tibetan domain, and therefore requires a comprehensive cataloguing scheme
especially designed for it.
* I would like to express my thanks to Dorji Wangchuk for going through this paper
and for his helpful remarks. I would also like to thank Dr. Anne MacDonald for her careful
reading of the paper and for her useful comments. My thanks are also due to Prof. David
Jackson for reading an earlier version of this paper.
Cahiers dExtrme-Asie 15 (2005) : 27-58
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ORNA ALMOGI
The two most important sources for a genre-based classification of Tibetan

literature are literary titles and the Tibetan genre terms contained in them. One
soon realizes, however, that classifying Tibetan texts by mechanically relying on
the Tibetan terms is no real solution. This has already been noticed by other
scholars. Gene Smith, for example, has on several occasions noted how difficult
it is to devise a classification scheme for Tibetan genres based on
interpretations of Tibetan terms, mentioning dkar chag as a particularly
perplexing genre name.1 Schoening, discussing the same problem in connection
with historical literature, adds:2
My own efforts to devise a classification scheme for Tibetan historical genres using
Tibetan terms have brought me to a thorough appreciation of Gene Smiths
remarks. Genre classification according to Tibetan terms is a mystery we Western
scholars have yet to solve. And, to the best of my knowledge, no Tibetan has
devised any formal criteria for classifying historical literary genres, either.
Unwritten tradition, presumably, has guided Tibetan authors and publishers in the
genre designation given to works in their titles and margins, but what do we really
know about this tradition or its evolution over time?
Schoening discusses some of the difficulties he sees in a mechanical classification

based on Tibetan terms. He raises basically four points:3
1) The meaning and usage of a genre term may change over time.4
2) A work may be designated as one genre but actually be primarily another.5
3) Some Tibetan genre terms have an overly broad application.6
4) A work may be designated as one genre in the title and as another in the margin.7
Does this mean that Tibetan literary titles or the Tibetan genre terms
included in them are of little help for classifying Tibetan literature and thus
should not be relied upon? Schoening concludes that in spite of the problems
involved in classification schemes based on Tibetan genre names, they cannot be
simply ignored, since most titles include genre designations.8 In the following, I
shall attempt to show how the titles and the genre terms appearing in them, as
1
See Smith 1970, p. [1] and also Smith 1969, Appendix I, pp. 12-15, where he
discusses the genre of gdan rabs.
2
Schoening 1988, p. 424.
3
Ibid., p. 425.
4
As an example, Schoening cites the term lo rgyus, which originally meant
chronicles and now can be used in addition to designate narration of any kind. This,
according to Schoening, is greatly diminishing the terms usefulness as a genre term.
5
As an example, Schoening refers to Thuu bkwan Blo bzang chos kyi nyi mas
account of dGon lung monastery, which is designated as dkar chag even though it consists
mostly of what could be regarded as a gdan rabs (see also Smith 1969, p. 7).
6
Schoening notes the term dkar chag as an example of a term with broad application.
7
Schoening, discussing the broad application of some of the Tibetan terms,
provides examples of works which have the term dkar chag in the title and brgyud yig in
the margin, and of works which have the terms rtogs brjod and dkar chag or byung tshul
and dkar chag, respectively.
8
Schoening 1988, p. 425.
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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES
29
problematic as they sometimes may seem, may be more helpful than we have
tended to think.
Tibetan literary titles are, to be sure, often far from simple. They may be quite
long and contain flowery language, a tendency that seems to have increased over
the centuries.9 They often consist of two main components: a descriptive part and
an ornamental one. It is the descriptive part that is normally more informative with
regard to both the subject matter and genre and therefore more relevant to our
discussion. A classification based on the ornamental title alone is nearly always
impossible. Nonetheless, this part of the title may provide hints that can be useful
for the analysis of a literary title. Furthermore, a single text may have more than
one title; the other title(s), as Schoening points out in the context of discussing
abridged titles in the margin, may contain (seemingly) conflicting information.
In the following, I suggest that for the development of a comprehensive
general scheme and for the classification of a particular text, three factors have to
be taken into consideration: 1) the descriptive components of the titles, including
the genre terms appearing in them, 2) the ornamental components of the titles,
and 3) any additional titles of one and the same text, especially if these contain
different genre terms. But first I would like to briefly touch upon the way literary
titles are conceived by scholars of the tradition itself.
My examination of numerous early works shows that in earlier times titles seem to
have been much shorter and consisted mainly of a descriptive part (see, for example, the list
of the works of the eleventh-century scholar Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po compiled by
Rong pa Me dpung in his rJe dharma bha dras mdzad pai chos kyi rnam grangs kyi tho yig,
Rong zom gsung bum, vol. 3, fols. [324-329]; the list also appears in Almogi 1997,
Appendix A, pp. 242-248), and probably originally often lacked a title altogether (as it may
be concluded, for example, from an examination of Rong zom pas collected writings; see
Almogi 1997, pp. 119-232). Later works are characterized by longer titles that include
especially long and flowery ornamental parts. This tendency, which reflects the general
development of the Tibetan style in general, has increased over the centuries. As has been
already observed by other scholars, the translation of the Kvydara as well as of other
Indian works on poetry and related areas into Tibetan in the thirteenth century (and the
Kvydaras retranslations and revisions in the following centuries) had an immense
influence on Tibetan literary style in general, which accordingly became more elaborate
and ornamental. As noted by Tucci, the effect was immediate as can be seen in some of
Phags pas (1235-1280) and, sometime later, of Bu stons (1290-1364) works; by the
seventeenth century it dominated, for example, the prose style of the Fifth Dalai Lama
(1617-1682) (Tucci 1949, pp. 103-104). This development had, no doubt, its effect on the
assignment of titles to autochthonous works. The literary titles, too, became more
elaborate and flowery, and longer, as demonstrated by the titles assigned to the works of
later authors such as the nineteenth-century Ris med master Kong sprul Blo gros mtha yas
(1813-1899). On the influence of Indian poetry on Tibetan literature, see also Leonard
W. J. van der Kuijp 1996, Tibetan Belles-Lettres: The Influence of Dain and
Kemendra, in Tibetan Literature. Studies in Genre. Eds. Jos Ignacio Cabezn and Roger
R. Jackson. Snow Lion, Ithaca, pp. 393-410.
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ORNA ALMOGI
2. Discussions of Literary Titles by Tibetan Authors

2.1. Discussions in Traditional Sources
Schoening states that he is not aware of any traditional formal criteria for
classifying historical literary genres; I have not been able to locate such criteria in
the traditional sources either. Nevertheless, discussions regarding the significance
of the titles and attempts to analyze their various components have by no means
been limited to Western scholarship. Traditional scholars have long recognized
the importance of titles, as is evident in their discussions of them. It should,
however, be noted here that these discussions by no means aim at providing a
practical guide for genre designation, and are rather theoretical discussions, often
found in various Tibetan commentaries to Indian works where the title of the text
to be commented on is explained. Such title analyses occur, for example, in
various commentaries to the Kvydara and in discussions on hermeneutics (bshad
thabs) found in rNying ma tantric commentarial works, particularly in connection
with the *Guhyagarbhatantra.10 It should also be noted that the criteria for
assigning a title as well as the examples of titles given occur mostly in the context
of Indian literature. Yet, as Indian literature served as a model for the Tibetans,
its influence on the Tibetan literary tradition also affected views regarding the
assignment of titles. The passages in which the traditional Tibetan scholars
discuss titles seem mainly to be concerned with: 1) the necessity of a title and
2) the criteria according to which a title is assigned.
2.1.1. The Necessity of a Title
Tibetan scholars often explain that naming a text is necessary for the sake of its
identification. As scriptural support, they often quote the following verse from the
Lakvatrastra:11
If [phenomena] would not be named,
All worldly [beings] would be confused.
Thus, in order to dispel confusion,
[Phenomena] should be named.
Moreover, it is often claimed that a person of sharp faculty can grasp the meaning
and content of an entire text by way of understanding its title only. For instance,
10
See, for example, the Phyogs bcui mun sel, pp. 11-15, where Klong chen pa
comments upon the title of the *Guhyagarbhatantra, as well as discusses this tantras lack
of Sanskrit title.
11
Lang kar gshegs pai mdo (tani 775, The Tibetan Tripitaka, vol. 29, p. 74.2.3-4;
Thoku 107, The Nyingma Edition, vol. 18, p. 378.4.1-2): ming ni brjod par ma byas na|| jig
rten thams cad rmongs par gyur|| de bas rmongs pa bsal bai phyir|| ming du gdags par bya ba
yin||. This verse is cited, for example, in the Daii dgongs rgyan, p. 27, in the Kun dpal
spyod grel, p. 161, and also in the sPyod grel bum bzang, p. 3. Note, however, that the three
citations read slightly differently.
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the Khog gzhung gsal sgron attributed to Vimalamitra (8th cent.) states:12
To [one of] sharp [faculty] the title is shown, for [one of] mediocre [faculty]
classification [is made], [and] for [one of] meagre [faculty] each syllable and each
line should be commented upon.13
sMin gling lo chen Dharma shr (1654-1718), in commenting upon this verse,
employs the following analogies: Explaining the title to those of sharp faculties is
like a physicians diagnosing a disease in the entire body on the basis of the pulse
of the [patients] hand. The classification made for those of mediocre faculties is
similar to the label on a medicine container. And the commenting on each
syllable and each line for the sake of those of meagre faculties is like the
determination of a medicine on the basis of its different components even though
it is one single medicine.14 Klong chen rab byams pa Dri med od zer (13081373) states in this regard:15
As for knowing a thing by way of relying on [its] name, just like [someone], by
[relying on] the term pot, understands a [certain] thing to be [something] with
a bulging belly (lto ldir) and a narrow bottom (zhabs zhum) that [can] contain
water (chu skyor ba), a person of very sharp faculty would grasp [the meaning of
the *Guhyagarbhatantra] simply through [its title], since this title shows all
phenomena as one maala of primordial awakening. This is the purpose [of
assigning a title].16
Dharma shr also refers to the methods of explaining a tantra as set forth by Zur
po che Shkya byung gnas (1002-1062). One of the methods described by him
as explaining [the tantra] by holding [its] tip just like [holding the tip of] an
arrow (mda ltar rtse mo nas bzung ste bshad pa) is the method of explaining the
text by way of elucidating its title. Dharma shr comments in the context of
12
As cited in Dharma shrs gSang bdag zhal lung, p. 151.4: rab la mtshan bstan bring la
dbye|| tha mar bru gnyer dgrol bao [ = ba o]||.
13
Rong zom pa, in his explanation of the *Guhyagarbhatantra, follows the method
presented in the Khog gzhung gsal sgron. In his medium-sized commentary, the gSang snying
khog dbub bring po, he provides, for persons of keen faculties, an explanation of the title of
the tantra, for persons of middling faculties a brief description of the five sub-topics of the
tantra, and for persons of dull faculties he refers the reader to his extensive commentary,
the dKon cog grel (see Almogi 1997, pp. 129-130).
14
gSang bdag zhal lung, p. 151.4-5: dbang po rab la mtshan bstan pa sman pas lag gi rtsa la
brten nas lus mgo mjug gi nad ngos dzin pa lta bu| bring la rnam par dbye ba sman snod kyi
kha byang lta bu| tha ma la bru re gnyer res chad pa sman gcig kyang chos du mas gtan la bebs
pa lta buo||.
15
Phyogs bcui mun sel, p. 11.4-5: ming la brten nas don go ba ni bum pa zhes pai ming las
lto ldir zhabs zhum chu skyor bai dngos po go bar byed pa ltar| mtshan di nyid las chos thams cad
ye nas sangs rgyas pai dkyil khor gcig tu bstan pas| dbang po shin tu rnon pos de tsam gyis rtogs
pai dgos pa yod do||.
16
For similar remarks, see also Klong chen pas Chos dbyings mdzod grel, fol. 3a3-4:
dbang po rnon po dag ming mthong ba tsam gyis don rtogs par gyur ba dang| bstan bcos kyi rdo
rjei lus mdor bstan pa yin no zhes shes par bya bai phyir bkod pa ste|.
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ORNA ALMOGI
discussing the title of the *Guhyagarbhatantra that this is done by condensing all
phenomena into the three [phases of] basis (gzhi), path (lam) and result (bras bu).17
The above statements demonstrate, no doubt, the importance given to literary
titles by the tradition.
Bod mkhas pa dGe legs rnam rgyal (1618-1685), while explaining the purpose
of assigning a name in general and a title in particular, first quotes the previously
cited verse from the Lakvatrastra and then states:18
The purpose of giving such a title is [as follows]: 1) By assigning a title on the front
page (klad), an easy search (i.e., easy identification) [is enabled]. 2) By giving a
subject-related (don ldan) title (i.e., descriptive title) to the work,19 a person of sharp
faculty would understand the subject matter correctly by relying on the title
[alone], [a person] of mediocre [faculty] would understand [it] superficially, and
even a dull [person] would know the connection between the title and the work in
the context of word (brda), and realize the subject matter from the title in the
context of conventional designation (tha snyad).20 And 3) there is [also] the purpose
of [making one] recall the title upon seeing the work.
Similar remarks are found in other works, such as the commentary to the
Bodhicaryvatra by mKhan po Kun dpal (19th cent.).21
17
gSang bdag zhal lung, pp. 149.6-150.2.

