Outline of geography

Outline of geography
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:
Geography science that studies the spatial differentiation and distribution of phenomena of Earth.[1]

Nature of geography
Geography is
an academic discipline a body of
knowledge given to - or received by - a
disciple (student); a branch or sphere of
knowledge, or field of study, that an
individual has chosen to specialize in.
Modern geography is an
all-encompassing discipline that seeks to
understand the Earth and all of its human
and natural complexitiesnot merely
where objects are, but how they have
changed and come to be. Geography has
been called 'the world discipline'.[2]
a field of science widely recognized
category of specialized expertise within
science, and typically embodies its own
terminology and nomenclature. Such a
field will usually be represented by one
or more scientific journals, where peer
reviewed research is published. There are
many geography-related scientific
journals.

The physical world.

The human world.

a natural science field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of natural environment (physical
geography).
a social science field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society (human geography).
an interdisciplinary field a field that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of
thought, as new needs and professions have emerged. Many of the branches of physical geography are also
branches of Earth science.

Outline of geography

Etymology of geography
Etymology of "geography": from Greek - geographia, lit. "earth describe-write"[3]
geo- a prefix taken from the Greek word or meaning "earth", usually in the sense of "ground or land".
Geo- is a prefix for many words dealing in some way with the earth.
-graphy an English suffix. Words that include this suffix usually are about a work, an art, or a field of study.

Branches of geography
As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches:
human geography
physical geography[4][5][6]
Other branches include:
integrated geography
geomatics
regional geography
All the branches are further described below...

Physical geography
Physical geography examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and
landforms are produced and interact.[]
Fields of physical geography
Geomorphology study of landforms and the processes that shape them, and more broadly, the evolution of
processes controlling the topography of any planet. Seeks to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to
understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through a combination of field
observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling.
Hydrology study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth, including the
hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.

Glaciology study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.
Oceanography studies a wide range of topics pertaining to oceans, including marine organisms and
ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology
of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across
its boundaries.
Biogeography study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally. Over areal ecological changes, it is
also tied to the concepts of species and their past, or present living 'refugium', their survival locales, or their
interim living sites. It aims to reveal where organisms live, and at what abundance.[7]
Climatology study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time.[8]
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and
short term forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
Pedology study of soils in their natural environment[9] that deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil
classification.
Palaeogeography study of what the geography was in times past, most often concerning the physical landscape,
but also the human or cultural environment.

Coastal geography study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the
physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography
(sociology and history) of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly

Outline of geography
wave action, sediment movement and weather, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast.
Quaternary science focuses on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years, including
the last ice age and the Holocene period.
Landscape ecology the relationship between spatial patterns of urban development and ecological processes on
a multitude of landscape scales and organizational levels.[10][11][12]
Approaches of physical geography
Quantitative geography Quantitative research tools and methods applied to geography. See also the quantitative
revolution.
Systems approach

Human geography
Human geography one of the two main subfields of geography, it is the study of human use and understanding
of the world and the processes which have affected it. Human geography broadly differs from physical geography
in that it focuses on the built environment and how space is created, viewed, and managed by humans as well as
the influence humans have on the space they occupy.[]
Fields of human geography
Cultural geography study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and
places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government and other
cultural phenomena vary or remain constant, from one place to another and on explaining how humans function
spatially.[13]
Children's geographies study of places and spaces of children's lives, characterized experientially, politically
and ethically. Children's geographies rests on the idea that children as a social group share certain
characteristics which are experientially, politically and ethically significant and which are worthy of study. The
pluralisation in the title is intended to imply that children's lives will be markedly different in differing times
and places and in differing circumstances such as gender, family, and class. The range of focii within children's
geographies include:
Children and the city
Children and the countryside
Children and technology
Children and nature,
Children and globalization
Methodologies of researching children's worlds
Ethics of researching children's worlds
Otherness of childhood
Animal geographies studies the spaces and places occupied by animals in human culture, because social life
and space is heavily populated by animals of many differing kinds and in many differing ways (e.g. farm
animals, pets, wild animals in the city). Another impetus that has influenced the development of the field are
ecofeminist and other environmentalist viewpoints on nature-society relations (including questions of animal
welfare and rights).
Language geography studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. There are
two principal fields of study within the geography of language:
1. Geography of languages deals with the distribution through history and space of languages,[14]
2. Linguistic geography deals with regional linguistic variations within languages.[15][16][17][18][19]

