Muscular-Skeletal Lecture:

I. Skeletal Tissue
II. Skeleton
III. Articulations
IV. Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Tissue
The skeleton includes various types of connective tissues, primarily cartilage and bone. During
embryological life, the skeleton is primarily cartilage but this is replaced by bone with minor
amounts of cartilage persisting in adult life.
I. Structure and Location of Cartilage
A. Basic structure
1. Primarily water
2. Non-vascular
3. No nervous tissue
4. Perichondriumdense connective tissue surrounding cartilage
5. Cellular components
a. Chondrocytes
i. Secrete extracellular matrix
B. Types of cartilage
1. Hyalinemost abundant
a. Articular cartilage
b. Costal cartilage
c. Laryngeal cartilage
d. Tracheal and bronchial cartilage

e. Nasal cartilage
2. Elasticmore elastic fibers
a. Ears and epiglottis
3. Fibrocartialgecompressible with tensile strength
a. Alternating parallel rows of chondrocytes and collagen
b. Sites of heavy pressure and stretch
i. Vertebral discs
ii. Knee
C. Growth
1. Appositional
a. Cartilage forming cells embedded in perichondrium layer
2. Interstitial
a. Chondrocytes within lacunae in center of cartilage
*Although cartilage can be calcified, calcified cartilage is not bone. Bone is a separate type of
connective tissue.
II. Bone
A. Function
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Mineral storage
5. Hematopoiesis
III. Classification of Bone
A. Type

1. Compactexternal
2. Spongyinternal
B. Shape

1. Long bone

a. Longer than wide

b. Shaft with two ends
c. Mostly compact
d. Bones of limbs
2. Short bone
a. Cube-like
b. Mostly spongy
c. Sesamoidbones embedded in tendon
i. Patella
3. Flat bone
a. Spongy bone embedded within parallel layers of thin compact bone
4. Irregular bone
a. Vertebrae and hip bones
b. Complicated shapes
c. Mostly spongy with a thin covering of compact bone
IV. Bone Structure
A. Structural levels
1. Gross anatomy
2. Microscopic anatomy
3. Chemical composition
B. Gross anatomy of long bones
1. Diaphysis: shaft; long axis
a. Constructed of a collar of thick compact bone

b. Central medullary cavity

i. Contains fatyellow marrow
2. Epiphysis: bone ends
a. Exterior is compact bone
b. Interior is spongy bone
c. Articular cartilage covers joint surface
i. Absorbs stress
d. Epiphyseal line
i. Remnant of epiphyseal plate
ii. Region of hyaline cartilage that grows during development
C. Gross anatomy of short bones
D. Hematopoietic tissue: Red marrow
a. Red marrow cavities
i. Spongy bone of long bones
ii. Diploe of short bones
b. In adults, fat containing medullary cavity extends into epiphysis
i. Little red marrow
c. RBCs produced primarily in diploe
V. Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone
A. Structural unit: Haversian System; Osteon
1. Elongated cylinders parallel to bone long axis
a. Concentric rings: lamella
2. Central (Haversian) canal: core of osteon

a. Blood vessels and NT

3. Perpendicular canals (perforating or Volkmanns)
a. Connect periosteum to central and medullary cavities
i. Blood supply and NT innervation
4. Lacunae: cavities containing osteocytes
5. Canaliculi: connect lacunae to each other and central canal
VI. Microscopic Structure Spongy Bone
A. Trabeculae: needle-like (flat) pieces
B. Trabeculae appear less organized than structures of compact bone
a. No osteon
b. Organization is based on lines of stress
c. Lamella and osteocytes are irregularly organized;
VII. Chemical Composition of Bone
A. Organic
1. Cells
a. Osteocytes
b. Osteoblasts
c. Osteoclasts
2. Osteoid: organic part of matrix; made by osteoblasts
a. Proteoglycans
b. Glycoproteins
c. Collagen fibers
B. Inorganic

1. Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

a. Calcium crystals in and around extracellular matrix
i. Make bones hard
VIII. Bone Homeostasis
A. Remodeling
1. Balance of bone formation and resorption
a. Processes are balanced to maintain constant bone mass
b. Remodeling units
i. Packets of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
2. Control of remodeling
a. Hormonal mechanism: not related to strength; associated with mineral balance
i. Parathyroid hormone (parathyroid gland)
ii. Calcitonin (thyroid gland)
iii. PTH released in response to low ionic calcium in blood
iv. Osteoclasts are activated to digest bone matrix and release calcium into blood
v. Calcitonin is released in response to high calcium in blood
vi. Calcium salts are deposited into bone
b. Mechanical stress: bone respond; mechanism unknown

Skeletal System
Skeleton is comprised of axial and appendicular structures.
I. Skeleton