Daii dgongs rgyan, p. 27: de lta bui mtshan de btags pai dgos pa ni| ming klad du smos
pas btsal sla| don de la don ldan gyi ming btags pas| dbang po rab kyis ming la brten nas don phyin
ci ma log par go| bring gis rnam pa tsam go| tha mas kyang brda dus su ming don brel ba shes|
tha snyad kyi dus su ming las don rtogs shing| don mthong ba las ming dran par gyur bai dgos pa
yod la|
19
Note that Bod mkhas pa employs here the term don to refer to both the thing itself,
i.e., the work, and its contents, i.e., the subject matter.
20
For the terms brda and tha snyad, see, for example, the Sa pa mkhas jug rtsa grel,
pp. 6 (for the basic text) & 106ff. (for the commentary). Cf. also the Mi pham mkhas jug,
p. 190, where the various kinds of tha snyad are discussed.
21
Kun dpal spyod grel, p. 161: In particular, since [the title] here is given on the basis
of the subject matter, a person of sharp faculty will grasp all meanings of the entire (lit.
[from] head [to] feet) [text] by merely seeing the title. [A person of] mediocre [faculty] will
grasp [the meaning] partially, [and a person of] dull [faculty will be able to] easily locate [a
desired] book [by its title], just like [identifying] a labelled medicine container. [This] is
the purpose [of assigning a title] (khyad par dir brjod bya las btags pas| dbang po rab kyis
mtshan tsam mthong bas dbu zhabs kyi don thams cad khong du chud| bring gis phyogs tsam
rtogs| tha mas sman snod la kha byang btags pa ltar glegs bam btsal sla bai dgos pa yod do||).
Cf. also Klong chen pas Phyogs bcui mun sel, p. 12.2: Moreover, because [one can] know
things on the basis of [their] names, it is easy to locate a book [on the basis of its title], just
as [one is able to identify] a medicine [on the basis of its] label. [The title also enables one
to] know the category [to which the work] belongs just as a military target [enables a
soldier to point his arrow in the right direction] (gzhan yang ming las don go bas glegs bam
btsal sla ba sman gyi kha byang lta bu dang| phyogs gar gtogs shes pas [ = pa?] dmag mii mda
byang lta bur|).
18
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2.1.2. The Criteria for Assigning a Title

Tibetan scholars name several criteria according to which titles are given. Bod
mkhas pa, for example, while discussing the title Kvydara, states:22
In general, designated names23 [can] be given for the [following] reasons: similarity,
connection [and] contrast. In particular, as for the tradition of allotting the titles of
stras and tantras (bka) and of stras, it is stated in a commentary to the
Sadhinirmocanastra: The titles of all [works] belonging to the scriptures come
about from four factors, [namely], place, metaphor, person and subject matter.24
Nevertheless, although [only] four [factors] are specified [in this commentary to the
Sadhinirmocanastra], the learned ones maintain that titles are also assigned on
account of [further three factors], which are not included there, [namely], the cause,
the result and the size of the scripture.
After providing examples for each case,25 he goes on to say:26

In the Travel Account of Lord [Atia[ (Jo boi lam yig) it is stated: Lord [Atia],
having composed the Bodhipathapradpa, asked (bka rmed pa): What kind of
22
Daii dgongs rgyan, pp. 25-26: spyir btags ming la dra ba rgyu mtshan du byas pa dang|
brel ba rgyu mtshan du byas pa| ldog pa rgyu mtshan du byas pa rnams su yod cing| bye brag bka
bstan bcos kyi mtshan dogs lugs la| mdo dgongs grel gyi grel pa las| gsung rab tu gtogs pa thams
cad kyi ming ni rnam pa bzhi las gyur te| yul dang| dpe dang| gang zag dang| don las so zhes
bzhir gsungs kyang| der ma dus pa| rgyu dang bras bu dang| gzhung tshad kyi ming gis btags
pa yang yod ces mkhas pa dag bzhed de|.
23
For the difference between dngos ming and btags ming, see, for example, the recent
work by mKhan po Padma shes rab entitled brDa shan byed the tshom drwa ba gcod pai ral
grii mchan grel gyi gsal byed nyin moi snang ba, Ngagyur Nyingma Institute, Bylakuppe,
1997, p. 31ff. See also the Tshig mdzod chen mo, s.v. dngos ming and btags ming.
24
Bod mkhas pa refers here to the Phags pa dgongs pa nges par grel pai mdoi rnam par
bshad pa by Byang chub rdzu phrul (for the author, see Ernst Steinkellner, Who is Byang
chub rdzu phrul? Tibetan and non-Tibetan Commentaries on the Sadhinirmocanastra
A survey of the literature, Berliner Indologische Studien 4/5, 1989, pp. 229-251). See tani
5845, The Tibetan Tripitaka, vol. 144, p. 193-5.8ff.; Thoku 4358, The Nyingma Edition,
vol. 105, p. 4-2.3ff. (note, however, that the canonical version reads slightly differently).
25
Bod mkhas pa provides several examples for each of the following cases: titles
assigned on the basis of the place, by employing a metaphor, on the basis of the person,
on the basis of the subject matter, on the basis of the result, and on account of the size of
the treatise, all of the examples being Indian works (stras and stras). He then adds that
it is also said that there are titles assigned on the basis of the metre (Daii dgongs rgyan,
p. 26: de yang ga ya go rii mdo| po a la kai gzungs| ko sa lai rgyan zhes pa lta bu yul dang|
s lu ljang pai mdo| rnam grel gyi rgyan zhes pa lta bu dpe dang| dri ma med par grags pas
bstan pai mdo dang| tsandra pai mdo zhes pa gang zag dang| sangs rgyas sai mdo| tshad mai
mdo zhes pa lta bu don dang| gtsug tor dkar mo lta bu rgyu dang| rims nad rab tu zhi bar byed
pa lta bu bras bu dang| stong phrag brgya paam| sum cu pa lta bu gzhung tshad dang| dge
slong gi tshig leur byas pa la me tog phreng rgyud ces pa lta bu sdeb sbyor gyi ming gis btags pa
yang yod par gsungs la| ...).
26
Daii dgongs rgyan, p. 26: jo boi lam yig las ni jo bos byang chub lam gyi sgron ma bya ba
mdzad nas| khyed bod na mtshan gyi dogs lugs ji lta bu yod ces bka rmed pa la| bod ston rnams
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ORNA ALMOGI
tradition of assigning titles do you have in Tibet? The Tibetan teachers
answered: [We] assign titles according to the subject matter, [by employing] a
metaphor, [according to the name of the] place [or the name of] the requesting
person, and so forth. Thereupon [Atia] said: Oh, there are many discourses in
Tibet unheard of in India. He then uninterruptedly27 narrated the stories of the
abduction of St and of the killing of the yaka A-sha,28 and said, In reality, all
phenomena are named.29
In the context of explaining the rNying ma hermeneutic term five initial

assessments (rtsis go lnga), Dharma shr mentions five criteria according to which
texts are named, namely, according to the land, by employing a metaphor,
according to the person, the size of the treatise and the subject matter, and
provides examples taken from Indian literature for each case.30 Likewise, mKhan
po Kun dpal indicates the following criteria according to which a title may be
assigned: the subject matter, the size of the treatise, the function of the work,
place, time, person, and metaphor.31 Tshe tan zhabs drung (1910-1985) also
touches upon this matter in his work on the fundamentals of Tibetan grammar.
There he mentions several modes of assigning a title and provides some examples
of titles of (mostly autochthonous) grammatical works: A work may be titled
according to the name of the author, such as the Tsndra pa, which was named
after its author Candragomin; according to the subject matter, such as Thon mi
sam bho as rTags kyi jug pa; according to the function or purpose of the treatise,
such as dPal khangs Dag yig ngag gi sgron me; according to the sources relied
upon, such as dNgul chu Dharma bha dras Si tui zhal lung; according to the
place; according to the requesting person; by connecting the subject matter to a
metaphor; and according to the size of the work. He concludes with the remark
that titles of later compositions sometimes also include an ornamental poetic
phrase, and adds that the Sum cu pa, the other grammatical work ascribed to
Thon mi sam bho a that he is commenting upon, is named according to the
kyis don la mtshan du gsol ba dang| dpe| yul| zhu ba po la sogs pa dogs zhus pas| a le bod na rgya
gar na med pai gtam mang po yod gsungs nas| rol rnyed ma phrogs pa dang| gnod sbyin a sha
bsad pai gtam rgyud zangs kyi [ = kyis] gsungs nas| chos thams cad don la mtshan du gsol ba yin
gsungs zhes byung
27
See brDa dkrol gser gyi me long, s.v. zangs kyis.
28
As already noted in de Jong 1994, p. 48, the abduction of St (rol rnyed ma phrogs
pa) is probably a title of a work, which was known to the compilers of the Mahvyutpatti
(see the Mahvyutpatti, no. 7629: stharaam, rol snyed phrogs / rol rnyed phrogs pa). In
regard to the story of the yaka A-sha-[pa], de Jong states that, as far as he knows, no
story with this title is known.
29
Note that Eimer understood this passage differently. For his translation of the
passage as it appears in Atias biography, see Eimer 1979, vol. 1, p. 236 ( 267); for the
Tibetan text, see ibid., vol. 2, p. 206 ( 267).
30
gSang bdag zhal lung, pp. 153.6-154.1: gsum pa ni| spyir mtshan gyi dogs lugs la| yul
dang| mtshon dpe dang| gang zag dang| gzhung tshad dang| don dang lnga las btags te|
31
Kun dpal spyod grel, p. 160: mtshan de gang gi sgo nas btags zhe na| spyir brjod byai don
dang| rjod byed kyi tshad dang| byed las dang| yul dus gang zag dpe sogs kyi sgo nas btags pa
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number of verses it includes.32 Treatments of literary titles also occur in other