Outline of geography
Sexuality and space encompasses all relationships and interactions between human sexuality, space, and
place, including the geographies of LGBT residence, public sex environments, sites of queer resistance, global
sexualities, sex tourism,[20] the geographies of prostitution and adult entertainment, use of sexualised locations
in the arts,[21][22] and sexual citizenship.[23]
Religion geography study of the impact of geography, i.e. place and space, on religious belief.[24]
Development geography study of the Earth's geography with reference to the standard of living and quality of
life of its human inhabitants. Measures development by looking at economic, political and social factors, and
seeks to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development, in part by comparing
More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) with Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).
Economic geography study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across
the world. Subjects of interest include but are not limited to the location of industries, economies of
agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade and development, real estate,
gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the
relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying
culture-environment interaction), and globalization.
Marketing geography a discipline within marketing analysis which uses geolocation (geographic
information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities.[25] It can be used in any
aspect of the marketing mix the product, price, promotion, or place (geo targeting).
Transportation geography branch of economic geography that investigates spatial interactions between
people, freight and information. It studies humans and their use of vehicles or other modes of traveling as well
as how markets are serviced by flows of finished goods and raw materials.
Health geography application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health,
disease, and health care, to provide a spatial understanding of a population's health, the distribution of disease in
an area, and the environment's effect on health and disease. It also deals with accessibility to health care and
spatial distribution of health care providers.
Time geography study of the temporal factor on spatial human activities within the following constraints:
1. Authority - limits of accessibility to certain places or domains placed on individuals by owners or authorities
2. Capability - limitations on the movement of individuals, based on their nature. For example, movement is
restricted by biological factors, such as the need for food, drink, and sleep
3. Coupling - restraint of an individual, anchoring him or her to a location while interacting with other individuals in
order to complete a task
Historical geography study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past, and
seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved, by
understanding how a place or region changes through time, including how people have interacted with their
environment and created the cultural landscape.
Political geography study of the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which
political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Basically, the inter-relationships between people,
state, and territory.
Electoral geography study of the relationship between election results and the regions they affect (such as the
environmental impact of voting decisions), and of the effects of regional factors upon voting behavior.
Geopolitics analysis of geography, history and social science with reference to spatial politics and patterns at
various scales, ranging from the level of the state to international.
Strategic geography concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that have an impact on the
security and prosperity of nations.
Military geography the application of geographic tools, information, and techniques to solve military
problems in peacetime or war.

Outline of geography
Population geography study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration,
and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.
Tourism geography study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity, and their
impact on places, including the environmental impact of tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure
economies, answering tourism industry and management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of
tourism.
Urban geography the study of urban areas, in terms of concentration, infrastructure, economy, and
environmental impacts.
Approaches of human geography

Behavioral geography
Critical geography
Feminist geography
Marxist geography
Non-representational theory
Postcolonialism
Post-structuralism[26]

Qualitative geography qualitative research tools and methods applied to geography.

Integrated geography
Integrated geography branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and
the natural world. It requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology,
biogeography, ecology, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the
environment.

Geomatics
Geomatics branch of geography and the discipline of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic
information, or spatially referenced information. It is a widespread interdisciplinary field that includes the tools
and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
Global Navigation Satellite Systems, photogrammetry, and related forms of earth mapping.
Fields contributing to geomatics

Photogrammetry
Cartography
Digital terrain modelling
Geodesy
Geographic information systems
Geospatial
Global navigation satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO, COMPASS)
Global Positioning System
Hydrography
Mathematics
Navigation
Photogrammetry

Remote sensing
Surveying

Outline of geography

Regional geography
Regional geography study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such
as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into
regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.
Region an area, defined by physical characteristics, human characteristics, or functional characteristics. The term
is used in various ways among the different branches of geography. A region can be seen as a collection of smaller
units, such as a country and its political divisions, or as one part of a larger whole, as in a country on a continent.
Supercontinents
Main article: List of supercontinents
A supercontinent is a landmass comprising more than one
continental core, or craton.
Afro-Eurasia (formed 5 million years ago)
Americas (formed 15 million years ago)
Eurasia (formed 60 million years ago)
Continents
A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth. They
are generally identified by convention rather than any specific
criteria, but seven areas are commonly regarded as continents.
They are:
1. Africa (outline)
2. Antarctica
3. Australia (outline)
The Americas:
4. North America (outline)
5. South America (outline)
Eurasia:
6. Europe (outline)
7. Asia (outline)

Earth may have had a single supercontinent called

"Pangaea"

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Subregions
Subregion (list)
Biogeographic regions
Ecozone
Main article: Ecozone
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
developed a system of eight biogeographic
realms (ecozones):
Nearctic 22.9 mil. km (including most of
North America)
Palearctic 54.1 mil. km (including the
bulk of Eurasia and North Africa)
Afrotropic 22.1 mil. km (including
Sub-Saharan Africa)
Indomalaya 7.5 mil. km (including the
South Asian subcontinent and Southeast
Asia)

Map of six of the world's eight ecozones

NearcticPalearcticAfrotropicIndomalayaAustralasia
ecozoneAustralasiaNeotropicOceania ecozoneOceania and Antarctic
ecozoneAntarctic ecozones not shown

Australasia 7.7 mil. km (including

Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring
islands). The northern boundary of this zone is known as the Wallace line.
Neotropic 19.0 mil. km (including South America and the Caribbean)
Oceania 1.0 mil. km (including Polynesia, Fiji and Micronesia)
Antarctic 0.3 mil. km (including Antarctica).
Ecoregions
Main article: Ecoregion

Ecozones are further divided into ecoregions. The World has over 800 terrestrial ecoregions. See Lists of ecoregions
by country.
Geography of the political divisions of the World
Geography of Africa (Outline)
West Africa#Geography and climate

Geography of Benin (Outline)

Geography of Burkina Faso (Outline)
Geography of Cape Verde (Outline)
Geography of Cte d'Ivoire (Outline)
Geography of Gambia (Outline)
Geography of Ghana (Outline)
Geography of Guinea (Outline)
Geography of Guinea-Bissau (Outline)
Geography of Liberia (Outline)

Geography of Mali (Outline)

Geography of Mauritania (Outline)