A. Components
1. Bones
a. 206

2. Cartilage
3. Joints
4. Ligaments
B. Organization
1. Axial
a. Skull
b. Vertebral column
c. Rib cage
2. Appendicular
a. Limbs
b. Girdles that attach to axial
i. Shoulder and hip bones
II. Axial Skeleton--Skull
A. Skull Bones
1. Organization
a. Cranial
b. Facial
B. Cranial bones
1. Functions
a. Site for head muscle attachment
b. Encase brain and particular sense organs
C. Facial bones
1. Functions

a. Site for facial muscle attachment

b. Cavities for particular sense organs
i. Gustation
ii. Olfaction
iii. Vision
c. Framework for the face
d. Openings for air and food passage
e. Secure teeth
D. Suturesconnections (joints) between bones of skull
1. All bones of the skull except mandible
2. Cranial bone sutures
a. Coronal
b. Sagittal
c. Squamous
d. Lamboid
3. Sutures of facial bones are named based on name of bones that are connected
E. Organization of the skull
1. Cranial vault (calvaria; skullcap)
a. Forms the superior, lateral and posterior aspects as well as the forehead
2. Cranial base (floor)
a. Forms inferior aspect
b. Fossaesteps
a. Anterior

b. Middle
c. Posterior
3. Cavities
a. Cranial
i. Brain
b. Orbits
i. Eyeballs
c. Paranasal sinuses
i. Nasal cavity
d. Middle and inner ear
4. Openings
a. Foramina
b. Canals
c. Fissures
III. Bones of the Cranium
A Paired
1. Parietal
2. Temporal
B. Unpaired
1. Frontal
2. Occipital
3. Sphenoid
4. Ethmoid

C. Frontal bone
1. Structural contribution
a. Anterior portion of cranium
b. Roofs of the orbits
c. Anterior cranial fossa
D. Parietal bone
1. Structural contribution
a. Superior and lateral aspects of the skull
E. Occipital bone
1. Structural contribution
a. Posterior wall and base of skull
b. Walls of the posterior cranial fossa
F. Temporal bones
1. Structural contribution
a. Lateral surface
b. Inferior to parietal (inferolateral aspects of skull)
G. Sphenoid bone
1. Articulates with all other cranial bones
2. Shape
a. Central Body
b. Three pairs of processes
i. Greater wings
ii. Lesser wings

iii. Pterygoid
H. Ethmoid bone
1. Forms bony area between nasal cavities and orbits
IV. Facial Bones: 14 Bones
A. Unpaired
1. Mandible
2. Vomer
B. Paired
1. Maxillae
2. Zygomatics
3. Nasals
3. Lacrimals
4. Palatines
5. Inferior conchae
C. Mandible: Unshaped lower jaw
1. Structure
a. Ramus (branch)
b. Body
2. Landmarks
a. Mandibular notch
b. Mandibular condyle (rounded articular projection)
c. Mandibular angle
d. Coronoid process

i. Attachment for temporalis muscle

e. Alveolar margin
i. Holds teeth
D. Maxillay bones (Maxillae): Upper jaw and central portion of facial skeleton
1. Keystoneall other facial bones articulate with maxillae
2. Landmarks
a. Aveolar margins
b. Palatine processes
i. Posterior projection
ii. Anterior 2/3s of hard palate
c. Frontal processes
i. Superior projection to frontal bone
d. Zygomatic processes
i. Articualtions with zygomatic bones
E. Zygomatic bones: Cheek bones
1. Interolateral margins of orbits
F. Nasal bones
1. Bridge of nose
G. Lacrimal bones
1. Medial walls of each orbit
H. Palatine bones
1. Posterior part of the hard palate
I. Vomer: Nasal septum

J. Inferior nasal conchae

1. Part of the lateral wall of nasal cavity
K. Hyoid bone: Acts as moveable base for tongues
1. Not part of skull
2. Does not articulate with any other bones
3. Raise and lower larynx during swallowing
V. Vertebral Column (Spine)
A. General characteristics
1. 26 irregular bones
2. Transfers weight of trunk to lower limbs
3. Protects the spinal cord
4. Attachment point for ribs
5. Attachment point for muscles of back
B. Divisions (5)

1. Cervical curvature
a. 7 vertebrae (C1-C7)
b. Concave posteriorly
2. Thoracic vertebrae
a. 12 vertebrae (T1-T12)
b. Convex posteriorly
3. Lumbar curvature
a. 5 vertebrae (L1-L5)
b. Concave posteriorly
4. Sacrum: 5 fused vertebrae
a. Convex posteriorly
5. Coccyx: 4 fused vertebrae
C. Ligaments
1. Anterior and posterior ligaments
D. Intervertebral discs (shock absorbers)
1. Functions as a cushion-like pad between vertebrae
2. Two parts

a. Nucleus pulposussemi-fluid
i. Gives elasticity and compressibility
b. Annulus fibrous
i. Forms outer collar to limit expansion
ii. Connects successive vertebrae
iii. Rupture: herniated disc (slipped disc)
E. General structure of vertebrae