treatises, all of which cannot be discussed here.33
2.2. Modern Tibetan Authors Views
Title assignment seems to be of interest to modern Tibetan authors as well, as
can be noted in Pema Bhums recent article on modern Tibetan poetry, where a
paragraph is devoted to the difference between the traditional way of assigning a
title and the current one with respect to modern Tibetan poetry.34 As noted by
Pema Bhum, discussions regarding title assignment were traditionally concerned
merely with religious treatises, and short poems such as the spiritual songs of the
yogis (mgur), which were not influenced by the tradition of the Kvydara, were
commonly not assigned titles. Authors of modern Tibetan poetry adopted a new
approach both in regard to matters concerning the composition itself and
regarding the assignment of titles. Pema Bhum states that Tibetan literary titles
influenced by the Kvydara have two components, which he designates as base
(khyad gzhi) and attributes (khyad chos), and argues that in such titles the
attributes are commonly regarded as more important than the base. According to
him, the base indicates the type of contents of the literary work and the
attributes mainly indicate how the contents of the work, and its mode of
expression, will benefit the reader.35 This appraisal of the value of a [traditional
32
Thon mii zhal lung, p. 45: spyir bstan bcos kyi ming dogs tshul la| slob dpon tsndra go mis
mdzad pai sgra mdo la tsndra ba zhes bod pa lta bu ni rtsom pa poi ming gis btags pa dang|
thon mis mdzad pai rtags kyi jug pa lta bu ni brjod byai don dang mthun pai sgo nas btags pa
dang| dpal khang gis mdzad pai dag yig ngag gi sgron me lta bu ni bstan bcos kyi byed las sam
dgos pai sgo nas ming btags pa dang| dngul chu dharma bha dras mdzad pai si tui zhal lung lta
bu ni gang la brten pai khungs bstan pai sgo nas btags pa dang| gzhan yang gnas dang| zhu ba
po dang| dpe don sbyor ba dang| bam po dang leui grangs las btags pa sogs dang| gangs can ljongs
su rig gnas kyi chad nyan rgya cher dar ba nas bzung bstan bcos gsar rtsom gyi mtshan la snyan
ngag gi tshig rgyan dang brel bai ming dogs tshul sna tshogs pa zhig yod pa las| dir sum cu ba la
sho lo kai grangs kyi sgo nas ming btags pao|| zhes shes par byao||.
33
See, for example, also the Chos dbyings mdzod grel, fol. 3a4-5, where Klong chen pa
states that there are three ways of assigning a title, namely, according to the subject matter,
by employing a metaphor or by way of combining both of these, and adds that in the title
of his work the Chos dbyings rin po chei mdzod both components are combined, i.e., the
phrase chos dbyings refers to the subject matter and the phrase rin po chei mdzod is the
metaphor. He then goes on to comment upon each word of the title (don la ming du dogs
paang| dpe dang| don dang| tshogs pa gsum gang rung la brten nas grel pa can gyi ming rnams
byung ba las| dir dpe don tshogs pai rim pa las mtshan nye bar btags te chos kyi dbyings ni don yin
la| rin po chei mdzod ces bya ba ni dpe ste| ...).
34
Pema Bhum 1999, pp. 4-5.
35
Ibid., p. 4. Pema Bhums division of Tibetan literary titles into the two components
of base and attributes corresponds by and large to the division into descriptive and
ornamental components presented above. I disagree, however, with his claim that the
attributes are commonly more important than the base. This may be the case for the
title he cites as an example, namely, the title Legs bshad gser phreng, which is, as he notes,
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 36
36
ORNA ALMOGI
Tibetan] literary work from the title, he concludes, is characteristic of the

influence of the Mirror of Poetry [i.e., Kvydara] in Tibet up to the present
day.36 He states in summary that the difference between titles assigned to
modern Tibetan poetry and those assigned to traditional Tibetan literary works is
that while writers of modern poetry assign a title in accordance with their own
mental processes, traditional writers assign a title by anticipating the feelings
that will come to the reader.37 This particular judgement of his, however, must
concern only the attributes, or, as I term it, the ornamental part of the title,
and not the base (my descriptive part).
3. Analysis and Evaluation of Tibetan Literary Titles

As already stated, three factors should be considered in analysing Tibetan
titles: 1) the descriptive components of the titles, 2) the ornamental components
of the titles, and 3) the various other titles assigned to one and the same work. In
the following, I shall discuss these three factors and attempt to provide examples
whenever they contribute to the discussion.38
3.1. Descriptive Titles
As stated above, the descriptive components of literary titles contain information
with regard to the subject matter and the genre of the respective works. The first
step towards analyzing Tibetan titles efficiently and dealing with the difficulties
involved should be a thorough study of each Tibetan genre term, aimed at
developing a scheme for classifying Tibetan works on the basis of these terms. For
such a scheme the various applications and meanings of each genre term will have
to be established. Limiting each Tibetan term to a single equivalent in English will
in most cases not work. Instead, all possible meanings and applications of a given
Tibetan genre term should be taken into consideration. This will allow and result
in, on the one hand, the inclusion of a single Tibetan genre term in various genre
the commonly used title even though it comprises only the attribute-component, as well
as for other works that are widely referred to by the attributes or the ornamental
components of their titles. Nonetheless, numerous other works that are widely referred to
by the descriptive components of their titles, occasionally in an abridged or modified form,
show exactly the opposite.
36
Ibid., p. 4. As illustration, Pema Bhum gives the title Deb ther dpyid kyi rgyal moi glu
[d]byangs, which he translates as Annals of the Songs of the Queen of Spring. According to his
theory of analysing literary titles, the component deb ther comprises what he calls the
base and the remaining component dpyid kyi rgyal moi glu dbyangs the attributes.
37
Ibid., p. 5.
38
For this preliminary discussion on Tibetan literary titles I have limited my basis
primarily to examples drawn from the NGMPP database (release 1), the TBRC online
database, and mKhyen brtsei dbang pos (1820-1892) as well as Rong zom Chos kyi bzang
pos collected writings (mKhyen brtse bka bum and Rong zom gsung bum, respectively). The
titles are thus indicated by the NGMPP reel nos., the TBRC codes, or by their exact
locations in the mKhyen brtse bka bum or the Rong zom gsung bum.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 37
37
categories and, on the other, the inclusion of various Tibetan genre terms in one
single genre category. Thus, to illustrate the first case, the genre term dkar chag will
be included in at least four, perhaps five, different genre categories, namely: 1) lists
of contents of single volumes, 2) bibliographical lists, 3) inventories or registers of
various items other than books, the last two categories being mere lists,
4) comprehensive catalogues of collections of either works or various other items,
thus descriptive accounts-cum-bibliographical lists or descriptive accounts-cuminventories, respectively,39 and, tentatively, 5) narrative accounts not containing or
not (directly) relating to a list or anything list-like.40
For the second type of grouping, all Tibetan genre terms that have similar
meaning or application should be noted, and assigned to the applicable genre
category. The genre category of lists of contents should thus include, in addition
to dkar chag, the Tibetan terms them byang and tho yig; bibliographical lists should
also include mtshan tho or mtshan byang, perhaps also spar tho and even gsan yig or
thob yig and lung thob pai yi ge; and inventories or registers of various kinds should
also include tho yig, them byang and bem(s) chag(s).41 In the case of the category of
comprehensive catalogues, no other genre term with similar application is known
to me. However, one does sometimes find comprehensive catalogues additionally
designated, e.g., in the abbreviated title in the margin, as chos byung, lo rgyus, dgag
39
Such catalogues have been classified by Vostrikov as historico-bibliographical

surveys and historico-geographical literature, respectively (Vostrikov 1970).
40
This application of the term dkar chag requires further studies. At least one title
could be found in the NGMPP database that suggests the use of the term dkar chag in this
sense: Das log dkar chags thar pai lam ston gsal bai sgron me (L 137/3), being the narrative
account of the genre type Return from the Netherworlds. Works whose titles contain
both the terms lo rgyus and dkar chag are also to be considered as possible cases for the
usage of the term dkar chag in the sense of narrative accounts. See, for example, the
following titles from the NGMPP database: Bai roi dra bag chen mo bzhugs so|| lo rgyus
don gyi bshad pa brtsol med bstan pai dkar chag (E 2883/6-E 2884/1), and the Dol po yul bzhi yi
lo rgyus dkar chag| ... (E 2878/5), neither of which seem to be a register or a list; both seem
rather to be narrative (or descriptive) accounts. As I have not been able to gain access to
these works at the time of writing this article, the exact employment of the term dkar chag
in these cases is yet to be determined.
41
The term bem(s) chag(s) is found less frequently than the term dkar chag. The brDa
dkrol gser gyi me long gives bem chag as a synonym for dkar chag. It cites the Dag yig legs bshad
tshig gter in this regard which in turn cites the bKa gdams pha chos. I have been able to
locate three titles containing the term bem(s) chag(s) in the NGMPP database: the Mi rje
chos rgyal rin po chei zab ri gnyer tshang gi bems chags, a list of goods from the storehouse of
the king of Mustang at rTsa grangs gser khang (L 142/7); the Bla ma dang sbyin bdag gnyis
kyis [ = kyi] bem chags gsal bai me long lta bur bzhugs pai dbu phyogs lags so, a list of the lamas
and patrons of the Sa skya monastery in Bijer Gaon (L 651/9); and an inventory of the
gNas gsar monastery including a list of the successive lamas, which is designated simply as
Bem chag (E 3017/27). The etymology of the term bem chag is not clear. Cf. the brDa dkrol
gser gyi me long, s. v. bem, where the term bem is explained as a vessel/container (rdza snod or
chu bem). The term bem chag seems, however, to be typically western dialect. See also the
discussion of the etymology of the term dkar chag in Martin 1996, pp. 505 and 511, n. 5.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 38
38
ORNA ALMOGI
lan, rtogs brjod, brgyud yig, etc., on account of the fact that great parts of them
contain historical and biographical accounts, as well as philosophical and even
polemical discussions. Thus the literature or the items listed, which warrant the
text being termed dkar chag, are embedded in comprehensive historical and
philosophical presentations.42 In such cases, the term dkar chag emphasizes the
fact that the work is constructed around a list, while the other terms emphasize
other aspects of the work. Moreover, the descriptive nature of dkar chags that
focus on a description of the construction or production of the items that they
list, such as temples, books and the like, may not be indicated only by way of
other terms of genre in the additional titles in the margins or elsewhere, but may
be made explicit in the title containing the term dkar chag by way of phrases such
as bzhengs tshul or bsgrubs tshul dkar chag, i.e., a descriptive account of the
construction/preparation.43 Furthermore, the titles of guide books to holy places
often have both the terms gnas yig and dkar chag in one and the same title, clearly
indicating that the work is both a descriptive account of the place in general and
an inventory of the various items found at/in the place (including books).44
Finally, the fifth category of narrative accounts could conceivably include the
Tibetan genre terms rnam thar, lo rgyus, gtam rgyud, rtogs brjod, and byung khungs.
The extent to which the term dkar chag has been employed in these senses
remains, however, yet to be determined.45
42
There are numerous examples of such comprehensive catalogues, among others,