Outline of geography
Geography of Niger (Outline)
Geography of Nigeria (Outline)
Geography of Senegal (Outline)
Geography of Sierra Leone (Outline)
Geography of Togo (Outline)
North Africa#Geography
Geography of Algeria (Outline)
Geography of Egypt (Outline)
Geography of Libya (Outline)
Geography of Mauritania (Outline)
Geography of Morocco (Outline)
Geography of Sudan (Outline)
Geography of Tunisia (Outline)
Geography of Western Sahara (Outline)
Central Africa
Geography of Angola (Outline)
Geography of Burundi (Outline)
Geography of Cameroon (Outline)
Geography of Central African Republic (Outline)
Geography of Chad (Outline)
Geography of Democratic Republic of the Congo (Outline)
Geography of Equatorial Guinea (Outline)
Geography of Gabon (Outline)
Geography of Republic of the Congo (Outline)
Geography of Rwanda (Outline)
Geography of So Tom and Prncipe (Outline)
East Africa#Geography and climate
Geography of Burundi (Outline)
Geography of Comoros (Outline)
Geography of Djibouti (Outline)

Geography of Eritrea (Outline)

Geography of Ethiopia (Outline)
Geography of Kenya (Outline)
Geography of Madagascar (Outline)
Geography of Malawi (Outline)
Geography of Mauritius (Outline)
Geography of Mozambique (Outline)
Geography of Rwanda (Outline)
Geography of Seychelles (Outline)
Geography of Somalia (Outline)
Geography of Tanzania (Outline)
Geography of Uganda (Outline)
Geography of Zambia (Outline)
Geography of Zimbabwe (Outline)

Southern Africa#Geography
Geography of Botswana (Outline)

Outline of geography
Geography of Lesotho (Outline)
Geography of Namibia (Outline)
Geography of South Africa (Outline)
Geography of Swaziland (Outline)
Dependencies in Africa

Geography of British Indian Ocean Territory (Outline)(UK)

Geography of Mayotte (Outline)(France)
Geography of Runion (Outline)(France)
Geography of Saint Helena (Outline)(UK)
Canary Islands#Geography (Outline)(Spain)
Geography of Ceuta (Outline)(Spain)
Geography of Madeira (Outline)(Portugal)
Geography of Melilla (Outline)(Spain)
Geography of Socotra (Outline)(Yemen)
Geography of Puntland (Outline)
Geography of Somaliland (Outline)
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Outline)

Geography of Antarctica (Outline)

Geography of Asia (Outline)
Central Asia#Geography
Geography of Kazakhstan (Outline)
Geography of Kyrgyzstan (Outline)
Geography of Tajikistan (Outline)
Geography of Turkmenistan (Outline)
Geography of Uzbekistan (Outline)
East Asia
Geography of China (Outline)
Geography of Tibet (Outline)
Geography of Hong Kong (Outline)
Geography of Macau (Outline)
Geography of Japan (Outline)
Geography of North Korea (Outline)
Geography of South Korea (Outline)
Geography of Mongolia (Outline)
Geography of Taiwan (Outline)
North Asia#Geography
Geography of Russia (Outline)
Southeast Asia#Geography

Geography of Brunei (Outline)

Burma (Myanmar) - Outline)
Geography of Cambodia (Outline)
East Timor (Timor-Leste) - Outline)
Geography of Indonesia (Outline)

Geography of Laos (Outline)

Geography of Malaysia (Outline)
Geography of the Philippines (Outline)

Outline of geography
Geography of Singapore (Outline)
Geography of Thailand (Outline)
Geography of Vietnam (Outline)
South Asia#Geography
Geography of Afghanistan (Outline)
Geography of Bangladesh (Outline)
Geography of Bhutan (Outline)
Geography of India (Outline)
Geography of Iran (Outline)
Geography of Maldives (Outline)
Geography of Nepal (Outline)
Geography of Pakistan (Outline)
Geography of Sri Lanka (Outline)
Western Asia#Geography
Armenia#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline)
Geography of Bahrain (Outline)
Geography of Cyprus (Outline), including:
Geography of Northern Cyprus (Outline) (disputed territory)
Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Iraq (Outline)
Geography of Israel (Outline)
Geography of Jordan (Outline)
Geography of Kuwait (Outline)
Geography of Lebanon (Outline)
Geography of Oman (Outline)
Geography of the Palestinian territories (Outline)
Geography of Qatar (Outline)
Geography of Saudi Arabia (Outline)
Geography of Syria (Outline)
Geography of Turkey (Outline)
Geography of United Arab Emirates (Outline)
Geography of Yemen (Outline)
Caucasus#Geography and ecology (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe, or between them)
North Caucasus
Geography of Russia (Outline) (the following parts of Russia are in the North Caucasus: Chechnya,
Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, KarachayCherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai,
Stavropol Krai)
South Caucasus
Georgia (Outline), including:
Geography of Abkhazia (Outline) (disputed territory)
Geography of South Ossetia (Outline) (disputed territory)
Armenia#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline), including:
Geography of Nagorno-Karabakh (Outline) (disputed territory)
Geography of Europe (Outline)

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Outline of geography

Geography of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Outline)

Geography of land (Outline)
Geography of Albania (Outline)
Geography of Andorra (Outline)
Geography of Armenia (Outline)
Geography of Austria (Outline)
Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline)
Geography of Belarus (Outline)
Geography of Belgium (Outline)
Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Outline)
Geography of Bulgaria (Outline)
Geography of Croatia (Outline)
Geography of Cyprus (Outline)
Geography of Czech Republic (Outline)
Geography of Denmark (Outline)
Geography of Estonia (Outline)
Faroe Islands#Geography (Outline)