1. Body (centrum)
2. Vertebral arch
a. Pedicle
b. Transverse process
c. Superior articular process
d. Laminae
e. Transverse process
f. Vertebral foramen
i. Successive foramen form vertebral canal
g. Intervertebral foramina
i. Spinal nerves pass through laterally

VI. Thoracic Cage

A. Elements
1. Dorsal (posterior): Vertebrae
2. Lateral: Ribs
3. Anterior: Sternum and costal cartilages
B. Function
1. Protective cage for vital organs
2. Attachment for muscle
3. Supports shoulders girdle and upper limbs
4. Participates in breathing
B. Sternum (fusion of three bones)
1. Manubrium, body and xiphoid process
2. Landmarks
a. Jugular notch
i. Common carotid artery issues from aorta
ii. Level of second and third vertebrae
b. Sternal angle
i. Level of second rib
ii. Disc between fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae
c. Xiphisternal joint
i. Ninth thoracic vertebra
C. Ribs

1. Nomenclature based on Attachments

a. Posterior: thoracic vertebrae
b. Anterior
i. VertebrosternalTrue(7 pairs): sternum via intercostals cartilages
ii. VertebrochondralFalse (3 pairs): indirect attachment to sternum via costal
cartilage
iii. VertebralFloating (2 pairs): no anterior attachment
2. Size:
a. Increase from 1-7
b. Decrease from 8-12
3. Structure
a. Head of rib: articulates with same-numbered thoracic vertebra
b. Neck

c. Tubercle: articulates with transverse process of same-numbered thoracic vertebra

d. Shaft: bulk of rib
VII. Appendicular Skeleton
A. General characteristics
1. Limbs and girdles
2. Pectoral girdle: attaches upper limbs to body trunk
3. Pelvic girdle: attached lower limbs to body trunk
4. Limb fundamental plan
a. Three segments connected by moveable joints
B. Pectoral girdle (not really a girdlenot connected posteriorly)

1. Bones (2)
a. Clavicle
i. Anterior

b. Scapula
i. Posterior
2. Characteristics
a. Only clavicle attaches to thoracic
b. Scapula is free to move across thorax
i. Arm very mobile
c. Socket of shoulder joint (glenoid cavity of scapula)
i. Shallow and poorly reinforced
ii. Does not restrict movement of humerous
3. Clavicledouble curve
a. Sternal end
i. Articulates sternum (manubrium)
b. Acromial end
i. Articulates scapula
c. Function
i. Restricts medial movement of arms
ii. Attachment for thoracic and shoulder muscles
d. Fracture
i. Curvature promotes anterior displacement
4. Scapula
a. Structure (triangle; three sides and angles)
b. Important landmarks
i. Acromionanterior projection of spine; articulation with clavicle

ii. Coracoid processanterior projection of superior scapular border; anchors

bicep muscle
iii. Glenoid cavityarticulates with humerous

VIII. Upper Limb (30 bones)

A. Arm: shoulder to elbow
1. Humerus
2. Clinical consideration
a. Surgical neck (most likely site of fracture)
B. Forearm (antebrachium)
1. General considerations
a. Two parallel long bones: ulna and radius
b. Articulations
i. Proximal: humerus
ii. Distal: bones of wrist
iii. Radioulnar joints: radius and ulna both proximally and distally
2. Ulna: forms elbow joint with humerus; wide at proximal end, narrow at distal
3. Radius: narrow proximally, wide distally
C. Hand
1. Carpus: proximal structure of hand
a. Group of 8 bones (carpals) tied together with ligaments
b. Two irregular rows of four bones each
2. Metacarpus (5 wrist-like spokes)
a. No names; numbers (1-5) instead; 1 on thumb side

3. Phalanges (fingers or digits): 14 bones

a. Numbered 1-5 beginning with pollex (thumb)
b. Distal, middle and proximal phalanges for each digit
c. No middle phalanx for pollex
IX. Pelvic Girdle

A. Paired coxal (hip) bones

1. Coxal bones unite anteriorly
2. Coxal bones unite with sacrum posteriorly
3. Regions of coxal bone (fused during childhood)
a. Ilium: majority of the coxal bone
b. Ischium: posteriorinferior part of hip bone
c. Pubis
4. Pubic symphysisfibrocartilage joining two pubic bones