several bKa gyur and bsTan gyur catalogues that include lengthy accounts of the
history of the Buddhist doctrine in India and Tibet and catalogues to temples or
monasteries that include a history of the places and/or biographies of figures connected
to them, such as Thuu bkwan Blo bzang chos kyi nyi mas account of dGon lung
monastery, mentioned above.
43
I have been able to locate ten titles in the NGMPP database that contain such
formulations. These are works that include descriptive accounts of restoration works which
are expressed in the titles by way of, e.g., the phrase nyams gsos legs par sgrub pai dkar chag
(L 940/6), of printing works that are expressed in the titles by way of, e.g., the phrase par
du bzhengs/sgrubs tshul dkar chag (L 351/3, L 352/3-L 353/1 and DD 30/1), or of the
building/construction of reverential monuments that are expressed in the titles by way of,
e.g., the phrase rten gsar bzhengs/sgrub kyi dkar chag (L 26/10, L 28/29, L 29/26, L 30/16,
L 303/3 & L 380/5-L 381/1). See also TBRC W10479, W21624, W2056 (= NGMPP DD
30/1), and also W6015, which is apparently a list as well as a descriptive account of text
transmissions (lung thob tshul gyi dkar chag).
44
For titles having both the terms gnas yig and dkar chag in their titles, see, for example,
the following entries in the NGMPP database: L 911/4, E 2970/21, E 2895/8-E 2896/1, L
1116/12-L 1117/1, L 407/2, L 140/14. See also Martin 1996, p. 505, where he states that
the word dkar chag is interchangeable with the genre term gnas bshad or gnas yig.
45
Cf. the Dung dkar tshig mdzod, s.v. dkar chag, where Dung dkar divides dkar chag into
the following five sub-categories: 1) catalogues to temples (lha khang gi dkar chag),
2) catalogues to monasteries (dgon pai dkar chag), 3) catalogues to images, such as statues
and paintings, and to stpas (sku rten dang mchod rten gyi dkar chag), 4) catalogues to the
holy scriptures, which he also designates as bibliographical lists (gsung rab kyi dpe tho), and
5) guides to holy places (gnas yig), which are also designated as dkar chags.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 39
39
While such a treatment of Tibetan genre terms should not pose much
difficulty in most cases,46 some of the genre terms that have a very broad
application, such as rtsis, are complex and require closer examination.47 Creating
such a scheme for ritual texts is particularly complicated, since numerous rituals
have similar functions, and the different rituals and genres overlap. 48
46
Many of the genre terms have already been discussed in previous studies on Tibetan
literature. On the basis of such discussions and observations the various applications of at
least some of the terms can easily be determined. The term rnam thar, for example, should
be classified under not only 1) biography, but also under 2) accounts/narrations; the term lo
rgyus not only under 1) history, but also under 2) narrative accounts. Further, the following
genre terms should be classified, for example, under the genre category biography: rnam
thar, rtogs brjod, mdzad rnam, and rnam mgur; under the sub-category auto-biography: rang
rnam; under the sub-category of previous lives: skyes rabs or khrungs rabs. Similarly, all
Tibetan terms indicating refutation or apologetics, namely, rtsod zlog, rtsod spong, dgag lan,
brgal lan and sun byin, to give another example, should be grouped under one category,
which, like the category of doctrinal critique, expressed in Tibetan by terms such as rtsod
gleng or dgag pa, would be a sub-category of polemics. And, likewise, all Tibetan terms
indicating summaries, for example, should be grouped together to form one category,
namely, the term bsdus pa (alone or in combination, e.g., bsdus don), the term dril ba (alone
or in combination, e.g., mdor dril, dril sgrub, snying po dril ba but also sgang bsgril), the term
sdom or sdom byang, as well as the term mdo (as opposed to rgyas). It should perhaps be
considered whether other genre terms such as khog dbub (or khog don), stong thun, and even
sa bcad, being designations for certain kinds of summarizing works, could also be included
here under separate sub-categories. All types of commentarial literature should also be
documented, defined and grouped together to build a main category and further subcategories. For example, under the main category of commentaries, designated by the
general terms grel pa or k, the following sub-categories could be included: word-byword commentary for tshig grel or bru grel; extensive commentary for rgya cher grel pa
and grel chen but also rnam grel; commentary on difficult points for dka grel (or dka gnad
grel pa); annotated/interlinear commentary for mchan grel; auto-commentary for rang
grel; sub-commentary for yang grel; general commentary for spyii grel or spyi don; etc. For
the sub-classification of commentarial genre in traditional sources, see, for example, Klong
chen pas Ngal gso spyi don, p. 103.6, where six categories of commentary are indicated: tshig
grel, don grel, byed grel, rgya cher grel, dka grel and sgrung grel.
47
The Tibetan term rtsis could be classified under several categories, such as astrology,
astronomy, calendrical calculations (including special calculations such as of religious
chronologies known as bstan rtsis), mathematical calculations, prediction and
pronostication, numerology, etc. Each of these areas should be defined and the Tibetan
terms associated with them should be clearly determined. Astrology, for example, would
include special areas such as white astrology (dkar rtsis), black astrology (nag rtsis),
astrology of the elements (byung rtsis), astrology concerning the dead (gshin rtsis), astrology
of the birth/natal horoscope (skye rtsis), calculation of the actions of previous lives (tshe rabs
las rtsis), calculations of nuptial astrology (bag rtsis), etc.
48
Rituals concerning longevity, for example, should also be included in the category of
initiation (tshe dbang) or in that of sdhana (tshe sgrub, srog sgrub); they should also be
classified under the category of averting rituals, in the sense of removing hindrances and
averting misfortune, such as in the case of rim gro or sku rim; some other rituals concerned
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 40
40
ORNA ALMOGI
Furthermore, besides examining, as already suggested by Schoening, the change

of application and usage of a given Tibetan genre term over the centuries, one
should, in the case of genre terms that are translations from the Sanskrit,
determine whether a particular genre term has retained its original meaning or
whether its meaning or usage has changed or has been supplemented.49
It should be noted at this point that the descriptive components of Tibetan
literary titles, as already elucidated by the passages cited earlier, may contain more
than just information regarding the subject matter and the genre, such as
information regarding the size of the work, the persons associated with it, etc. In
cases of reference to the size, while some titles simply include words such as
short, middling or long, thus only broadly hinting at the size, some employ
a specific unit of measurement, such as the number of verse lines, of chapters and
the like.50 Similarly, titles of works of the genre known as reply to queries (dris
lan or zhus lan) commonly include the name of the requesting person.51 Other
with longevity should be classified under the category of ransom rituals, such as ransoming
potential longevity (bla blu or bla tshe blu ba) and buying off death (chi ba blu bai cho ga or
short chi blu). Other types of longevity rituals, such as tshe gugs, g.yang bod, g.yang gugs,
etc., should likewise be classified into one of the sub-categories of the general category of
ritual or build distinct sub-categories under the sub-category of longevity rituals, as is the
case, for example, with the rituals known as zhabs brtan or brtan bzhugs.
49
For example, the term skyes rabs (or khrungs rabs) which is, in the first place, the
Tibetan term for the Sanskrit jtaka, is employed in various ways: 1) In its original sense, it
refers to canonical jtaka narrations of the previous lives of the Buddha kyamuni
translated from Sanskrit; together with avadna it could build a distinct sub-category under
the general category of canonical literature. 2) In its later application (hon. khrungs rabs), it
refers to biographies of lines of reincarnated lamas; it could build the sub-category of
records of previous lives under the general category of biographical literature. 3) The
term skyes rabs also refers to autochthonous compositions narrating the previous lives of the
Buddha (see, for example, W685: Thub pai skyes rabs sdom tshig); it could build a distinct
sub-category under the broader category of autochthonous narrative literature. Similarly,
the term rtogs brjod is employed to designate the following: 1) In its original sense, rtogs
brjod, the Tibetan term for the Sanskrit avadna, refers to canonical narrations of the
previous lives of the Buddha kyamuni translated from Sanskrit; as just mentioned, it can
together with jtaka build a sub-category of canonical literature. 2) In its Tibetan
application it is employed in the sense of biography, and thus should be, together with the
more common term rnam thar, among others, included in the category of biographical
literature. 3) It also refers to various types of accounts of narrative nature; it should thus be
included, together with the Tibetan genre terms lo rgyus, gtam rgyud, byung khungs and
even rnam thar, in the category of narrative accounts. 4) Just like the term skyes rabs, the
term rtogs brjod may refer to autochthonous compositions narrating the previous lives of
the Buddha, and thus should be included under the category of autochthonous narrative
literature. 5) It may also refer, though less often, to accounts of descriptive nature, and thus
be, together with dkar chag, included in the category of descriptive accounts.
50
For example, the Tshig bdun gsol debs (see related works such as W4905 or W23237),
a seven-line prayer, and the gSol debs leu bdun ma (W20696), a seven-chapter prayer.
51
For example, the Bla ma bkra phel gyi dris lan (W5438) and the Nyi ma bstan dzin gyi
dris lan (W4147).
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 41
41
titles which are often, though not necessarily, assigned to works that lack an
author-assigned title consist of the first few syllables or the first verse-line of the
work and often end with the particle ma.52 Nonetheless, as such titles or titleelements do not contribute much to our understanding of the assignment of titles
as related to the works literary genre, I shall refrain from giving further details
regarding them.
3.2. Ornamental Titles
Tibetan authors do not normally assign ornamental titles randomly, but
rather use them to symbolically express various aspects of their works, such as
their type, size, scope or content. Before presenting some of my findings
regarding ornamental titles, let me cite Bod mkhas pas remarks in this regard,
once again in the context of the title Kvydara, which includes the metaphor
mirror. Following his citation of Atias comment regarding the assignment of
titles, he states:53
Here [in the case of the title Kvydara], [the component] kvya has been assigned
[on the basis of] the subject matter, and dara (i.e., mirror) on the basis of [the
works] function. This treatise, which establishes [its subject matter] as kvya, is
called a mirror, since [kvya] is clearly reflected in it. [It] is called [a mirror] on
the basis of similarity. It is called a mirror of ornate poetry by compounding [the]
common basis, that is, the connection between the subject matter and the text.54
[The assignment of this title] is also associated with the purpose [of assigning a
name in general], as has been stated in the Lakvatrastra.55
Indeed, numerous commentaries and expositions which are aimed at elucidating