Geography of Finland (Outline)

Geography of France (Outline)
Geography of Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Germany (Outline)
Geography of Gibraltar (Outline)
Geography of Greece (Outline)
Geography of Guernsey (Outline)
Geography of Hungary (Outline)
Geography of Iceland (Outline)
Republic of Ireland#Geography (Outline)
Geography of the Isle of Man (Outline)
Geography of Italy (Outline)
Geography of Jersey (Outline)
Geography of Kazakhstan (Outline)
Geography of Kosovo (Outline)
Geography of Latvia (Outline)
Geography of Liechtenstein (Outline)
Geography of Lithuania (Outline)

Geography of Luxembourg (Outline)

Geography of Macedonia (Outline)
Geography of Malta (Outline)
Geography of Moldova (Outline), including:

Geography of Transnistria (Outline) (disputed territory)

Geography of Monaco (Outline)
Geography of Montenegro (Outline)
Geography of Netherlands (Outline)
Geography of Norway (Outline)

Geography of Poland (Outline)

Geography of Portugal (Outline)
Geography of Romania (Outline)

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Outline of geography

Geography of Russia (Outline)

Geography of San Marino (Outline)
Geography of Serbia (Outline)
Geography of Slovakia (Outline)
Geography of Slovenia (Outline)
Geography of Spain (Outline)
Geography of Svalbard (Outline)
Geography of Sweden (Outline)
Geography of Switzerland (Outline)
Geography of Turkey (Outline)
Geography of Ukraine (Outline)
Geography of United Kingdom (Outline)

Geography of England (Outline)

Geography of Northern Ireland (Outline)
Geography of Scotland (Outline)
Geography of Wales (Outline)
Geography of Vatican City (Outline)
Geography of North America (Outline)
Geography of Canada (Outline)
By province
Geography of Alberta
Geography of British Columbia (Outline)
Geography of Manitoba
Geography of New Brunswick
Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador
Geography of Nova Scotia
Geography of Ontario
Geography of Prince Edward Island
Geography of Quebec (Outline)
Geography of Saskatchewan (Outline)
By territory

Geography of the Northwest Territories

Geography of Nunavut
Geography of Yukon
Geography of Greenland (Outline)
Geography of Mexico (Outline)
Geography of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Outline)
Geography of United States (Outline)

Geography of Alabama (Outline)

Geography of Alaska (Outline)
Geography of Arizona (Outline)
Geography of Arkansas (Outline)
Geography of California (Outline)
Geography of Colorado (Outline)

Geography of Connecticut (Outline)

Geography of Delaware (Outline)

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Outline of geography

Geography of Florida (Outline)

Geography of Georgia (Outline)
Geography of Hawaii (Outline)
Geography of Idaho (Outline)
Geography of Illinois (Outline)
Geography of Indiana (Outline)
Geography of Iowa (Outline)
Geography of Montana (Outline)
Geography of Kansas (Outline)
Geography of Kentucky (Outline)
Geography of Louisiana (Outline)
Geography of Maine (Outline)
Geography of Maryland (Outline)
Geography of Massachusetts (Outline)
Geography of Michigan (Outline)
Geography of Minnesota (Outline)
Geography of Mississippi (Outline)

Geography of Missouri (Outline)

Geography of Nebraska (Outline)
Geography of Nevada (Outline)
Geography of New Hampshire (Outline)
Geography of New Jersey (Outline)
Geography of New Mexico (Outline)
Geography of New York (Outline)
Geography of North Carolina (Outline)
Geography of North Dakota (Outline)
Geography of Ohio (Outline)
Geography of Oklahoma (Outline)
Geography of Oregon (Outline)
Geography of Pennsylvania (Outline)
Geography of Rhode Island (Outline)
Geography of South Carolina (Outline)
Geography of South Dakota (Outline)
Geography of Tennessee (Outline)
Geography of Texas (Outline)
Geography of Utah (Outline)
Geography of Vermont (Outline)
Geography of Virginia (Outline)
Geography of Washington (Outline)
Geography of West Virginia (Outline)
Geography of Wisconsin (Outline)
Geography of Wyoming (Outline)
Geography of Washington, D.C. (Outline) (Washington, D.C.)
Central America#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Belize (Outline)
Geography of Costa Rica (Outline)
Geography of El Salvador (Outline)

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Outline of geography
Geography of Guatemala (Outline)
Geography of Honduras (Outline)
Geography of Nicaragua (Outline)
Geography of Panama (Outline)
Geography of the Caribbean (Outline)

Geography of Anguilla (Outline)

Geography of Antigua and Barbuda (Outline)
Geography of Aruba (Outline)
Geography of Bahamas (Outline)
Geography of Barbados (Outline)
Geography of Bermuda (Outline)
British Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline)
Cayman Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Cuba (Outline)
Geography of Dominica (Outline)
Dominican Republic#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Grenada (Outline)

Geography of Haiti (Outline)