X. Lower Limb
A. Thigh
1. Femur: largest, strongest bone in the body
a. Proximal articulation with hip
b. Distal articulation with tibia
c. Courses medially
i. Center of gravity
2. Patella
a. Sesamoid bone enclosed in tendon
B. Leg: two parallel bones connected by interosseous membrane; articulate with each other
proximally and distally (tibiofibular joints do not allow movement)
1. Tibia
a. Receives weight of the body from femur and transmits it to foot
b. Second strongest bone in body
2. Fibula
a. Headsuperior end
b. Lateral malleolus
i. Articulates with talus
ii. Lateral ankle bulge
C. Foot: segmented; lever-like; support
1. Tarsus7 tarsal bones (corresponds to carpus of the hand)
2. Metatarsus5 small long bones (metatarsal bones)
a. Metatarsal 1-5
3. Phalanges14 bones; smaller and less moveable than those of hand

Articulations
I. Classification of Joints
A. Structural classification
1. Based on material binding bones together and presence or absence of a cavity
2. Types
a. Fibrous
b. Cartilaginous
c. Synovial
B. Functional classification
1. Based on amount of movement permitted
2. Types
a. Synarthroses
i. Immoveable
b. Amphiarthroses
ii. Slightly moveable
c. Diarthroses
iii. Freely moveable
II. Characteristics of Joints
A. Fibrous
1. Joined by fibrous tissue only; no cavity
2. Most are synarthrotic
3. Types
a. Sutures (bones of skull)

i. Overlapping or interlocking bone edges

ii. Junction filled with connective tissue that penetrates into articulating bones
iii. Ossified in adults (synostoses)
b. Syndesmoses: bones connected by a cord or sheet of fibrous tissue
i. Ligament or interosseous membrane
ii. Movement proportionate to length of connecting fibers
iii. Example: distal end of tibia and fibula (synarthrosis)
c. Gomphosespeg-in-socket
i. Tooth
B. Cartilaginous jointsarticulating bones connected by cartilage; no joint cavity
1. Types
a. Synchondrosesbar or plate of hyaline cartilage
i. Site for bone growth
ii. Become ossified and immoveable (synarthrotic)
iii. Epiphyseal plate connecting epiphysis and diaphysis regions of long bones
b. Symphysis
i. Articulating surfaces are covered with articulating cartilage
ii. Cartilage (hyaline) is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage
iii. Shock absorption with little movement
iv. Amphiarthrotic jointsstrong with flexibility
v. Intervertebral discs
C. Synovial joints
1. Articulating bones separated by a fluid cavity

2. Freely moveable diarthrotic joints

3. General structure
a. Articular cartilage
i. Covers opposing bones
ii. Shock absorption
b. Synovial cavity
i. Fluid filled (synovial fluid)
c. Articular capsule
i. Double-lined fibrous capsule
ii. Continuous with periostea of the articulating bones
iii. Inner synovial membrane line fibrous capsule internally
iv. Covers all non-hyaline internal joint surfaces
d. Synovial fluid
i. Occupies all free space
ii. Reduces friction between cartilages
iii. Weeping lubricationload based release of synovial fluid into and out of
cartilage during movement
e. Reinforcing ligaments
i. Intrinsic (capsular)thickened parts of fibrous capsule
ii. Extracapsularoutside capsule
iii. Intracapsulardeep to capsule
4. Other structural features
a. Fatty pads between fibrous capsule and synovial membrane

b. Articular discs (menisci)fibrocartilage separating articulating surfaces of opposing

bones
5. Associated structures
a. Bursaesacs of lubricant
i. Flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane with synovial fluid
b. Tendon sheathelongated bursa surrounding a tendon
6. Factors affecting synovial joint stability
a. Shape of articulating surfaces
i. Shape determines type of movement but does not determine stability
ii. Bones usually misfit
b. Ligaments
i. Unite bones
ii. Direct and limit movement
iii. Joints comprised of only ligaments are not stabile
c. Muscle tonemajor stabilizing factor
i. Tendons crossing joints are taut due to tone
ii. Sensory receptors monitor and maintain tone
III. Synovial Joint Movement
A. Background
1. Skeletal muscles have a minimum of two attachment points
a. Originimmoveable bone
b. Insertionmoveable bone
2. Contraction across joint moves insertion towards origin
3. Types of movement

a. Gliding (simple)
i. Surfaces slip or glide over another similar surface
b. Angularincrease or decrease angle between bones
i. Flexiondecrease angle on sagittal plane
ii. Extensionincrease angle on sagittal plane
iii. Abductionaway from midline
iv. Adductiontoward midline
v. Circumductionmovement describing a conical space
vi. Rotationturn bone along its own long axis
vii. Supination and pronationmovement of radius and ulna; s. parallel; r. radius
over ulna
viii. Inversion and eversionsole of foot medial or lateral
ix. Protraction and retractionnon-angular anterior and posterior movement in
transverse plane
x. Elevation and depressionlift body part superiorly
xi. Oppositionthumb
IV. Types of Synovial Joints
A. Categories

