Comparison of the ankle and foot regions in hominoids.

Ape

Ankle region

Early Fossil
Hominid
Ardipithecus

Mid Fossil Hominid

Australopithecus

Humans

Functional Correlation

Open malleoli

Malleoli partly open.

Vertical Malleoli.

Ankle Mobility assists

climbing

Have asymmetric
talar trochlea

Australopithecus
ankle have some
mobility.

More Symmetrical talar

trochlea.

Ape ankle is more

mobile
Foot

Ape foot is gracile

Ape have short
tarsal region
Ape foot is flexible
Ape foot has long
phalangeal region
Ape foot has NO
arches

Ankle Stability for

terrestrial locomotion.

Human ankle more stable

(thus less mobile)
Ardipithecus
foot has flexible
tarsal region

Australopithecus foot
is somewhat robust
Australopithecus foot
have partial arch
system

Human foot is robust

Human foot has long tarsal
region
Human foot has short
phalangeal region
Human foot has arch system

Ape foot favour arboreal

locomotion
Human foot favour
stability for terrestrial
locomotion

Metatarsals
(1st
metatarsal =
Big Toe)

Ape 1st metatarsal

is gracile
Ape 1st metatarsal
is curved and faces
other toes
st

Ape 1 metatarsal
basal joint is
curved

Ardipithecus 1st Australopithecus 1st

metatarsal faces metatarsal is close to
other toes
and parallel to other
toes
Ardipithecus 1st
metatarsal joint
is opposable

Australopithecus 1st
metatarsal faces
down

Human 1st metatarsal is

robust

Ape metatarsal favour

arboreal locomotion

Human 1st metatarsal is

straight

Human metatarsal favour

stability for terrestrial
locomotion

Human 1st metatarsal is close

to and parallel to other toes
Human 1st metatarsal faces
the ground

Ape 1st metatarsal

is opposable

Human 1st metatarsal basal

joint is flat
Human 1st metatarsal is NOT
opposable

Phalanges

Ape phalanges are

long, gracile and
curved

Ardipithecus
phalanges are
long and curved

Australopithecus
phalanges are
medium length and
curved

Human phalanges are short,

robust, straight

Ape phalanges favour

arboreal locomotion
Human phalanges favour
terrestrial locomotion

Footprints

Australopithecus foot
print pattern is similar
to humans (due to
parallel big toe and
similar force
distribution

Modern Homo sapiens adaptations for bipedal standing and walking compared to earlier hominids, immediate prehominids and extant
hominoids.
Structure

Function

Anteriorly placed Atlanto-Occipital Joint

Improve head balance

Secondary curves in Vertebral Column

- Improve Trunk balance

- Decrease Intrinsic Back activity

Large lower lumbar vertebrae

Improved force transfer

Large joints in lower body (Lumbosacral joint, Sacroiliac joint, Hip

joint, Knee joint, Ankle joint)

Improved force transfer

Curved pelvis (decreased ilio-ischial alignment and angle, posteriorly

directed ischium)

- Improved Hip joint extension

- Posterior Thigh Muscle action
- Allow foot to be behind Hip joint at toe off
- Improved late thrust in stance
- Allow longer stride

Short ischium

Improved speed in Posterior Thigh Muscle

Short wide Iliac blades

- Allow Gluteus medius and minimus to pass lateral to Hip joint

- Hence allow Hip joint abduction
- Less sideways movement in early stance

Knee joint and Ankle joint congruent surfaces

- Improved stability
- Limit sideways movement

Ankle joint and Knee joint positioned close to midline

Require less sideways movement in order to balance

Robust foot
Robust Tarsal 1
Tarsal 1 close to Tarsal 2
Arch structures

- Improved force transfer

Long lower limb

Improved stride length

Lower limb positioned beneath vertical trunk

- Improved balance

- Allow more rigid foot near and at toe off

- Less muscle activity to remain upright

Reposition of Centre of Gravity and its axis

- Improved balance
- less postural muscle activity
- longer stride