and clarifying a given work or subject matter have the word mirror (me long) in
their titles, often in combination with the verb gsal ba (in different variations, such
as gsal byed, rab tu gsal ba, don gsal, dwangs gsal, etc.). The metaphor lamp (sgron
ma or sgron me) also appears in the titles of such works, often too in combination
with the verb gsal ba (gsal sgron, etc.). Likewise, other words with similar
connotation, such as sun (nyin byed) and crystal (shel dkar), are employed in
the ornamental titles of such works.
One encounters other words employed in titles on the basis of similarity.
The word key (lde mig) often in various combinations, such as golden key
52
For example, the sMon lam bslu med gtan skyabs ma, which begins with the words bslu
med gtan gyi skyabs ... (see the rNying ma bai zhal don phyogs sgrig dgos pa kun tshang,
pp. 660-665).
53
Daii dgongs rgyan, p. 27: dir snyan ngag ni brjod byai don| me long ni byed las kyi sgo
nas btags pa ste| snyan ngag tu gang gis jog pa ste| bstan bcos dii nang du gsal bar char bas me
long zhes te| dra ba rgyu mtshan du byas pa yang yin la brjod bya dang| rjod byed brel te gzhi
mthun gyi bsdu bas| snyan ngag me long zhes so|| dgos pa dang brel ba yang yin te| langkar
gshegs pai mdo las| ... ces gsungs te|
54
Cf. the sMra sgo grel pa, fol. 307b2f, where the term gzhi bsdu ba is explained in the
context of Sanskrit compounds.
55
For this verse, see above, p. 30.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 42
42
ORNA ALMOGI
(gser gyi lde mig) and magical key (phrul gyi lde mig) is often found in the
ornamental part of titles of works having an introductory character. This includes
introductions per se, which sometimes have the words jug pa, i.e., entrance or
entering, or sngon gro, i.e., preliminaries, in the descriptive part of their
titles,56 and works which otherwise aim at providing the reader with easy access to
a certain work or collection, such as topical outlines (sa bcad) or catalogues (dkar
chag),57 since such works are also conceived as keys to the understanding of the
topic in question. This idea is expressed at times in phrases such as the key to a
treasury (mdzod kyi lde mig), the key that opens a hundred doors (sgo brgya byed
pai lde mig) or the key that opens a treasury (gter mdzod/bang mdzod byed bai lde
mig). Summaries (e.g., bdsus don) and occasionally commentaries may also have the
metaphor key in the ornamental part of their titles for the same reason.58 The
word ladder (them skas), expressing the notion of a medium for traversing or
progressing by way of steps (bgrod pai them skas), is often employed in the
ornamental part of titles of works that present their subject matter in terms of
grades, stages or steps; they often contain the term rim pa in the descriptive part
of their titles.59 The metaphor ocean (rgya mtsho) is commonly used in titles of
extensive works and thus is seldom employed to designate short or condensed
works such as summaries.60 The word ocean is thus not necessarily employed
56
This is the case, for example, in the Yo ga spyi la jug pai zur debs phrul gyi ldeu mig
(TBRC W21302); the gSang sngags rdo rje theg pai sa lam gyi rnam gzhag dang| gzhan yang
nyer mkho ci rigs pa dngos grub rgya mtshor jug pai gru gzings gzhung don byed pai lde mig
(TBRC W13498); the Bla ma dgongs pa dus pa las| sngon du gro bai chos spyod yan lag bdun
pa sgo byed phrul gyi ldeu mig (TBRC W19004); and the dGa ldan phyag rgya chen poi
sngon gro bla mai rnal byor gyi bsdus don snyan rgyud mdzod brgya byed pai phrul gyi lde mig
(TBRC W1126).
57
This is demonstrated, for example, in the following titles: the Sa bcad don khrigs byed
pai lde mig (TBRC W17701); the Dus pai rtsa rgyud phyi ma dang bcas pai gzhung gi don
tshan so soi ngos dzin rgyud kyi sgo phar byed pai lde mig, which is designated as a topical
outline in the bibliographical title which in turn reads gSang dus rtsa rgyud kyi sa bcad rgyas
pa (TBRC W12976); the dKar chag mthong bas yid phrog chos mdzod byed bai [= pai] lde mig
(TBRC W19607); and the bKa bum gyi dkar chag rin chen lde mig (TBRC W1713).
58
The term lde mig is found, for example, in the titles of the following summaries and
commentaries: the De bzhin gshegs pai snying poi bsdus don rin po che gser gyi lde mig (TBRC
W1906); the mNgon rtogs rgyan gyi bsdus don sher phyin lde mig (TBRC W6534); the gSol
debs rin chen phreng bai bru grel tshig gi lde mig (TBRC W2528); the dPal gsang bai snying
poi rgyud kyi spyi don nyung ngui ngag gis rnam par byed pa rin chen mdzod kyi lde mig
(TBRC W25132); and the rDzogs rim gyi rnam bshad gsang chen sgo brgya byed pai lde mig
(TBRC W7884).
59
This is the case, for example, with the gSang sngags lam rim rin po chei them skas
(TBRC W1608); the sNga gyur theg pa rim dgui rnam gzhag mdor bsdus su brjod pa rin po
chei them skas (TBRC W3898); and the Phags lugs rim pa lnga pai sngon groi ngag don
gsung rgyun ji lta bar bkod pa ye shes them skas (TBRC W22814).
60
There are numerous examples of extensive works that have the metaphor ocean in
their ornamental titles; one could mention the Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pai mdo dang
mngon par rtogs pai rgyan grel pa dang bcas pai lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don
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43
for certain genres but is rather used for extensive works of any kind; the inclusion
of the term rgya cher or rgyas pa in the descriptive parts of the titles tends to
conform this.
Furthermore, the term rosary (phreng ba or phreng ba) in various
combinations (e.g., me tog phreng ba, mu tig phreng ba, nor bui phreng ba, and the
like) is often used to designate series of descriptions, records, etc. Well known is
the use of the word phreng ba in the titles of collections of biographies of
successive lines of reincarnated lamas (skyes rabs or khrung rabs) or of successive
abbots.61 Especially common in this context is the term gser phreng, or golden
rosary, which may perhaps be regarded as a term designating this particular
genre.62 The use of the term phreng ba in titles of bibliographical lists, especially
dkar chags, is also common.63 Similar observations could be made in regard to
other metaphors, all of which cannot be discussed here.64
rgya mtsho (TBRC W8119) and the rGyas pai bstan bcos tshad ma rnam grel gyi rgya cher
bshad pa rigs pai rgya mtsho (TBRC W321).
61
For example, the sDe srid sangs rgyas rgya mtshoi khrungs rabs dang mdzad rjes dad
brgyai padma rnam par bshad pai phreng ba (TBRC W17207); the rGyal ba blo bzang don
grub kyi skyes rabs phreng ba (TBRC W9753); and the Rang gi skyes pai rabs kyi gtam brjod pa
bsil zer od kyi phreng ba (TBRC W14993).
62
For example, the bKa brgyud gser phreng chen mo (TBRC W21237); the Kam tshang
gser phreng gi rnam thar kha skong (TBRC W19988); and the rTa tshag rje drung rin po chei
khrungs rabs gser gyi phreng ba (TBRC W19840). Note, however, that the metaphor gser
phreng or gser gyi phreng ba appears in other contexts as well.
63
There are numerous dkar chags with the metaphor ()phreng ba in their title, for
example, the bsTan bcos gyur ro tshal gyi dkar chag yid bzhin gyi nor bu dbang gi rgyal poi
phreng ba (TBRC W1931); the dKar chag malli ka phreng ba (TBRC W11810); and the rJe
bla ma gter bdag gling pai bka bum dkar chag nor bui phreng ba (TBRC W20425).
64
The phrase dispelling darkness (mun sel) is likewise employed in titles of texts
concerned with removing doubts, false views or misunderstandings. There are numerous
examples of expositions, commentaries and other similar works that contain this phrase in
their titles. To give a few: the gSang bai snying poi grel pa phyogs bcu mun sel
(TBRC W12653); the bsTan pa spyi grel gyi rnam bshad dgongs pa rnam gsal yid kyi mun sel
(TBRC W14078); the Tikka mun sel sgron me (TBRC W17955); and the gSo rig spyi don
rnam bshad pai srol byed mun sel sgron me (TBRC W11834). The metaphor sword (ral
gri) is also used to designate such works as it on the one hand evokes the idea of cutting
away false views and on the other alludes to Majur who symbolizes wisdom. For
example, the dBu ma rgyan gyi mchan grel nyung ngu lta ba ngan pa gcod pai ral gri (TBRC
W19289) and the Dris lan gya tshom gcod pai ral gri (TBRC W6984). Polemical works
often have words in their ornamental titles that reflect the harsh tone used in such works.
While terms such as sword (ral gri) or thunder (brug sgra) are often employed, in some
cases one finds much harsher expressions, such as rain of adamant fire (rdo rjei me char)
or flames (me lce), and even emetic agent (skyug sman), which expresses the idea that the
opponent will be caused to vomit out his false views. Examples for such titles are the
Jam dpal dgyes pai gtam gyis rgol ngan phye mar thag pa reg gcod ral grii phrul khor, which
is designated as a polemical work in its bibliographical title, which reads dGe dun chos phel
gyi dgag lan (TBRC W14425); the Dris lan nges don brug sgra| gsang sngags snga gyur la bod
du rtsod pa snga phyir byung ba rnams kyi lan du brjod pa snga phyir byung ba rnams kyi lan du
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ORNA ALMOGI
3.3. The Different Types of Titles

As already mentioned, one and the same text may have multiple titles, and
these titles may contain different genre terms. This fact, however, should not
necessarily be regarded as a hindrance to our efforts to classify texts, but should
rather be viewed in terms of potentially assisting in the determination of the
various possible range of reference of one single genre term. The additional titles
sometimes appear within the text on the title page, in the various colophons and
occasionally in the incipit. They may also appear in the list of contents (dkar chag,
tho byang, etc.) of the respective volumes, or take the form of short titles on the
covers of modern publications, abbreviated titles in margins, etc. They can
alternatively be titles found in outside sources such as bibliographies, or widely or
generally known titles (often considered as short titles) by which a given work is
cited or referred to by scholars of the tradition. It is possible to consider the titles
found in specific locations to be specific types, since one notices that titles are
often characterized through certain features in accordance with their locations.
The function of each of these types needs to be examined and evaluated, in order
to improve our understanding of both Tibetan literature and its literary genres
and the contents of specific texts.65 Having examined numerous cases, I am
convinced that, for the purpose of classification, equal importance should be given
to all titles regardless of their location. A text should be classified only after one
has taken all available titles into consideration, since only this will enable one to
make informed judgments regarding genre and subject matter. I would like to
emphasize this point here, since the necessity of considering all titles has not
always been fully recognized. Titles on the title page, which are in most cases
editorial titles, have often been given excessive importance at the cost of other
titles, such as those appearing in the authors colophon, which are more likely to
be the original ones.66
brjod pa nges pa don gyi brug sgra (TBRC W20862); and the Mi pham rnam rgyal gyi rtsod
pai yang lan log ltai khong khrag don pai skyug sman (TBRC W5689). Further, the word
treasure (mdzod) is used to designate works that are of somewhat encyclopaedic
character, such as the famous Shes bya kun khyab mdzod (TBRC W5488) and the seven
treasures (mdzod bdun) of Klong chen pa (W22920), as well as to designate large
collections such as the great collections of the Rin chen gter mdzod (TBRC W20578) and
the bKa brgyud sngags mdzod (W20875). Collections of various texts occasionally have the
word khra bo, i.e., multicoloured, variegated or mottled, as is the case with the titles
of the following works: the Beu bum khra bo (TBRC W15430); the gSo thabs kyi dpyad bum
khra bo (TBRC W17814) and the Man ngag po ti khra bo (TBRC W8485).
65
For a discussion of each of these types of titles along with some examples, see the
Appendix.
66
Eimer (1997, p. 12), for example, discusses the title of the catalogue of the collected
tantras by Sa skya pa Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1147-1216) as found on the title page, which
reads Kyei rdo rjei rgyud bum gyi dkar chag and which he renders as Catalogue of the
Tantra collection of Hevajra. Eimer points out that since the catalogue does not start with
the Hevajra literature, the word Hevajra in the title cannot be interpreted as Hevajra,
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45
4. Concluding Remarks
The classification of a work based merely on its title (or titles) can by no means
be a substitute for classification by way of careful examination of the works
contents. Nonetheless, since cataloguers are often not able to carefully study each
and every text of a given collection, a comprehensive scheme for the classification
of Tibetan texts, developed on the basis of a thorough study of the contents and
titles of as many texts as possible and of as many genres as possible, would be of
great value, as it would enable them to classify texts more easily on the basis of an
examination of their (various) titles; this, no doubt, should preferably be
accompanied by at least a cursory examination of their contents. For a better
understanding of Tibetan titles, one should perhaps pay more attention to how
titles are conceived by the tradition and especially, when possible, by the authors
themselves. One way of doing this is to examine commentarial works in which the
title is commented upon at length. Auto-commentaries are of special interest in
this regard, since they sometimes provide information on why the author titled
his work as he did.67
etc. (kyei rdo rje sogs). He further states that the title might have originally read rGyud
bum gyi dkar chag or rGyud sdei dkar chag and that the syllables Kyei rdo rje were added
under the influence of Phags pas tantra catalogue which first lists the Kyei rdo rjei rgyud
brtag pa gnyis pa. He further conjectures that the title first read Kyei rdo rje sogs ... and that
the word sogs was later dropped. Whatever the explanation for the word kyei rdo rje in the
title found on the title page may be, this title, which is obviously a title assigned by a later
scribe or editor, should have been given less importance, and the focus should have been
on the title found at the end of the text, which clearly reads (ibid., p. 52) rGyud sde bzhii
dkar chag che rags, i.e., A Very Rough Catalogue of the Four Tantra Classes. This title,
which not only reflects the contents of the texts but also, unlike the title on the title page, is
probably an integral part of the text, is most likely the original title.
67
See, for example, Klong chen pas explanation of the title of his work the Chos dbyings
rin po chei mdzod in his auto-commentary, the Chos dbyings mdzod grel, fols. 3a4-4b1, as
well as his explanation of the titles of his trilogy the Sems nyid ngal gso, bSam gtan ngal gso,
and sGyu ma ngal gso, and of the titles of their respective auto-commentaries in Tibetan as
well as in their Sanskrit translations as found in his Ngal gso spyi don, pp. 102.5-104.4,
106.4-108.5, & 110.4-111.4, respectively.
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ORNA ALMOGI
APPENDIX: THE VARIOUS TITLES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