Geography of Jamaica (Outline)
Geography of Montserrat (Outline)
Netherlands Antilles#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Puerto Rico (Outline)
Geography of Saint Barthlemy (Outline)
Geography of Saint Kitts and Nevis (Outline)
Geography of Saint Lucia (Outline)
Saint Martin#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Outline)
Geography of Trinidad and Tobago (Outline)
Turks and Caicos Islands#Geography (Outline)
United States Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Oceania (includes the continent of Australia)
Australasia
Geography of Australia (Outline)
Dependencies and territories of Australia
Geography of Christmas Island (Outline)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands#Geography (Outline)
Geography of Norfolk Island (Outline)
Geography of New Zealand (Outline)
Geography of Melanesia

Geography of Fiji (Outline)

Geography of Indonesia (Outline) (Oceanian part only)
Geography of New Caledonia (Outline) (France)
Geography of Papua New Guinea (Outline)
Geography of the Solomon Islands (Outline)

Geography of Vanuatu (Outline)

Geography of Micronesia

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Outline of geography
Geography of Federated States of Micronesia (Outline)
Geography of Guam (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Kiribati (Outline)
Geography of Marshall Islands (Outline)
Geography of Nauru (Outline)
Northern Mariana Islands#Geography and climate (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Palau (Outline)
Geography of Wake Island (Outline) (USA)
Geography of Polynesia

Geography of American Samoa (Outline) (USA)

Chatham Islands#Geography (Outline) (NZ)
Cook Islands#Geography (Outline) (NZ)
Easter Island#Location and physical geography (Outline) (Chile)
Geography of French Polynesia (Outline) (France)
Geography of Hawaii (Outline) (USA)
Loyalty Islands#Geography (Outline) (France)
Geography of Niue (Outline) (NZ)

Pitcairn Islands#Geography (Outline) (UK)

Geography of Samoa (Outline)
Geography of Tokelau (Outline) (NZ)
Geography of Tonga (Outline)
Geography of Tuvalu (Outline)
Geography of Wallis and Futuna (Outline) (France)
Geography of South America (Outline)

Geography of Argentina (Outline)

Geography of Bolivia (Outline)
Geography of Brazil (Outline)
Geography of Chile (Outline)
Geography of Colombia (Outline)
Geography of Ecuador (Outline)
Geography of the Falkland Islands (Outline)
Geography of French Guiana (Outline)
Geography of Guyana (Outline)
Geography of Paraguay (Outline)
Geography of Peru (Outline)
Geography of Suriname (Outline)
Geography of Uruguay (Outline)
Geography of Venezuela (Outline)

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Other regions

Atlantic World
Bermuda Triangle
Pacific Rim
Pacific Ring of Fire

History of geography
Main articles: History of geography
and Historical geography
Topics pertaining to the geographical study
of the World throughout history:

By period

Ancient roads
Ancient Greek geography
Age of discovery
Major explorations after the Age of
Discovery
Critical geography
Environmental determinism

By region
Chinese geography
History of human geography in China

By subject
Historical population of the world
By field
History of human geography
History of cartography
History of longitude

Longitude Prize
History of cultural geography
History of economic geography
History of health geography
History of political geography

History of demography
History of physical geography
History of biogeography
History of climatology
History of meteorology
History of geodesy

Reconstruction of Hecataeus' map of the World, created during ancient Greek

times

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History of geomorphology
History of hydrology
History of oceanography
History of landscape ecology
History of regional geography

Elements of geography
Topics common to the various branches of geography include:

Tasks and tools of geography

Main
articles:
Geosophy
Philosophy of geography

and

Exploration the act of traveling and

searching for resources or for information
about the land or space itself.
Geocode (Geospatial Entity Object Code)
geospatial coordinate system for
specifying the exact location of a
geospatial point at, below, or above the
surface of the earth at a given moment of
time.

The equal-area Mollweide projection

Geographic information system (GIS) set of tools that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data
that are linked to location(s). Combines elements of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.
Globe a three-dimensional scale model of a spheroid celestial body such as a planet, star, or moon.
Terrestrial globe globe of the Earth.
Map a visual representation of an area, depicting the elements of that area such as objects, regions, and themes.
Atlas a collection of maps, typically of the Earth or a region thereof.
Cartography the study and practice of making maps.
Map projection any method of representing the surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. Necessary for
creating maps.
Demographics the characteristics of a human population as used in government, marketing or opinion research,
or the demographic profiles used in such research. Distinct from demography, which is the statistical study of
human populations.
Spatial analysis a variety of statistical techniques used to study entities using their topological, geometric, or
geographic properties.
Surveying the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of
points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they
are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes.

Outline of geography

18

Types of geographic features

Geographic feature component of a planet that can be referred to as a location, place, site, area, or region, and
therefore may show up on a map. A geographic feature may be natural or man-made.
Location and place
Location
Absolute location
Latitude
Prime meridian
Longitude
Equator
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Altitude

Population density per square kilometre by country, 2006

Elevation
Place
Aspects of a place or region
Climate
Population
Demographics
Population density
Overpopulation
World population
Sense of place
Terrain
Topography
Tourist attraction
Lists of places
Natural geographic features
Natural geographic feature an ecosystem or natural landform.
Ecosystems
Ecosystem
Biodiversity hotspot
Ecozone
Ecoprovince
Ecoregion
Ecodistrict
Ecosection
Ecosite
Ecotope
Ecoelement

Outline of geography

19

Biome
Bioregion
Biotope
Bioelement
Natural landforms
Natural landform terrain or body of water.
Landforms are topographical elements, and
are defined by their surface form and
location in the landscape. Landforms are
categorized by traits such as elevation,
slope, orientation, stratification, rock
exposure, and soil type. Some landforms are
man-made, such as artificial islands, but
most landforms are natural.
Natural terrain feature types
Continent
Island
Mainland

The Ganges river delta in India and Bangladesh is one

of the most fertile regions in the world.