1. Planearticulating surfaces are flat

a. Slipping and gliding

i. Intracarpal joints
2. Hingeprojection of one bone fits into the trough of another bone
a. Uniplanar movement
b. Flexion and extension only

3. Pivotconical end of one bone fits into sleeve of another

a. Uniaxial rotation
4. Condyloid (knucklelike)oval surfaces fit into complimentary concavity
a. Permits angular movement
5. Saddle
a. Greater movement than condyloid
b. Both concave and convex surface
6. Ball and Socketspherical head articulates with cuplike socket
a. Multiaxial
b. Most freely moving
V. Joint Injuries
A. Mechanical
1. Sprain
a. Mild sprains involve overstretching muscles
b. Severe sprains involve partial rupture of tendon, ligament and/or blood vessels
2. Dislocation (luxation)bones forced out of normal position
a. Partial
b. Dislocation
B. Inflammatory and Degenerative
1. Bursitisinflammation of bursa
a. Direct injury or friction
2. Tendonitisinflammation of tendons
3. Arthritisinflammatory disease of joints

a. Osteoarthritismost common
i. Degenerative aging of articular cartilage
ii. Restricts movement but is not crippling
b. Rhematoid arthritischronic inflammatory disease
i. Autoimmune disease
ii. Begins as synovitis
iii. Membrane thickens into pannus
iv. Inflammatory cells in pannus release enzymes that erode cartilage
v. Scar tissue forms and connects bones
vi. Scar tissue ossifies
4. Gouty arthritisuric acid crystallizes and gets deposited into soft tissue of joints

Muscle and Muscle Tissue

I. Background
A. Muscle types
1. Skeletal
a. Striated
b. Voluntary
2. Cardiac
a. Striated
b. Involuntary
3. Smooth
a. Non-striated
b. Involuntary

B. Common features
1. Elongated cellsmuscle fibers
2. Myofilaments
a. Actin
b. Myosin
3. Terminology
a. Myo and sacro
C. General functions
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture
3. Stabilize joints
4. Temperature homeostasis
II. Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
A. Muscles are organs comprised of:
1. Muscle fibers
2. Connective tissue
3. Blood vessels
4. Nervous tissue
B. Organization
1. Individual fibers are surrounded by endomysium
a. Areolar connective tissue
2. Multiple fibers are bundled as fascicles
3. Fascicles are bound by collagen sheath

a. Perimysium
4. Epimysium then surrounds all fascicles of an entire muscle
5. Deep fascia binds muscles into functional groups
III. Microscopic Anatomy
A. Terms
1. Sarcolemmaplasma membrane surface
2. Sarcoplasmcytoplasm of muscle cells
3. Myofibrilscontractile elements of skeletal muscle
B. Striations

1. A bandsdark bands
2. I bandslight bands
3. H band (within A band)
a. Visible only in relaxed muscle
4. M line
a. Bisects H band

5. Z disc (membrane)
a. Midline in I band
C. Sarcomereregion of myofibril between two successive Z discs
1. Functional unit of skeletal muscle
D. Microfilaments (myofilaments) with in bands
1. Thick filaments
a. Run entire length of A band
b. Myosin
2. Thin filaments
a. Extend across I band and part of the way into A band
b. Actin
3. Z discprotein sheet connecting myofibrils together
E. Ultrastructure and molecular composition

1. Thick filaments
a. Myosin
b. Rodlike tail terminates in two globular heads
c. During contraction heads (cross bridges) interact with thin myofilaments
2. Thin myofilaments
a. Actin
3. Regulatory proteins
a. Tropomyosin
i. Sprials around action
ii. Block myosin head binding sites during relaxed state
b. Troponinpolypeptide complex

IV. Contraction of Skeletal Muscle

I. Sliding Theory of Contraction
Sliding Theory of Contraction: during contraction, thin filaments slide past thick ones so that
actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree
A. Overview

1. Prior to contraction
a. Cross bridges are disengaged
b. All bands distinct
2. Nerve impulse initiates contraction
3. Cross bridges engage
4. ATP splits
a. Energy used for swinging of cross bridges
5. Actin filaments pulled together
a. H zone and Z disc smaller or lost
6. I band reduced

7. Cross bridges disengage

8. Crossbridges and actin filaments return to original position
II. Specifics of Contraction
A. During relaxed state
1. Ca2+ concentration in sarcoplasm is low
a. Ca2+ is stored in sacroplasmic tubules
2. Troponin-tropomyosin complex attached to actin filament
a. Tropomyosin positioned to block myosin binding sites on actin filament

