University of Kerbala

College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Bituminous Mixes
The two key components of pavement design are mix design and structural
design. The goal of mix design is to determine the optimum mixture of component
materials for a given application.

6.1 Types of Asphalt Mixes

a) DenseGraded Mix:1- It has particle sizes evenly distributed from coarse to fine.
2- When compacted it has a low air void content and present a surface of close
texture.
3- It depends largely on grading, binder content and density for stability.
4- The workability depends largely on it's temperature.
5- Such mixes are often called "Asphaltic concrete.
6- It required careful proportion of materials and a mix of high efficiency for
uniform coating of all aggregate particles with the binder.
7- It is most commonly used for surfacing of a new constructed or reconstructed
pavement. The surfacing may consist of a wearing coarse only, or a wearing
coarse and an intermediate coarse (binder coarse).
8- It may be used as a replacement for the granular material used as a base coarse
or subbase. When asphaltic concrete is used for this purpose, the term "full
depth" or "deep strength" is used.
9- It may be used to strengthen pavement by removal and replacement of portions
of the existing pavement material and/or by overlaying.
b) OpenGraded Mix:1- It may have a reasonably even grading but contains only a small amount of fine
material.
2- It has relatively high air voids.
3- It relies largely on mechanical interlock of the aggregate particles for stability.
4- The best results are achieved with coarse grained and textured crushed
aggregates having a good angular shape.
5- When used as a wearing coarse, an opengraded mix provides several desirable
properties.
The interconnected air voids allow free drainage of water through the mix so
that water spray caused by traffic is minimized.
The open texture combined with the use of a polish resistance aggregate,
provides a high level of skid resistance
reduces the reflection of light during wet and dark operating conditions.

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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Because the surface texture composed of many holes below, it gives an even
riding surface, which produces less tire noise in contrast of a seal coat of similar
texture depth.
6- It is sometimes used as a thick intermediate layer over a cracked surface, to
minimize reflective cracking.
7- An opengraded asphalt wearing coarse does not distribute any strength to the
pavement, and it should only be placed on a water proof, free drainage base.

c) GapGraded Mix:1- It is similar to densegraded mix but with intermediate fractions replaced by
finer fractions. It may also contain more filler.
2- It can be more tolerant to minor variations in grading that a densegraded mix.
3- Gapgraded relies largely on the stiffness of the fine aggregate filler binder
mixture for stability for this reason; harder grade binder may be used.
4- It is used for surfacing residential streets and car parks, where a smooth, fine
texture surface is desired.
5- When gapgraded asphalt is used on heavily trafficked and high speeds roads,
it is necessary to roll precoated aggregate into the surface immediately after
spreading, to provide a coarse surface texture for skid resistance.

Gap graded
Dense graded

Open graded

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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

6.2 Aggregate Combination and Separation to Meet Job mix

1. Discarding the oversize
2. Separation in to two or more portions on selected proper sieves
3. Recombining using proper percentage for recombination with
specification requirement( mid specification preferable)
4. Addition of fine materials and filler if necessary
Example (1): correct the following gradation to satisfy the specification
Sieve size
1

3/8
No. 4
No. 10
No. 40
No. 80
No. 200

Natural Gradation
100
90
80
60
40
30
20
10
5

specification
100
100
95-65
60-40
40-24
30-20
20-10
10-5
5-3

Solution:
specification

Natural
Gradation
Sieve size

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

P(A): portion Retained 3/8 P(B):

% P(B):%
passing 3/8
retained 3/8
passing
3/8

5% A + 50%
B

100
0=0
33
100
0=0
33
100
11 = 33
33

100

100

100

100

67

83

100

50

100
45 = 67
67
100
34 = 51
67

33.5

25.5

33
16
9

0
0
0

16.5
8
4.5

100

100

100

100

90

100

100

100

80

95-65

100

11

3/8

60

60-40

100
80 = 89
90
100
60 = 67
90

100

33

No. 4

40

40-24

45

No. 10

30

30-20

34

No. 40 20
No. 80 10
No. 200 5

20-10
10-5
5-3

22
11
6

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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Example (2): determine the required percentages of each aggregate gradation types to
satisfy the specification