1. Title on the Title Page
The title that is first noticed is usually the one appearing on the title page.
Occasionally, however, particularly when the work is short, there is no separate
title page and the title appears at the beginning of the text. These titles are clearly
distinguished by the common phrase marking a title, i.e., ... zhes bya ba bzhugs so
and the like (cf. the description of implied unofficial titles in the incipit found
below) and are often given in smaller script. In some cases the title appears on the
title page as well as at the beginning of the text, sometimes with slight variations
between the two.68 Titles appearing on the title page or at the beginning of the
text are in most cases editorial titles and are not necessarily identical with the
original title of the text, if one exists.69 Editorial titles sometimes represent
abridged titles but may also include additional information, such as the authors
name, obviously for the purpose of easier identification. Special attention is
required in cases of multiple-text manuscripts or block-prints, where the title on
the front page refers to the first work only, and the existence of other works is
indicated only occasionally by the word sogs on the title page. In such cases, the
titles found in the list of contents (dkar chag or them byang) are usually more
informative, since they often include, in addition to the title on the title page,
some, if not all, of the titles of the other works in the set (for more details, see the
discussion of titles in the list of contents, below).
2. Title in the Authors Colophon
In ideal cases, one will find a title in the authors colophon. Such a title,
assigned by the author, may reflect the contents and the function of the work as
conceived by the author himself. However, as already stated, these titles are often
68
For example, the title of the sdhana of wrathful Majur translated by Rong zom
pa, which is included in the Rong zom gsung bum, vol. 1, fols. 300-312, reads on the title
page Jam dpal khro bo sngags kyi don gyi rdo rjei dkyil khor gyi cho ga rgyas pa and in the
incipit rDo rje dkyil khor gyi cho ga rgyas pa zhes bya bai bsgrub pai thabs. (Note also that the
title in the authors colophon is different from both: Phags pa jam dpal gyi rdo rjei dkyil
khor gyi cho ga rgyas pa.)
69
The title of Rong zom pas lengthy commentary to the *Guhyagarbhatantra, for
example, as it appears in the authors colophon, reads dPal gsang bai snying poi dka grel
tshul bzhi yan lag bco lngas lung gi spyir bshad pa, and the title on the title page in the Rong
zom gsung bum reads sGyu phrul gsang ba snying poi rtsa rgyud tshul bzhi yan lag bco lngas
bkral ba dkon cog grel. Note that the same text has been published elsewhere under still
different editorial titles. Also note that in the Peking edition of the canon, for example, the
editorial titles, which are written in smaller script, are often followed by additional titles
(commonly in both Sanskrit and Tibetan), which have the same size of script as the body of
the text. These titles, which seem to represent titles that appeared in the manuscripts (ma
dpe) used for the xylographic edition, are probably not the original titles of the texts either.
They were most likely given by earlier editors or scribes, as they too sometimes differ from
the titles appearing in the colophon(s).
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47
ignored despite the fact that they are more likely to be the original ones and are of
great bibliographical value. Yet not all works contain an authors title. While it is
possible that an author, for various reasons, did not assign a title to his work, works
lacking such titles have often been published after the death of the author, and are
in fact unfinished works or collections of notes compiled by his disciples.70 One
also occasionally encounters cases where the authors title has been lost as a result
of damage to, or misplacement or complete loss of the last or the first folio(s), on
which the title normally appears.71 In such cases the original title might be found in
chapter colophons, provided the text is subdivided into such unites.
3. Title in Other Colophons
Additional titles sometimes appear in other colophons attached to the text,
such as scribal and xylograph colophons. These titles, stemming from the scribe,
the compiler or editor, are important insofar as they often represent the
commonly used alternative titles. These titles may be shorter versions of the
authors title, but may also be completely different from it. As these are often the
widely-known titles, they have, no doubt, their bibliographical significance as
well, and they often include further hints regarding the subject matter and the
style or function of the composition.
4. Implied, Unofficial Titles in the Incipit
Some works lack a distinctive title given by either the author or the editor. In
such cases, the incipit should be examined, for frequently its first phrase can be
interpreted as an informal title for bibliographical purposes, especially when it is
marked by the particles ni, la, skabs or tshe (meaning as for ..., in regard to ... and
70
Several titles of Mi pham rNam rgyal rgya mtshos (1846-1912) writings found in his
collected works, particularly of the mchan grel type, that were brought to print by his
disciples after his death are examples of such posthumous titles.
71
As mentioned above, the authors title commonly appears at the end of the work in
the authors colophon. In some cases the authors title appears in the incipit. While these
titles normally remain an integral part of the work and are often additionally repeated on
the title page, in some cases the incipits containing the titles are separated from the text to
make up the title on the title page. Likewise, titles or title-like formulations by the author
sometimes appear in the authors statement of commitment (rtsom par dam bca ba), which
is commonly found at the beginning of the work. An example would be Rong zom pas
work on the tantric pledges (Rong zom gsung bum, vol. 3, fols. 147-273). The verses of
commitment, with which the work begins, include the phrase dam tshig mdo rgyas tshul tsam
bstan pa di, which was clearly the basis for the later editorial title that appears on the title
page, which reads gSang sngags kyi dam sdom spyi dang khyad par lhag pai dam tshig tu phye
ste mdo rgyas su bstan pa. Original titles can sometimes be retrieved from autocommentaries or commentaries by other authors, if the titles are commented upon. They
can also on occasion be found in other works of the author, when he refers to other works
of his. In such cases, however, the titles are usually cited in their abbreviated forms.
Original titles may also be retrieved from works that mention the title prior to citing from
the text; in such cases, too, they usually appear in an abbreviated form.
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ORNA ALMOGI
on the occasion/case of ..., respectively). One also finds the particle na in the sense
of if [such and such is to be done ...] or if [one wishes to do ...].72 Indeed, the
title-like formulations found in the incipit are often repeated, usually in an abridged
form, in titles assigned by later editors, for example, in the list of contents.73
5. Abbreviated Titles in the Margins
The margin of the recto of each folio is commonly reserved for, besides the
pagination, the indication of what can sometimes be viewed as an abbreviated
title.74 Apart from its function as an identification tool for folios that have become
separated from the work, this abbreviated title in the margin, consisting of few
syllables only and thus representing the minimum essential for expressing the main
features of the work in terms of style of composition or function and subject
matter, can be important for the determination of the genre and the contents of
the work.75 Marginal titles often consist of mere general expressions of genre such
as chos byung, dgag lan, etc., but some also contain words or syllables that designate
the cycle or the tradition the work is pertinent to and the like. These key terms
such as genre terms, syllables designating cycles, etc., are commonly derived from
the title found on the title page, in the list of contents (dkar chag, tho byang, etc.) or
elsewhere, but they can also be terms that reflect aspects of the work not expressed
in these titles. The marginal titles, which are concise and pregnant, are thus
important for the classification of a work for two reasons: 1) They represent the
title boiled down to the minimum and emphasize the titles main aspects in terms
72
For example, mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, p. 359: rakta tshar gsum ni (the title in
the list of contents simply reads rakta); mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 549.4-550.3:
byang bu bsreg pai tshe; mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 154.2-161.2: bla mai thugs sgrub
bar chad kun sel gyi bzlas pai skabs; mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 217.1-219.4: zab bdun
rtsa gsum tshe dkar don dbang mdor bsdus byed na.
73
For example, the title Khor gyi lha bskyed indicated in the list of contents (mKhyen
brtse bka bum, vol. 15) is clearly based on the formulation found in the incipit of the text in
question, which reads sgrol mai dbang gi skabs khor gyi lha bskyed rgyas par spro na (mKhyen
brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 127-128).
74
When a work is published together with other texts, the margins on the versos are
often reserved for an abbreviation designating the entire collection along with the running
pagination for the entire volume, while the pagination on the rectos often presents a
separate pagination for the individual works. See, for example, the Rong zom gsung bum.
75
The creation of meaningful abbreviated titles by means of employing only a few
syllables, often only two, is primarily made possible by the fact that the Tibetan language is
a monosyllabic language. The construction of such titles is in line with the common
abbreviation method in Tibetan in which the most important syllables are retained while
less important ones, such as grammatical particles, are omitted. Modern scholars of
Tibetan studies should consider using this traditional method of abbreviation, since it
allows for easy reference to texts and provides meaningful titles that can be easily kept in
mind, in place of the modern method of abbreviating the initial letters of some of the
syllables of the title, which tends to provide abbreviated titles that are both difficult to
decipher and difficult to retain.
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49
of genre, subject matter, doctrinal cycle and so forth. 2) They may contain new
elements, and thus highlight other aspects of the work.
6. Titles in the List of Contents
Titles appearing in lists of contents (dkar chag, tho byang, etc.), which have
been written by the compiler or editor, often differ from the title found on the
title page (or at the beginning of the text), although the latter too are commonly
editorial titles. The titles in lists of contents may differ from title-page titles in
various ways: 1) These titles are often shortened versions of the other titles,
condensed through the omission of various grammatical particles and of the
ornamental part, if it exists (unless, of course, the work is widely known by it). In
such cases, they tend to be almost identical with and on the whole as informative
as the title on the title page.76 2) They may include additional information
regarding the pertinent cycle or the tradition involved and the like.77 The title is
abbreviated and information is added for practical reasons. Aside from the fact
that repeating the long, elaborate and flowery titles in the list of contents is timeconsuming and uneconomical, the shorter titles allow for quick identification of
the relevant text if the reader is already familiar with it,78 or at least immediate
comprehension of its subject matter and/or function. On the other hand, the
addition of information, which often occurs in the case of ritual texts (abundant in
Tibetan literature), enables the reader to immediately associate the text with a
certain tradition or cycle, etc., and thus to limit the range of its reference. 3) In
the case of a multiple-text manuscript or block-print, the title in the list of
contents is very often the only indication that the text in question is a collection of
several works, since the title on the title page commonly designates the first work
76
For example, mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 191-192: while the title at the
beginning reads Bla mai thugs sgrub yid bzhin nor bu las| bka srung mchod pai phrin las mdor
bsdus snying por dril ba, the title in the list of contents simply reads Yid bzhin nor bui srung
mai mchod thabs; and mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 289-300: while the title on the
title page reads rTse (= rTsa) gsum bde gshegs dus pai bdag jug gi cho ga ye shes char bebs, the
title in the list of contents reads bDag jug ye shes char bebs.
77
For example, mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 8, pp. 357-374: while the title on the title
page reads Seng gdong sngon mo gtso khor gsum mai sgrub thabs rjes gnang las tshogs dang
bcas pa rdo rjei sprin char, the title in the list of contents reads Ba ri lugs kyi seng gdong
sngon mo gtso khor gsum mai sgrub rjes las tshogs bcas rdo rjei sprin char, indicating that the
text is associated with the Ba ri tradition. Such explicit reference to the tradition or
system involved is very common in cases where various traditions concerning one and
the same cycle exist.
78
While these shortened titles are a great help to those familiar with the tradition, they
may cause problems in the identification of the works in question for persons not familiar
with it. See, for example, Jacksons note regarding S. C. Sarkars remark in his catalogue of
Tibetan works found in the Bihar Research Society that dGe dun chos phels listing is
inaccurate, where Jackson argues that Sarkar probably found the list inaccurate because
dGe dun chos phel used the traditional Tibetan abridged forms of titles and because he
also used the letter (ta log) for the final -gs (Jackson 1989, pp. v & x, n. 3).
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ORNA ALMOGI
only. The title in the list of contents is usually the title of the first work
(sometimes with one or more additional titles), either in full or in an abbreviated
form, followed by the word sogs, which is often the only reference to the
remaining works.79 Occasionally, however, the titles of all the works included in
the set are recorded in the list of contents.80 Unfortunately, titles in lists of
contents, like colophon titles, are usually ignored by cataloguers.
7. Popular and Widely-Known Titles
Popular and widely-known titles are the titles by which a particular work is
commonly referred to by the tradition. Such titles can be abbreviations of the full
titles, which usually consist of the main components of the original titles but omit
less important words or syllables such as grammatical particles.81 They can also be
short titles that combine the authors name or the name of the school with which
the author is affiliated with a part of the descriptive or ornamental component of
the full titles.82 Some popular titles simply consist of the first syllables of the
work.83 Works that are related to each other in one way or anotherfor example,
works that are thematically connectedare often referred to collectively by the
tradition. Such collective titles or designationswhich in many cases are
79
For example, mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 15, pp. 129-185: the title on the title page
reads Bla mai thugs sgrub bar chad kun sel las| rigs bdag rdo rje sems dpai gsang sngags thos pas
grol ba (note also that the margin reads gter gsar skor throughout). This title too refers only
to the first work (pp. 129-135.1) in this set, which comprises twelve works. The remaining
titles are not indicated in the list of contents; the word sogs that follows an abbreviated form
of the title of the first work is the only indication that this is not a single work, but rather a
set of several works: Thugs sgrub rdor sems thos grol sogs.
80
For example, mKhyen brtse bka bum, vol. 9, pp. 351-455: the title on the title page
reads Phags pa spyan ras gzigs gtso khor gsum pa sgrub thabs rjes gnang dang bcas pa blo dman
go bde (note also that the margin reads thugs chen throughout). However, this title refers
only to the first work (pp. 351-372.5) in this set, which includes altogether nine different
works. This is clearly indicated in the list of contents, which reads thugs chen gtso khor gsum
pai sgrub rjes blo dman go bde| dei bsnyen thabs| bcu gcig zhal mkha gro lnga bskor gyi rjes
gnang gzhan phan zla zer| dpal mo lugs rigs bzhis bskor bai rjes gnang gzhan phan zla snang|
bsnyen yig nyung bsdus| phyag rdor khor chen gyi rjes gnang dang bsnyen pa bya tshul| phyag
rdor u tsryai bsnyen sgrub las sbyor rdo rjei me char| phyag rdor gtum poi rjes gnang sgrub
thabs rdo rjei me phreng| drag po sum sgril gyi rjes gnang bcas.
81
This is the case, for example, with numerous well-known works, often of Indian
origin, such as the sPyod jug and Tshig gsal, but also with Tibetan works, such as the Tshad
ma rigs gter and mKhas jug.
82
For example, Dwags po thar rgyan, Bu ston chos byung, Sa skya legs bshad, and Sa pa
mkhas jug. The name of the author is often added when the abbreviated titles contain only
general designations such as chos byung or mkhas jug, which occur in the titles of other
works by other authors, for the sake of facilitating an exact identification of the work or at
least of the school it is associated with.
83
This is the case, for example, with the extensive *Guhyagarbhatantra commentary by
Rong zom pa, which is commonly referred to as the dKon cog grel, since the commentary
begins with the word dkon cog.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 51
51
established to the extent that they appear on title pages and even in dictionaries
but are often difficult to decipher and thus have to be considered insiders
jargonare assigned in various fashions. They occasionally refer to several works
by differentiating them on the basis of their length.84 They sometimes consist of
the main components of the titles of the different works.85 They may also refer to
groups of works ascribed to a certain author,86 or reflect the relation of the works
in question to each other, often including for that purpose the words mother
(ma) and son (bu).87 In the previous two cases, the titles commonly include the
total number of the works referred to (see the examples given for each).
Collective titles or designations are occasionally assigned according to the colour
of the cloth (dpe ras) the volume containing the works was wrapped in.88
8. Sanskrit Titles of Tibetan Works
Although Sanskrit titles of autochthonous Tibetan works have no
bibliographical value, I include them in the discussion for the sake of
completeness. The Tibetan translators, in addition to translating the original
Sanskrit titles into Tibetan, often retained (or reconstructed) the Sanskrit titles
(usually only in transliteration), so that most Tibetan canonical works attest a
bilingual title. At times, however, one finds bilingual titles for autochthonous
works as well; that is, in addition to the Tibetan title a Sanskrit title is given. Such
84
This is the case, for example, with the collective title in which the three prajpramit works are referred to, i.e., the yum rgyas bring bsdus gsum.
85
This is the case, for example, with the collective designation rtsa bzhi jug gsum,
which refers to the three central Indian Madhyamaka works rTsa bai shes rab, bZhi brgya pa
and dBu ma jug pa, and with the two basic grammatical treatises ascribed to Thon mi sam
bho a, i.e., the Sum cu pa and the rTags kyi jug pa, known collectively as sum rtags. This
method for forming collective titles is also in line with the general method of forming
collective designations in Tibetan, as is evident in the collective designation rje yab sras
gsum and the like.
86
For example, the five works ascribed to Maitreya are collectively designated as the
byams chos sde lnga, and the five (or six) works on Madhyamaka reasoning ascribed to
Ngrjuna are collectively designated as the rigs tshogs lnga (or drug).
87
For example, the collective designations for the eighteen rDzogs chen tantras of the
Mind class, i.e., the sems sde ma bu bco brgyad, and for the seventeen prajpramit stras
found in rNying ma literature, i.e., the yum sras bcu bdun. Similarly, the title sNying thig ya
bzhi also refers to two mother and two son texts.
88
The best-known example is perhaps the volumes of the lam bras tradition known
as the pod ser, pod nag, and the pusti dmar chung. Note, however, that there is also a
custom of referring to different colours in literary titles, which has no connection with
the colour of cloth. The best-known example is the historical genre designated deb ther,
in which titles are commonly assigned a colour (e.g., the Deb ther dmar po, Deb ther sngon
po and Deb ther dkar po). The custom of referring to colours in the titles is also seen in
other cases, such as in the titles of the works of the sDe srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho
(1653-1705) that contain the word bairya, in which baiurya is assigned different
colours, such as blue, white and yellow.
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52
ORNA ALMOGI
Sanskrit titles assigned to autochthonous works often consist of weirdly formed