3. ATP and inactive ATPase bound to myosin head

a. Low energy configuration
i. Binding to actin is not possible
B. Events during contraction

1. Nerve impulse (afferent signal) from motor neuron generates action potential in nerve cell
a. AP propagated along sarcolemma and down T tubules
2. Myosin ATPase activated
a. ATP splits
i. High energy myosin-ADP complex
3. AP causes release of Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic reticulum
4. Ca2+ binds to troponin
a. Molecular shape of troponin changes
i. Tropomyosin is removed from binding site of mysosin on the actin filament
b. Myosin attaches to actin
5. Contraction: Potential energy stored in high-energy configuration is used to pivot myosin head
a. Myosin head bends as it pulls on actin
b. ADP and inorganic phosphate are released from myosin
6. New ATP attached to myosin head
a. Cross bridge simultaneously detaches
b. Following death, no ATP and muscle fibers cannot relax
i. Rigor mortis
7. If no new impulse, Ca2+ is pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
a. Relaxation occurs
8. If Ca2+ present from additional impulse, cycle repeats
a. Myosin head steps to next binding site on actin
III. Regulation of Contraction
A. Neuromuscular junctionfunctional connection between somatic nervous system and
muscles

1. Motor neuron axons bifurcate to form multiple endings

a. Separate endings synapse with individual nerve fibers
i. Each nerve fiber synapses with only a single motor neuron
ii. Motor neurons can synapse with multiple nerve fibers
2. Synapsesite of communication between neuron and muscle (neuron to neuron in nervous
system)
a. Contact is not direct
i. Physical separationsynaptic cleft
b. Requires signal to be transduced into a chemical signal
i. Neurotransmitter
ii. ACh is NT at neuromuscular junction
3. Motor end platephysical modification of sarcolemma where neuron synapses with fiber
a. ACh receptors located on motor end plate
B. Transduction events:
1. Nerve impulse from somatic NS
2. ACh released from pre-synaptic motor neuron
3. ACh binds to receptors
a. Na+ channels open
b. Inward depolarizing current initiates an action potential (see subsequent lectures on
neurophysiology)
c. ACh is enzymatically destroyed
i. Acetylcholinesterase
4. Action potential is propagated along sarcolemma and down T tubules
5. Ca2+ is released from SR (see above for resulting effects)

6. Ca2+ is removed by continuously active Ca2+ pumps

a. At low enough concentrations, contraction ceases
7. At the level of individual muscle fibers (cells), contraction is all or nothing
a. In response to threshold stimuli, action potentials are generated in a non-graded fashion
8. Refractory periodcells must re-polarize before another AP can occur
IV. Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
A. Motor Unitfunctional unit; a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies
1. Distribution of fibers in a single motor unit is spread throughout a muscle
a. Stimulation of a single motor neuron weakly contracts entire muscle
B. Muscle twitchresponse of a muscle to a single supra-threshold stimulus
1. Phases (3)
a. Latent phase (a few msec)
i. Onset of stimulus
ii. No measured contractile activity
iii. Excitation-contraction coupling
b. Contraction phase (10-100 msec)
i. Onset of shortening to peak contraction
ii. If pull greater than load, muscle shortens
c. Relaxation phase (10-100 msec)
i. Re-entry of Ca2+ into SR
ii. Muscle tension gradually returns to zero
2. Temporal characteristics vary among muscles
C. Graded muscle responsesvariation in degree of contraction

1. Gradation results from:

a. Altering stimulation frequency
b. Altering stimulus strength
2. Response to frequency of stimulation
a. Temporal (wave) summation
i. Strength of contraction increases with successive stimuli
ii. Muscles that are already contracted, contract further with additional Ca2+
iii. If stimulation is delivered prior to relaxation, contraction s are summed
b. Tetanus: At sufficiently high frequencies, no muscle relaxation occurs and contractions
fuse into a smooth, sustained contraction
3. Motor unit summationresponse to increasing stimulus intensity
a. Primary mechanism for increasing force of contraction
b. Multiple motor unit summationRecruitment
c. At threshold stimulation, first muscle contraction occurs
d. As stimulus intensity is increased, additional motor units are activated
e. Maximal stimulus
i. Strongest stimulus that causes increased contraction
f. Accomplished by increased neural activation
4. Treppeforce of contraction increases during response to stimuli at the same strength
a. Result of increasing Ca2+ availability
b. Heat created during contraction increases efficiency of muscle enzymes
i. Warming up prior to athletic activity
5. Isotonic and Isometric contractions
a. Terms:

i. Muscle tensionforce of contracting muscle on an object

ii. Loadreciprocal force exerted by the object
b. To move a load, muscle tension must be greater than load
c. Isotonic contractionsmuscle changes in length and moves load
i. Concentricmuscle shortens and does work
ii. Eccentricmuscle contracts as it lengthens
iii. Concentric and eccentric contractions occur can occur at the same time
iv. Eccentric contractions put the muscle in position to contract concentrically
d. Isometric contractionstension increases but the muscle length stays constant
i. Load greater than force
ii. Maintenance of posture
iii. Most real-life movements involve both isometric and isotonic contraction
V. Muscle Metabolism
A. ATP is the sole source of energy for contraction
B. Little ATP is stored but it is regenerated (recycled) rapidly
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
2. Anaerobic glycolysis
a. In the absence of oxygen, glycolytic products (pyruvic acid) are metabolized to lactic
acid producing additional small quantities of ATP
3. Aerobic respiration
a. 95% of ATP during light exercise
b. In presence of oxygen, products of glycolysis are broken down entirely with the
generation of significant amounts of ATP
4. Glycogen is the source of glucose for both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

VI. Force, Velocity and Duration of Muscle Contraction

A. Force
1. Number of fibers contractingmore motor units recruited, greater the force
2. Relative size of the musclegreater cross sectional area, greater the tension possible
3. Series-elastic elementsnon-contractile structures of muscles
a. Movement requires:
i. Moveable structures
ii. Tightening of connective tissue coverings and tendons
b. Tension created at a molecular level is transferred to muscle cell surfaces and through
connective tissues that bundle fibers together and ultimately to muscle insertion
c. Internal tension (myofibers) is transferred to external tension (series-elastic elements)
to the load
4. Depth of muscle stretch
a. Optimum resting length is the length at which maximum force can be generated
i. Actin and myosin overlap such that sliding can occur over the entire length of
the actin filament
b. There is also an operational optimum for the whole muscle
i. 80% - 120% of normal resting length
B. Velocity and duration
1. Loadas load increases, velocity and duration decrease
2. Muscle fiber type characterized based on:
a. Speed of contractionbased on efficiency of myosin ATPases
i. Slow
ii. Fast

b. Pathway for ATP formation

i. Oxidative fibersaerobic pathways
ii. Glycolytic fibersanaerobic glycolysis
c. Based on a. and b., three categories
i. Slow oxidative fibers
ii. Fast oxidative fibers
iii. Fast glycolytic fibers
VII. Smooth Muscle
A. Anatomy of smooth muscle fibers
1. Small, spindle-shaped cells
2. Arranged in sheets of opposing fibers
3. Generally two sheets with fibers at right angles to each other
a. Longitudinal layerparallel to long axis
b. Circular layeraround circumference
c. Alternating contraction of layersperistalsis
3. Lack highly structured neuromuscular junctions
a. Varicosities
i. Diffuse junctions
4. Lack striations
5. Lower myosin to actin ratio than skeletal (1:13 vs. 1:2)
6. No troponin complex
7. No sarcomeres
a. Consecutive groups of fibers are organized in a spiral

B. Contraction of smooth muscle

1. Electrical communication between individual smooth muscle cellsgap junctions
a. Entire sheet responds to a single stimulus
2. Some tissue has pacemaker cells
a. Some are self-excitatory
3. Overview of process:
a. Actin and myosin slide (like skeletal)
b. Rising intracellular Ca2+ triggers contraction
c. Energized by ATP
4. Difference between smooth and skeletal
a. Ca2+ interacts with regulatory molecules not troponin (do not need to know details)
C. Characteristics of contraction
1. Slow, sustained and resistant to fatigue
2. Energy economyATP-efficient contraction
D. Regulation of contraction
1. Multiple neurotransmitters
a. Different types of nervous innervation with different NTs
i. Sympathetic NS: norepinephrine
ii. Parasympathetic NS: ACh
b. NTs have different effects
i. NEinhibits contraction
ii. AChpromotes contraction

VIII. Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac and Smooth Muscle

Characteristic
Location

Appearance

Connective Tissue

Sarcomere
T Tubules
Gap Junctions
Neuromuscular
Junctions
Regulation of

Skeletal
Attached to bones,
fascia and skin

Cardiac
Walls of heart

Smooth
Single-unit: visceral
organs
Multi-unit: Internal
eye muscles, large
airways and arteries
Single, non-striated,
uni-nucleate

Single, long,
cylindrical, striated,
multinucleate
Epimysium,
perimysium,
endomysium
Present
Present at each end
None
Present

Branching chains of
cells, uni-nucleate,
striated
Endomysium

Present
Present at on end
Intercalated discs
None

None
None
In single-unit
In multi-unit

Somatic NS;
voluntary

Autonomic NS,
intrinsic
(pacemaker),
hormones,
involuntary
SR, extracellular
fluid
Via troponin/actin
interactions