Sieve size
1

No. 4
No. 10
No. 40
No. 80
No. 200

Natural Gradation
A
B
100 100
63 100
19 100
8
93
5
55
3
31
2
3

C
100
100
100
100
100
97
88

specification
100
85-75
55-40
42-30
30-20
22-12
10-5

Solution
65% A+ 30% B + 5% C
100
76
47
38
25
18
7

6.3 Load Carrying Mechanism

There are mainly two types of load carrying mechanism:1. Aggregate Interlock and Friction Mechanism:This type of loading mechanism is noticed in "opengraded mixtures like
coated stone. It is clear that the traffic stresses imposed on the surface are distributed
by "stone to stone contact and by friction and interlock between the stones. Therefore
it is necessary to use high crushing strength stone in a mix undergoes this type of
mechanism. The bitumen coating serves only to hold the stones together.
2. Mastic Mechanism:Mastic asphalt Gapgraded" is an example of this type of mechanism. This type
of mixes distributes the traffic stresses within the mortar. To resist the deformation
under the stresses imposed, the mortar must have a high stiffness, which is obtained by
the use of a hard bitumen and a high filler content.
In most paving mixes, the stresses are distributed by one or both of these mechanisms.
Asphalt concrete Densegraded mix is type of mix in which both mechanisms
operate. A considerable properties of stresses are distributed by the stone interlock
mechanism, but between the stones there is mortar, in which some of the stresses are
distributed by the mortar mechanism .
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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Porous

6.4 Bituminous Mixture technologies

The upper courses which distinguish asphalt pavement from the other pavement types
normally consist of specified mineral aggregates bound by bituminous material with
or without additives. These blends of aggregate and bitumen are called Bituminous
Mixtures. There are many functions for each course, and there are multiple
requirements accordingly, thus different mixtures have been developed to satisfy
specific requirements, such as
crack resistance,
resistance to permanent deformation,
resistance to fatigue,
resistance to wear,
resistance to water ingress,
high skid resistance, etc.
The main differences in these technologies are the preparation and compaction
temperatures, which will be discussed in the following sections:
6.4.1 Hot mix asphalt (HMA)
HMA is bituminous mixture prepared and compacted at elevated temperatures,
generally between 110-180C. These elevated temperatures are necessary to dry the
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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

aggregates, coat the aggregates with the bitumen binder, get the required workability,
and grant enough time to compact the HMA course. On the other hand, these
temperatures are highly dependent on bitumen binder grade: of course hard bitumen
needs high and soft bitumen needs low temperatures, respectively. Additionally, the
selection of bitumen grade is highly dependent on the ambient temperature in the
construction region: the hard bitumen is suitable for hot climate regions and the soft
bitumen is more suitable for cold regions. However, the bitumen should be solid
enough during hot seasons to prevent bleeding; at the same time, it should be relatively
soft in cold seasons to prevent cracking.
HMA is prepared by adding the hot bitumen to the hot aggregates (course, fine and
filler), then mixing the blend to a stage where all the aggregates are fully coated with
bituminous binder. Then, the mixture is transported to the required site and then spread
by paver machine. After that, the laid material is compacted under certain temperature
ranges which are compatible to certain viscosity ranges, again depending on bitumen
grade. These ranges are limited because over the upper limits the mixture will be very
soft, and under the lower limits the mixture will not compact correctly to reach the
required density and air voids. Air void and density are limited with respect to the
mixtures mechanical properties. Finally, after compaction is finished, the road can be
opened to traffic as soon as the mixture has cooled down to ambient temperature.
6.4.2 Warm and half-warm mix asphalt (WMA/HWMA)
Decreasing the HMA mix and compaction temperatures could result in several
economic, environmental, and even performance advantages. In 1995, warm-mix
asphalt (WMA) technology was introduced, basically to lower HMA production
temperature by 25 C to 55 C . Jenkins et al. (1999) introduced a new process: they
named it Half-Warm Foamed Bitumen Treatment. This process involved applying
the foamed bitumen on aggregate heated to less than 100 C. However, the early results
encouraged researchers to develop a number of WMA technologies to allow asphalt
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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

mixtures to be mixed and compacted at significantly lower temperatures. In fact, the

WMA technology has become popular recently due to its economic and environmental
advantages. Generally, the technologies used to produce WMA can be classified in
three main groups by applying organic additives, chemical additives, and water-based
or water-containing foaming processes.
6.4.3 Cold mix asphalt (CMA)
Cold mix is defined as a hydrocarbon mix made with aggregate, a hydrocarbon binder
and possibly dopes or additives with characteristics such that the aggregate can be
coated without drying or heating. Hydrocarbon binder could be cutback or emulsified
bitumen; according to the hazardous effects of cutback, regulations limit its use in
pavement mixtures. Thus, bitumen emulsion significantly covered all applications of
cold mix asphalt.