Sanskrit words arranged according to the order of the words in the respective
Tibetan title. When a Sanskrit title is present, be it an original Sanskrit title or a
fabricated one, the title page is often set in an ornamental fashion, with an
ornamental head (mgo rgyan) called sum bid which includes an ornamental frame
in which three versions of the title are set: the Tibetan title (in dbu can script), the
Sanskrit title in Lanytsha (i.e., the ornamental Newari script Rajan) or Wartu
script, and the Sanskrit title in Tibetan transliteration.89
I have been able to locate discussions in Tibetan literature only in regard to
the necessity of retaining the original Sanskrit titles of Indian texts. Again, while
discussing the title Kvydara, Bod mkhas pa states:90
The purposes of giving bilingual titles are [as follows]: 1) [To cause] a sense of
appreciation and gratitude for the work of the translators and paitas to arise
through [seeing how] difficult it is for the Tibetans to understand the Indian
language, and how easy [it is] to understand having been translated into their own
language. 2) [To make one] realize that the two [titles] are semantically identical
(rnam grangs) through seeing that one and the same thing is being expressed in two
languages. 3) [To cause one to] become predisposed to the art of translation, to
implant latent tendencies [in ones continuum] and [to cause one to] gain a little
idea [about translation] through seeing how [the works] have been translated [from]
the Indian language into the Tibetan one.
Similarly, mKhan po Kun dpal states:91

If one says that designating [a text] by keeping the Sanskrit title as it is results in the
redundancy of [the text] having two names, not only is this not the case, there are
[even] four special reasons [for keeping the Sanskrit titles]. What [are they]? [They
are]: 1) The purpose of [generating] trust in the authenticity of the treatises, for
89
See the Tshig mdzod chen mo, s.v. sum bid, where it is explained that sum bid is a
corrupt Sanskrit word referring to the ornamental head of a treatise in which the title is
depicted in three different scripts, namely, Lanytsha, Wartu and Tibetan. One wonders if
the Sanskrit word behind the term sum bid, also spelt sum brita, is savta, covered,
closed, concealed or surrounded. In this case, the syllable sum, which is apparently
understood as the number three referring to the three different scripts, would in fact be a
corruption of the Sanskrit prefix sa.
90
Daii dgongs rgyan, pp. 27-28: ming de skad gnyis zung sbyar du bkod pai dgos pa yang|
bod rnams kyis rgya gar skad de go dka la| rang gi skad du bsgyur bas go sla bas sgyur byed lo pa
la byas shes drin gzoi blo skye| skad gnyis kyis don gcig brjod par mthong bas gnyis po rnam grangs
su shes| rgya skad bod skad du bsgyur tshul mthong bas sgra bsgyur ba la blo kha phyogs shing bag
chags jog la cung zad shes par gyur bai dgos pa yod pa yin|.
91
Kun dpal spyod grel, pp. 161-162: mtshan rgya skad sor bzhag tu smros pas mtshan gnyis
zlos par gyur ro zhe na| de mi gyur bar ma zad dgos pai khyad par bzhi yod de| gang zhe na|
rgya gar chos khungs btsun pas bstan bcos khungs mar yid ches pai dgos pa dang| dus gsum gyi
sangs rgyas kun legs sbyar lhai skad kyis chos gsungs pas rang gis dei skad du bton cing bshad pas
rang rgyud la byin rlabs jug pa dang| ma ongs pa na dei skad kyis chos gsung bar gyur bas skad
la bag chags jog pa dang| mtshan di ji ltar [= lta] bar gzhung kun rgya skad du yod na don shes
shing chad par lta ci tshig tsam yang ji bzhin don par dka bar shes nas lo ts bai bka drin dran
pai dgos pao||.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 53
53
India is the authentic source of the Dharma. 2) [The purpose of it] serving as a
medium for the blessings of the buddhas for ones own mental continuum through
ones speaking and explaining that language, because the buddhas of the three times
teach the Dharma in Sanskrit. 3) [The purpose of] sowing [the seed of] propensities
of the [Sanskrit] language because the future buddhas will teach in that language.92
4) The purpose of [making one] realize how difficult it would have been to
articulate even a word, let alone understand and explain the meaning, if the entire
text, like the title, would have been in Sanskrit, and thus call to mind the sense of
gratitude towards the translators.
As I have not been able to locate discussions regarding the reasons for assigning a
Sanskrit title to autochthonous works, I can only guess that at least some of the
reasons given by mKhan po Kun dpal for retaining the Sanskrit title of Indian
works were seen as, in modified form, applicable to the assignment of a Sanskrit
title to an autochthonous work, namely, that Sanskrit serves as a medium for the
blessings of the buddhas, and that coming into contact with Sanskrit serves as a
seed for generating propensities for the Sanskrit language. One cannot rule out,
of course, the possibility that some indigenous works were provided with a
Sanskrit title for the sake of giving them the credibility connected with an Indian
origin; in such cases, however, the Tibetan author would have to remain
anonymous.93 While Sanskrit titles may have been attached to autochthonous
Tibetan works by the authors themselves or were added at their request,94 I
suspect that this was not always the case. Such Sanskrit titles could have been
added at a later point by others, for example, by the authors disciples, or by later
editors when the wooden blocks of the authors works were carved, with the
intent of lending the work an aura of authority and scholarliness. The
accompanying elaborate and ornamental headings must have in such cases served
a similar function.
Nonetheless, not all Tibetans seem to have approved of this custom. dGe dun
chos phel, for example, reproved this practice and urged Tibetans to stop
composing in Sanskrit (i.e., anything at all, including titles). According to him, the
tradition of writing sum bids (or sum rkangs, as he has it)95 did not exist during the
time of the early translators or during the time of Rig ral, Klong chen pa, Bu ston
and Tsong kha pa, but was introduced sometime in the eleventh sixty-year cycle
(rab byung), that is, sometime in the seventeenth century, by aristocrats who had
92
This idea that the buddhas teach only in Sanskrit seems, however, to be problematic
even from the point of view of the tradition itself. Since this matter is beyond the scope of
the present essay it will not be discussed here.
93
This would mean that either no author is indicated or that a Sanskrit name is used
instead of the Tibetan one.
94
Candra Das, for example, reports that while staying at bKra shis lhun po, his friend
the minister [Phendi Khang-sar], upon his return from his visit to the Grand Lama (i.e.,
the Pa chen Bla ma), informed him about the latters wish that Das translate a hundred
and twenty titles of chapters of a work that he composed into Sanskrit (Das 1904, p. 108).
95
I have not, however, been able to locate the term sum rkang in any of the Tibetan
dictionaries available to me.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 54
54
ORNA ALMOGI
learned a bit of Sanskrit. They, he says, created bilingual ornamental headings,

which they then attached to text-volumes, to walls or to the heads of doors.
Speaking ironically, as he is prone to do, he states that this custom had peaked to
the extent that if one did not have a goitre, it was considered a handicap. He
compares the Tibetans Sanskrit compositions to Tibetan verses composed by a
Mongolian who lacks command of the Tibetan language. He further argues that
it is not necessary for Tibetans to write in Sanskrit since they have their own
language and script. In his opinion, only following grammatical rules is not
sufficient for composition. To make his point, he composes two verse lines,
which, although grammatically irreproachable, are stylistically unacceptable, and
then reformulates the verse lines into acceptable Tibetan. He further refers to the
reconstructions of the missing parts of the Bodhisattvvadnakalpalat (tani
5655) made by Dar lo ts ba, which, according to him, are not intelligible to
Indians, and adds that with such unintelligible Sanskrit titles even a good Tibetan
work would give a bad impression of the author. While making these remarks, he
assures his readers that there is no bad motivation behind his critique, and admits
that he himself attempted to compose Sanskrit titles in his youth.96 Elsewhere, in
the concluding verses of his collection of Sanskrit verses that he sent from
Calcutta to Tibet, he touches upon this issue once again, stating that Sanskrit and
sum rkang are as far apart as Magadha and Tibet.97
96
97
See the Bod yig gi sgra sbyor skor, pp. 289-292.