Mountain
Mountain range
Subcontinent
Natural body of water types
Natural bodies of water
Bodies of sea water
Channel
Firth
Harbor
Inlet
Bay
Bight
Gulf
Cove
Creek (tidal)
Estuary
Fjord (fiord)
Kettle
Kill
Lagoon
Barachois
Loch
Arm of the sea

The volcano Mount St. Helens in Washington, United States.

Outline of geography

Mere
Ocean
Phytotelma
Salt marsh
Sea
Types of sea:
Mediterranean sea
Sound
Sea components or extensions:

Sea loch
Sea lough
Strait
Bodies of fresh water
Bayou
Lake (list)
Oxbow lake
Subglacial lake
Tarn
Pool
Pond
Billabong
Tide pool
Vernal pool
Puddle
River (list)
Parts of a river:
Rapid
Source
Waterfall (list)
Roadstead
Spring
Boil Stream

Beck
Brook
Burn
Creek
Arroyo (creek)

Wash
Draw
Run
Wetland
Freshwater marsh
Slough (wetland)

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Outline of geography
Mangrove swamp
Man-made geographic features
Man-made geographic feature a thing that was made by humans that may be indicated on a map. It may be
physical and exist in the real world (like a bridge or city), or it may be abstract and exist only on maps (such as the
Equator, which has a defined location, but cannot be seen where it lies).
Artificial geographic feature physical man-made construct that is part of the landscape (and anthrosphere).
Some examples include Tokyo, the Great Wall of China, the Suez Canal, Interstate 5, and the Boeing Everett
Factory.
Settlement
Hamlet (place); rural settlement which is too small to be considered a village. Historically, when a hamlet
became large enough to justify building a church, it was then classified as a village. One example of a
hamlet is a small cluster of houses surrounding a mill.
Village clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from
a few hundred to a few thousand (sometimes tens of thousands).
Town human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in
order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many
American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while many British "small
towns" would qualify as cities in the United States.
Urban hierarchy ranks the structure of towns within an area.
1st-order towns bare minimum of essential services, such as bread and milk.
2nd-order towns
3rd-order towns
4th-order towns
City relatively large and permanent settlement. In many regions, a city is distinguished from a town by
attainment of designation according to law, for instance being required to obtain articles of incorporation or
a royal charter.
Financial centre
Primate city the leading city in its country or region, disproportionately larger than any others in the
urban hierarchy.
Metropolis very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center
for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and
communications.
Metropolitan area region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated
surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing.[27]
Global city city that is deemed to be an important node in the global economic system. Globalization is
largely created, facilitated and enacted in strategic geographic locales (including global cities) according
to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade.
Megalopolis chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas. An example is the huge metropolitan area
along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, Massachusetts through New York City;
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland and ending in Washington, D.C..
Eperopolis theoretical "continent city". The world does not have one yet. Will Europe become the first
one?
Ecumenopolis theoretical "world city". Will the world ever become so urbanized as to be called this?
Engineered construct built feature of the landscape such as a highway, bridge, airport, railroad, building,
dam, or reservoir. See also construction engineering and infrastructure.

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Outline of geography
Artificial landforms

Artificial dwelling hill

Artificial island
Artificial reef
Airport place where airplanes can take off and land, including one or more runways and one or more
passenger terminals.
Aqueduct artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another.
Breakwater construction designed to break the force of the sea to provide calm water for boats or ships, or
to prevent erosion of a coastal feature.
Bridge structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical obstacle such as a canyon,
for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
Building closed structure with walls and a roof.
Canal artificial waterway, often connecting one body of water with another.
Causeway
Dam structure placed across a flowing body of water to stop the flow, usually to use the water for
irrigation or to generate electricity.
Dike barrier of stone or earth used to hold back water and prevent flooding.

Levee artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels, usually earthen and often parallel to the
course of a river or the coast.[28]
Farm place where agricultural activities take place, especially the growing of crops or the raising of
livestock.
Manmade harbor harbor that has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or which was
constructed by dredging.
Industrial region
Marina
Orchard
Parking lot
Pier
Pipeline
Port
Railway
Ranch
Reservoir
Road

Highway
Race track
Street
Subsidence crater
Ski resort
Train station
Tree farm
Tunnel
Viaduct
Wharf

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Outline of geography

23

Abstract geographic feature does not

exist physically in the real world, yet has
a location by definition and may be
displayed on maps.
Geographical zone
Hardiness zone
Time zone
Political division
Nation
Administrative division
Special Economic Zone
Country subdivision a designated
territory created within a country
for administrative or identification
purposes. Examples of the types of
country subdivisions:

Provinces and territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China

Bailiwick
Canton
Commune
County
Department
District

Duchy
Emirate
Federal state
Parish
Prefecture
Province
Region
Rural district
Settlement
Municipality
City

Borough
Township
Village
Shire
State
Subdistrict
Subprefecture
Voivodeship
Wilayat

Cartographical feature theoretical construct used specifically on maps that doesn't have any physical form
apart from its location.
Latitude line

Outline of geography

24

Equator
Longitude line
Prime Meridian)
Geographical pole
North pole
South pole
Geographic features that include the natural and man-made
Waterway (list)

Geography awards
Some awards and competitions in the field of geography:
Geography Cup
Gold Medal
Hubbard Medal
National Geographic World Championship
Victoria Medal

Persons influential in geography

A geographer is a scientist who studies Earth's physical environment
and human habitat. Geographers are historically known for making
maps, the subdiscipline of geography known as cartography. They
Hubbard Medal awarded to Anne Morrow
study the physical details of the environment and also its impact on
Lindbergh, showing her flight route
human and wildlife ecologies, weather and climate patterns,
economics, and culture. Geographers focus on the spatial relationships between these elements.