6.5 Requirements for a Bituminous Mixes

To properly design an asphalt paving mixture, for a specific application,
consideration must be given to the following desirable mix properties:1. Stability:Stability is the ability of the asphalt paving mixture to resist deformation from
imposed loads. Unstable pavements are marked by channeling (ruts), and corrugation.
Stability is dependent upon both internal friction and cohesion. Internal friction is
dependent on surface texture, gradation of aggregate, particle shape, density of mix,
and quantity of asphalt. It is a combination of the frictional and interlocking resistance
of the aggregate in the mix. Cohesion is that binding force that is inherent in the asphalt
paving mixture. The asphalt serves to maintain contact pressures developed between
aggregate particles. Cohesion is dependent upon rate of loading, loaded area, viscosity
of the asphalt, temperature, and asphalt content.
If aggregate interlock mechanism predominates, good stability is achieved by
using coarse aggregate with: High crushing strength.
Angular in shape, to achieve a good packing.
And rough surface.
If mortar mechanism predominates, good stability is achieved by using: High viscosity binder.
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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

High filler content.

And rough texture sand.
2. Durability:Durability is the ability of asphalt paving mixture to resist disintegration by
weathering and traffic. Included under weathering are changes in the characteristic of
asphalt, such as oxidation and volatilization, and changes in the pavement and
aggregate due to the action of water, including freezing and thawing.
Durability is generally enhanced by high asphalt contents, dense aggregate
gradations, and wellcompacted, impervious mixtures. A mixture having a high
asphalt content, with voids completely filled with asphalt, may provide the ultimate in
durability. However, this would be undesirable from the standpoint of stability. When
placed in the roadway, the pavement would channel and creep under traffic. Bleeding
or flushing of asphalt to the surface would also take place. It is therefore necessary to
compromise, keeping the asphalt content as high as possible while maintaining
adequate stability.
3. Flexibility:Flexibility is the ability of an asphalt paving mixture to conform to gradual
settlements and movements of the base and subgrade. Differential settlements in the
fill embankment occasionally occur. Thus, it is almost impossible to develop uniform
density in the subgrade during construction because section or portions of the
pavement tend to compress and settle under traffic. Therefore, the asphalt pavement
must have the ability to conform to localized and differential settlements without
cracking. Generally, flexibility of the asphalt mixture is enhanced by high asphalt
content and relatively opengraded.
4. Fatigue Resistance:The ability of asphalt pavement to withstand repeated flexing caused by the
passage of wheel loads. As a rule, the higher the asphalt content, the greater the fatigue
resistance. Tests indicate that densegraded asphalt mixes have more fatigue resistance
than opengraded mixes. Wellgraded aggregates that permit higher asphalt content
without causing flushing or bleeding in compacted pavement should be incorporated
in the mix.
5. Skid Resistance:The ability of asphalt paving surface, particularly when wet, to offer resistance
to slipping or skidding. The factors for obtaining high skid resistance are generally the
same as those for obtaining high stability. Proper asphalt contents and aggregates with
a rough surface texture are the greatest contributors. However, not only must the
aggregate have a rough surface texture, it must also resist polishing.
Mixes so rich in asphalt as to fill the voids in the compacted pavement will
probably cause asphalt to flush to the surface. This is usually called bleeding. Free
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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

asphalt on the pavement surface can also cause slippery conditions when the pavement
is wet.
6. Impermeability:The resistance of asphalt pavement to the passage of air and water into or
through the pavement. While the void content may be an indication of the susceptibility
of a compacted paving mixture to the passage of air and/or water, of more significance
is the interconnection of the void and their access to the surface. Imperviousness to air
and water is extremely important from the standpoint of durability in asphalt mixes.
7. Workability:The ease with which paving mixtures may be placed and compacted. With
careful attention to proper design and with the use of machine spreading, workability
is not a problem. At times, the properties of aggregates that promote high stability
make asphalt mixture containing these aggregates difficult to spread or compact. Since
workability problems are discovered most frequently during the paving operation, mix
design adjustments should be made quickly to allow the job to proceed as efficiently
as possible.
Design of Bituminous Mixes
Water permeable
porosity not filled
with absorbed
asphalt

Absorbed
asphalt

Aggregate volume
(Bulk RD)
Air
voids
Aggregate volume
(Effective RD)

Aggregate

Aggregate volume
(Apparent RD)

Effective
asphalt binder

Volume of water
permeable porosity
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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Asphalt mixture showing net or effective asphalt, absorbed

asphalt, & air voids.