See the Legs sbyar bang mdzod, p. 533.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 55
55
Bibliography and Abbreviations

Primary Sources
Bod yig gi sgra sbyor skor by dGe dun chos phel. In dGe dun chos phel gyi gsung
rtsom, vol. 1, pp. 277-292.
brDa dkrol gser gyi me long by bTsan lha Ngag dbang tshul khrims. Peking: Mi rigs
dpe skrun khang, 1997.
Chos dbyings mdzod grel = Chos dbyings rin po chei mdzod kyi grel pa lung gi gter
mdzod by Klong chen rab byams pa Dri med od zer. Dodrup Chen
Rinpoche, Gangtok, n.d. [Reprinted by the National Library of Bhutan,
Thimphu, n.d.].
Daii dgongs rgyan = sNyan ngag gi bstan bcos chen po me long la jug pai bshad sbyar
daii dgongs rgyan by Bod mkhas pa dGe legs rnam rgyal. [Dharamsala:
Shes rig par khang], 1980.
dGe dun chos phel gyi gsung rtsom. Compiled by Hor khang bSod nams dpal bar et
al. 3 vols. Gangs can rig mdzod 10-12. Lhasa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe
rnying dpe skrun khang, 1994.
Dung dkar tshig mdzod = mKhas dbang dung dkar blo bzang phrin las mchog gis mdzad
pai bod rig pai tshig mdzod chen mo shes bya rab gsal (on cover: Dung dkar
tshig mdzod chen mo) by Dung dkar Blo bzang phrin las. Peking: Krung goi
bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2002.
gSang bdag zhal lung = dPal gsang bai snying po de kho na nyid nges pai rgyud kyi
rgyal po sgyu phrul drwa ba spyi don gyi sgo nas gtan la bebs par byed pai legs
bshad gsang bdag zhal lung [stod cha] by sMin gling lo chen Dharma shr. In
ri ma bka ma rgyas pa, vol. 33 (gi/e).
gSang snying khog dbub bring po by Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po. In Rong zom
gsung bum, vol. 1, fols. 1-4.
Kun dpal spyod grel = Byang chub sems dpai spyod pa la jug pai tshig grel jam
dbyangs bla mai zhal lung bdud rtsii thig pa by mKhan po Kun dpal. In
Byang chub sems dpai spyod pa la jug pa rtsa ba dang grel ba by ntideva (rtsa
ba) and mKhan po Kun dpal (grel pa). Sichuan: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun
khang, 1990, pp. 137-978.
Lang kar gshegs pai mdo [= Lakvatrastra]. The Tibetan Tripitaka, vol. 29,
pp. 26.3.8-85.4.2; The Nyingma Edition, vol. 18, pp. 324.1.1-392.1.7.
Legs sbyar bang mdzod by dGe dun chos phel. In dGe dun chos phel gyi gsung
rtsom, vol. 3, pp. 353-539.
Mahvyutpatti = Honyaku mygi taish (Mahvyutpatti). Ed. Ryzabur Sakaki. 2
vols. Kyoto, 1916. [Reprinted by Kokusho Kankkai, Tokyo, 1981].
Mi pham mkhas jug by Mi pham rNam rgyal rgya mtsho. In mKhas pai tshul la
jug pai sgo zhes bya bai bstan bcos. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun
khang, 1990, pp. 153-519.
almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 56
56
ORNA ALMOGI
mKhyen brtse bka bum = Jam dbyangs mkhyen brtsei dbang poi bka bum. The
Collected Works of the Great Jam-dbyas mKhyen-brtsei-dba-po. 24 vols.
Gangtok: Gonpo Tseten, 1977-1980.
Ngal gso spyi don = Ngal gso skor gsum gyi spyi don legs bshad rgya mtsho by Klong
chen rab byams pa Dri med od zer. Dodrup Chen Rinpoche, Gangtok,
n.d. [Reprinted by the National Library of Bhutan, Thimphu, n.d.].
Phyogs bcui mun sel = dPal gsang bai snying po de kho na nyid nges pai rgyud kyi grel
pa phyogs bcui mun pa thams cad rnam par sel ba (on cover: rGyud gsang snying
grel chen phyogs bcui mun sel) by Klong chen rab byams pa Dri med od zer.
In ri ma bka ma rgyas pa, vol. 26 (la).
ri ma bka ma rgyas pa. A Collection of Teachings and Initiations of the ri-ma-pa
Tradition Passed through Continuous and Unbroken Oral Lineages from the
Ancient Masters. Edited by Jigs bral ye shes rdo rje. Kalimpong: Dupjung
Lama, 1982-1987.
rNying ma bai zhal don phyogs sgrig dgos pa kun tshang. Compiled by Nor brang o
rgyan. Lhasa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang, 1997.
Rong zom gsung bum. 3 vols. Padma kun grol, Shr seng, n.d.
Sa pa mkhas jug rtsa grel by Sa pa Kun dga rgyal mtshan (rtsa ba) and Bo thar
bkra shis chos phel and Ngag dbang chos grags (grel pa). Sichuan:
Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1998.
sMra sgo grel pa = sMra sgo mtshon chai grel pa by Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po.
In Rong zom gsung bum, vol. 3, fols. 287-323.
sPyod grel bum bzang = sPyod jug gi grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang by
Thub bstan chos kyi grags pa. Peking: Krung goi bod kyi shes rig dpe
skrun khang, 1991.
The Nyingma Edition = The Nyingma Edition of the sDe-dge bKa-gyur and bsTangyur. Oakland: Dharma Publication, 1981.
The Tibetan Tripitaka = The Tibetan Tripitaka. Peking Edition. Ed. Daisetz
T. Suzuki. Tokyo-Kyoto:Tibetan Tripitaka Research Institute, 1955-1961.
Thon mii zhal lung = Gangs can bod kyi brda sprod pai bstan bcos sum cu ba dang rtags
jug gi rnam gzhag rgya cher bshad pa thon mii zhal lung by Tshe tan zhabs
drung. n.p., n.d.
Tshig mdzod chen mo = Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo. Krang dbyi sun et al. Peking:
Mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993.
Secondary Sources
Almogi, Orna
1997 The Life and Works of Rong zom Paita. Master thesis, University of
Hamburg, Hamburg.
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57
Das, Sarat Chandra

1904 A Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. [Reprinted by Book Faith India,
Delhi, 1998].
Eimer, Helmut
1979 rNam thar rgyas pa. Materialien zu einer Biographie des Atia
(Dpakararjna). 2 vols. Asiatische Forschungen 67. Wiesbaden:
Otto Harrassowitz.
1997 A Source for the First Narthang Kanjur: Two Early Sa skya pa
Catalogues of the Tantras. In Transmission of the Tibetan Canon. Papers
Presented at a Panel of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for
Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995. Ed. Helmut Eimer. PIATS, vol. 3. Beitrge
zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 22. sterreichische
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse,
Denkschriften 257. Wien: Verlag der sterreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, pp. 11-78.
Jackson, David P.
1989 The Miscellaneous Series of Tibetan Texts in the Bihar Research Society,
Patna. A Handlist. Tibetan and Indo-Tibetan Studies 2. The Institute
for the Culture and History of India and Tibet at the University of
Hamburg. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden.
de Jong, Jan Willem
1983 The Story of Rma in Tibet. Reprinted in Tibetan Studies. Jan
Willem de Jong. Indica et Tibetica 25. Swisttal-Odendorf, 1994,
pp. 45-61.
Martin, Dan
1996 Tables of Contents (dKar chag). In Tibetan Literature. Studies in Genre.
Eds. Jos Ignacio Cabezn and Roger R. Jackson. Ithaca: Snow Lion,
pp. 500-514.
tani = The Tibetan Tripitaka. Peking Edition. Catalogue & Index, Reduced-size
Edition. Kyoto: Rinsen Book Co., 1985.
Pema Bhum
1999 The Heart-Beat of a New Generation. A Discussion of the New
Poetry. Lungta 12, pp. 2-16.
Schoening, Jeffrey D.
1988 A Bibliography of Tibetan Historical Works at the University of
Washington. In Proceedings of the 4th Seminar of the International
Association for Tibetan Studies, Mnchen 1985. Eds. Helga Uebach and
Panglung Jampa. Studia Tibetica 2. Mnchen: Kommission fr
Zentralasiatische Studien, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
pp. 421-426.
Smith, Gene
1969 Introduction to the Collected Works of Thuu-bkwan Blo-bzang-chos-kyi-
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ORNA ALMOGI
nyi-ma. Edited and reproduced by Nawang Gelek Demo. Gedan

Sungrab Minyam Gyunphel Series 2. New Delhi, pp. 1-27.
1970 Introduction to Three Karchacks. Edited and reproduced by Ngawang
Gelek Demo. Gedan Sungrab Minyam Gyunphel Series 13. New
Delhi, pp. [1-6].
Thoku = A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons (Bka-gyur and
Bstan-gyur). Eds. Ui, Hakuju et al. Sendai: Thoku Imperial
University, 1934.
Tucci, Giuseppe
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Book Co., 1980.
Vostrikov, A. I.
1970 Tibetan Historical Literature. Trans. Chandra Gupta, Harish. Soviet
Indology Series 4. Indian Studies Past & Present. Calcutta.
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TBRC = The Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center at http://tbrc.org.

Analysing Tibetan Titles-Towards A Genre-Based Classification of Tibetan Literature

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almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 27

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES:

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 28

The two most important sources for a genre-based classification of Tibetan

Schoening discusses some of the difficulties he sees in a mechanical classification

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 29

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 30

2. Discussions of Literary Titles by Tibetan Authors

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 31

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 32

gSang bdag zhal lung, pp. 149.6-150.2.

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

2.1.2. The Criteria for Assigning a Title

After providing examples for each case,25 he goes on to say:26

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In the context of explaining the rNying ma hermeneutic term five initial

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 35

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

number of verses it includes.32 Treatments of literary titles also occur in other

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 36

Tibetan] literary work from the title, he concludes, is characteristic of the

3. Analysis and Evaluation of Tibetan Literary Titles

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

Such catalogues have been classified by Vostrikov as historico-bibliographical

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 38

There are numerous examples of such comprehensive catalogues, among others,

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 39

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 40

Furthermore, besides examining, as already suggested by Schoening, the change

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 41

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

Indeed, numerous commentaries and expositions which are aimed at elucidating

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 42

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 43

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 44

3.3. The Different Types of Titles

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 46

APPENDIX: THE VARIOUS TITLES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 48

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 49

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 50

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 51

ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 52

Sanskrit titles assigned to autochthonous works often consist of weirdly formed

Similarly, mKhan po Kun dpal states:91

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ANALYSING TIBETAN TITLES

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 54

learned a bit of Sanskrit. They, he says, created bilingual ornamental headings,

See the Bod yig gi sgra sbyor skor, pp. 289-292.

almogi(27-58) 15/12/05 14:22 55