Autonomic NS,
hormones, local
regulation, response
to stretch

Contraction

Endomysium

Ca2+ Source

SR

Role of Ca2+

Via troponin/actin
interactions

Pacemakers
Nervous System

None
Excitation

Present
Excitation or
inhibition

SR, extracellular
fluid
Via
calmodulin/myosin
interaction
In single-unit
Excitation or
inhibition

Varies: slow to fast

Slow

Very slow

None

Yes

In single-unit

Strength of
contraction
increases
Aerobic or
anaerobic

Strength of
contraction
increases
Aerobic

Stress-relaxation
response

Affects
Speed of
Contraction
Rhythmic
Contraction
Response to Stretch

Respiration

II. Abnormal Muscle Function

Primarily anaerobic

A. Fatigueprogressive muscle weakness and fatigue

1. Failure to respond to external stimuli (i.e., NS activation)
2. Causes:
a. Depletion of nutrients, ATP and/or O2
b. Buildup of lactic acid and/or CO2
B. Abnormal contractions
1. Spasma sudden involuntary contraction of short duration
2. Crampspainful spasmodic contraction of muscle fibers
3. Convulsionviolent tetanic contraction of entire muscle groups
4. Fibrillationasynchronous contraction of individual muscle fibers resulting in flutter with no
effective movement
5. Ticspasmodic twitching common in eyelid and facial muscles
C. Myalgiapain in one or more muscles
D. Myositisinflammation of muscle tissue
E. Poliomylitisviral based destruction of motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord
1. Muscular dystrophy results from a loss of motor neural innervations
F. Muscular dystrophyterm that describes any hereditary myopathy that causes muscle atrophy
and degeneration (Polio is a muscular dystrophy)
1. Duchenne form
a. Sex-linked
i. Carried by females; expressed by males
b. Progressive loss of motor function
c. Onset during early childhood
i. 2-6 years old

2. Fascioscapulohumeral form
a. Affects muscles of face and shoulders
i. Expressed later in life
G. Myasthemia gravismuscle weakness resulting from abnormalities in the neuromuscular
junction
1. Likely cause: reduced number of ACh receptors
2. Affects face and neckswallowing, speaking, chewing, eye movements
H. Tetanustoxin of tetanus bacillus blocks ACh receptors
III. Muscle Mechanics
A. Lever systems
1. Levers are rigid bars that moves at a fixed point
a. Fulcrumfixed point
b. Effortapplied force
c. Loadresistance
2. Levers provide mechanical advantage or disadvantage
a. Power leverforce (small) exerted over a relatively long distance
i. Mechanical advantage
ii. Large load over a small distance
b. Speed leversmall loads over large distances
i. Mechanical disadvantage
3. Types of levers
a. First-class
i. Load and effort are at ends, fulcrum in between

ii. Mechanical advantage or disadvantage depending on whether load or effort is

closer to fulcrum
iii. Lift head off chest
b. Second-class
i. Effort applied to one end, fulcrum at the other end and load is in between
ii. Mechanical advantage
iii. Standing on toes
c. Third-class
i. Effort applied at point in between fulcrum and load
ii. Always at a mechanical disadvantage
iii. Most muscles
iv. Force is lost, speed is gained
IV. Muscle Shape
A. Based on organization of fascicles
B. Types
1. Parallel
2.Pennate
a. Short
b. Attach to a central tendon
c. Uni, bi, and multito how many sides of the tendon do the fascicles attach
3. Convergentbroad origin converging to a single tendon
4. Circularfascicles arranged in concentric rings
V. Interactions of Muscles
A. Classification

1. Prime movers (agonists)provide the major force for a specific movement

2. Synergistsaid prime movers
a. Promote same movement
b. Reduce unnecessary movements
3. Antagonistsmuscle that opposes prime mover
a. Generally relaxed during prime movement although often provide opposing resistance
b. Can also be prime movers to return body to its original position
4. Fixatorstype a synergist
a. Immobilize a bone or a muscle origin
b. Example: scapula
V. Criteria for Naming Muscles
There are about 650 skeletal muscles with 75 pairs that are involved in posture and general body
movement. Skeletal muscles are named according to a number of criteria, each of which focuses
on a particular structural or functional characteristic.
A. Locationbone or area of body with which the muscle is associated
B. Action
1. Flexor, extensor, abductus, etc.
C. Shape
1. Deltoid, trapezius, etc.
D. Relative size
1. Maximus, minimus, longus, etc
E. Point of attachmentorigin and insertion points are included in name
1. Origin is always first
a. Sternocleidomastoid

F. Number of origins (divisions)

1. Biceps, triceps, quadraceps
G. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Oblique, tranversus, rectus (parallel to axis)