Influential physical geographers

Eratosthenes (276 194BC) who made the first known reliable estimation of
the Earth's size.[29] He is considered the father of geodesy.[29][30]
Ptolemy (c.90 c.168) who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce
the book Geographia.
Ab Rayhn Brn (973 1048 AD) considered te father of
geodesy.[31][32]Wikipedia:Verifiability
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 9801037) who formulated the law of superposition and
concept of uniformitarianism in The Book of Healing.[citation needed]
Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses, 1100 c.1165) who drew the Tabula Rogeriana,
the most accurate world map in pre-modern times.[33]
Piri Reis (1465 c.1554) whose Piri Reis map is the oldest surviving world
map to include the Americas and possibly Antarctica

Alexander Von Humboldt,

considered to be the founding
father of physical geography.

Gerardus Mercator (15121594) an innovative cartographer and originator of

the Mercator projection.
Bernhardus Varenius (16221650) Wrote his important work "General Geography" (1650) first overview of
the geography, the foundation of modern geography.

Outline of geography

25

Mikhail Lomonosov (17111765) father of Russian geography and founded the

study of glaciology.
Alexander Von Humboldt (17691859) considered the father of modern
geography. Published Kosmos and founded the study of biogeography.
Arnold Henry Guyot (18071884) who noted the structure of glaciers and
advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow.
Louis Agassiz (18071873) the author of a glacial theory which disputed the
notion of a steady-cooling Earth.
Alfred Russel Wallace (18231913) founder of modern biogeography and the
Wallace line.
Vasily Dokuchaev (18401903) patriarch of Russian geography and founder of
pedology.
Wladimir Peter Kppen (18461940) developer of most important climate
classification and founder of Paleoclimatology.

Richard Chorley, 20th-century

geographer who progressed
quantitative geography and who
helped bring the systems
approach to geography.

William Morris Davis (18501934) father of American geography, founder of Geomorphology and developer
of the geographical cycle theory.
Walther Penck (18881923) proponent of the cycle of erosion and the simultaneous occurrence of uplift and
denudation.
Sir Ernest Shackleton (18741922) Antarctic explorer during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
Robert E. Horton (18751945) founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and
overland flow.
J Harlen Bretz (18821981) pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most
notably the Bretz (Missoula) floods.
Willi Dansgaard (born 1922) palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of
oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of Dansgaard-Oeschger events.
Hans Oeschger (19271998) palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of
Dansgaard-Orschger events.
Richard Chorley (19272002) a key contributor to the quantitative revolution and the use of systems theory in
geography.
Sir Nicholas Shackleton (19372006) who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million
years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun.
Stefan Rahmstorf (born 1960) professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline
dynamics.

Outline of geography

26

Influential human geographers

Carl Ritter (17791859) considered to be one of the founding fathers of
modern geography and first chair in geography at the Humboldt University
of Berlin, also noted for his use of organic analogy in his works.
Friedrich Ratzel (18441904) environmental determinist, invented the
term Lebensraum
Paul Vidal de la Blache (18451918) founder of the French School of
geopolitics and possibilism.
Sir Halford John Mackinder (18611947) author of The Geographical
Pivot of History, co-founder of the London School of Economics, along
with the Geographical Association.
Carl O. Sauer (18891975) critic of environmental determinism and
proponent of cultural ecology.

Sketch of Carl Ritter

Walter Christaller (18931969) economic geographer and developer of

the central place theory.
Richard Hartshorne (18991992) scholar of the history and philosophy
of geography.
Torsten Hgerstrand (19162004) critic of the quantitative revolution
and regional science, noted figure in critical geography.
Milton Santos (19262001) winner of the Vautrin Lud prize in 1994, one
of the most important geographers in South America.
Waldo R. Tobler (born 1930) developer of the First law of geography.
Yi-Fu Tuan (born 1930) A Chinese-American geographer.
David Harvey (born 1935) world's most cited academic geographer and
winner of the Laurat Prix International de Gographie Vautrin Lud, also
noted for his work in critical geography and critique of global capitalism.

Paul Vidal de la Blache

Evelyn Stokes (19362005). Professor of geography at the University of

Waikato in New Zealand. Known for recognizing inequality with
marginalized groups including women and Mori using geography.
Allen J. Scott (born 1938) winner of Vautrin Lud Prize in 2003 and the
Anders Retzius Gold medal 2009; author of numerous books and papers on
economic and urban geography, known for his work on regional
development, new industrial spaces, agglomeration theory, global
city-regions and the cultural economy.
Edward Soja (born 1941) noted for his work on regional development,
planning and governance, along with coining the terms synekism and
postmetropolis.
Doreen Massey (born 1944) key scholar in the space and places of
globalization and its pluralities, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.

David Harvey

Michael Watts, Class of 1963 Professor of Geography and Development

Studies, University of California, Berkeley
Nigel Thrift (born 1949) developer of non-representational theory.
Derek Gregory (born 1951) famous for writing on the Israeli, U.S. and UK actions in the Middle East after
9/11, influenced by Edward Said and has contributed work on imagined geographies.
Cindi Katz (born 1954) who writes on social reproduction and the production of space. Writing on children's
geographies, place and nature, everyday life and security.

Outline of geography
Gillian Rose (born 1962) most famous for her critique: Feminism & Geography: The Limits of Geographical
Knowledge (1993) which was one of the first moves towards a development of feminist geography.

Geography educational frameworks

Educational frameworks upon which primary and secondary school curricula for geography are based upon include:
Five themes of geography[34]
1. Location a position or point that something occupies on the Earth's surface.
2. Place
3. Human-environment interaction
4. movement
5. Region
The six "essential elements" identified by the Geography Education Standards Project,[] under which the National
Geography Standards they developed are organized:[][35]
1. The World in spatial terms
2. Places and regions
3. Physical systems
4. Human systems
5. Environment and society
6. The uses of geography
The three content areas of geography from the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress[36] (U.S.):
1. Space and place
2. Environment and society
3. Spatial dynamics and connections

References
[2]
[4]
[6]
[7]

Bonnett, Alastair What is Geography? London, Sage, 2008

http:/ / web. clas. ufl. edu/ users/ morgans/ lecture_2. prn. pdf
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006 (http:/ / www. physicalgeography. net/ fundamentals/ 1b. html)
Martiny JBH et al. Microbial biogeography: putting microorganisms on the map (http:/ / alrlab. pdx. edu/ media/ HughesBiogeoNature. pdf)
Nature: FEBRUARY 2006 | VOLUME 4
[8] Climate Prediction Center. Climate Glossary. (http:/ / www. cpc. noaa. gov/ products/ outreach/ glossary. shtml#C) Retrieved on 2006-11-23.
[10] Wu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape Ecology 21:1-4.
[11] Wu, J. and R. Hobbs (Eds). 2007. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[12] Wu, J. 2008. Landscape ecology. In: S. E. Jorgensen (ed), Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, Oxford.
[14] Delgado de Carvalho, C.M. (1962). The geography of languages. In Wagner, P.L.; Mikesell, M.W. Readings in cultural geography.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 75-93.
[15] Pei, M. (1966). Glossary of linguistic terminology. New York: John Wiley.
[16] Trudgill, P. (1974). Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography. Language in Society
3:2, 215-46.
[17] Trudgill, P. (1983). On dialect: social and geographical perspectives. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; New York: New York University Press.
[18] Trudgill, P. (1975). Linguistic geography and geographical linguistics. Progress in Geography 7, 227-52
[19] Withers, Charles W.J. [1981] (1993). Johnson, R.J. The Dictionary of Human Geography, Gregory, Derek; Smith, David M., Second
edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 252-3.
[20] Constructing tourism landscapes gender, sexuality and space by Pritchard A. & Morgan N. J. Tourism Geographies, Volume 2, Number 2,
1 May 2000 , pp. 115-139(25) (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ routledg/ rtxg/ 2000/ 00000002/ 00000002/ art00002)
[21] Syllabus Poetics: Sexuality and Space in 17th - 19th Century American Literature, University at Buffalo (http:/ / wings. buffalo. edu/ epc/
authors/ howe/ syllabi/ sexuality. html)
[22] Space and Modern (Homo)sexuality in Tsai Ming Liang's Films by Lyn Van Swol (http:/ / www. allacademic. com/ meta/
p_mla_apa_research_citation/ 0/ 1/ 4/ 9/ 2/ p14928_index. html?phpsessid=43bac9979986e74e34d2496c52ebac62)
[23] Sexuality and Space, Course Syllabus Towson University (http:/ / pages. towson. edu/ dherman/ sexspace/ sexhome. htm)

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Outline of geography
[25] "Recommending Social Events from Mobile Phone Location Data" (http:/ / www. cl. cam. ac. uk/ ~dq209/ publications/
recommending10quercia. pdf), Daniele Quercia, et al., ICDM 2010
[26] Harrison, Paul; 2006; "Post-structuralist Theories"; pp122-135 in Aitken, S. and Valentine, G. (eds); 2006; Approaches to Human
Geography; Sage, London
[27] Squires, G. Ed. Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences, & Policy Responses. The Urban Institute Press (2002)
[29] Avraham Ariel, Nora Ariel Berger (2006)." Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=2xTJt3b3SHUC& pg=PA12& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.12. ISBN
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[30] Jennifer Fandel (2006)." The Metric System (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kRp7R_WnAiEC& pg=PA4& dq& hl=en#v=onepage&
q=& f=false)". The Creative Company. p.4. ISBN 1-58341-430-4
[31] Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
[32] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
[33] S. P. Scott (1904) History of the Moorish Empire, pp. 461-2:
[34] Guidelines for Geographic EducationElementary and Secondary Schools. Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National
Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers, 1984.
[35] Richard G Boehm, Roger M Downs, Sarah W Bednarz. Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. National Council for
Geographic Education, 1994
[36] Geography Framework for the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress. (http:/ / www. nagb. org/ publications/ frameworks/
gframework2010. pdf) National Assessment Governing Board, U.S. Department of Education, p. vii:

28

Article Sources and Contributors

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