VBN

MB

MBN

VB

MBA
VBA

M
V
VGe
VGb

MG

Representation of volumes in a compacted bituminous mix

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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Mix = coarse agg. + Fine agg. + Filler + Binder

MB = MBN + MBA
Density =

M
V

Asphalt content =

MB
M

Asphalt absorption =
% Air voids (AV) =

M BA
MG

VA
V

% Voids in mineral agg. (V.M.A.) =

VA VBN
V

where:V = total volume.

VA = volume of air.
VBN = volume of net binder.
VG = volume of aggregate.
M = total mass.
MB = mass of binder.
MBA = mass of absorbed binder.
MBN = mass of net binder.
MG = mass of aggregate.
Marshal Test and Design Procedure
Marshal test is a type of unconfined compressive strength test using: Cylindrical test specimens that are 101.6 mm diameter by about 63.5 mm high.
Compressed radially at a constant rate of strain of 50.8 mm/min. at 60c.
The reading are: Marshal stability value:- is the maximum load resistance in newtons that the
specimen develops.
Marshall flow value:- is the total movement or strain occurring in the specimen
between no load and maximum load during the stability test (a deformation at
failure) in mm.
Procedure of Test:To find the optimum binder content which meets specified requirements for
stability , deformation , and voids content , the following steps are done:Step (1)
Prepare a series of test specimens for a range of different binder content.
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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Difference in binder content is 0.5% or 1%.

Step (2)
Determine the bulk density of each specimen.
d=

MA
MA

MA Mw
V

where :d = bulk density of the compacted mix (g/cm3).

MA = mass of the specimen in air (gm).
Mw = mass of the specimen in water (gm).
V = volume of the specimen (cm3).
Step (3)
Calculate the percentage of air voids in each compacted specimen.

WA
Wb Wc Wf Wmf

G b Gc G f G mf

where : = maximum theoretical density (gm/cm3).

WA = weight of specimen.
Wb, Wc, Wf, Wmf = weight of binder, coarse agg., fine agg., and filler respectively.
Gb, Gc, Gf, Gmf = specific gravity of binder, coarse agg. , fine agg ., and filler
respectively.
%V .T.M .

where:%V.T.M. = percent of voids in total mix.

3
= maximum theoretical density (gm/cm ).
d = bulk density (gm/cm3).
Step (4)
For each specimen, calculate the percentage of voids in the compacted mineral
and the percentage of voids filled with binder.
V.M.A. = V - Vc - Vf - Vmf
V.M.A. =

W Wc Wf Wmf

d G c G f G mf

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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.
V.M.A.
% V.M.A. =
100
V

% V.F.B. =

Highway Engineering

VBN
100
V.M.A.

or
% V.F.B. =

%V.M.A. %V.T.M.
100
%V.M.A.

where:V.M.A. = volume of voids in compacted mineral aggregate (cm3).

V = volume of specimen (cm3).
Vc, Vf, Vmf = volume of coarse agg., fine agg., and filler respectively (cm3).
W = weight of specimen.
d = bulk density of specimen.
Wc, Wf, Wmf = weight of coarse agg., fine agg., and filler respectively.
Gc, Gf, Gmf = specific gravity of coarse agg., fine agg., and filler respectively.
%V.M.A. = percent of voids in mineral agg.
%V.F.B. = percent of voids filled with binder.
VB = volume of binder.
Step (5):Determine the Marshall stability and flow of each specimen.
Stability =maximum load required to produce failure (N)
Flow =deformation at failure (mm).
Step (6):Correct the measured stability
Approximate
Volume of
values to those which would have
thickness
of
3
been obtained if the specimens had specimen(cm ) specimen (mm)
been exactly 63.5 mm high.
200-213
25.4
406-420
50.8
Corrected stability = measured 509-522
63.5
stability correlation ratio.
611-625
76.2

correlation
ratio
5.56
1.47
1.00
0.76

Step (7):Prepare separate graphical plots for binder content versus each of (a) corrected
Marshall stability. (b) Marshall flow. (c) Unit weight (density). (d) %V.T.M. (e)
%V.F.B. and (f) %V.M.A.

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University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Step (8):Determine the optimum binder content as an average of the binder content at:
Maximum stability

Maximum density

Median of the % V.T.M. specification or desired %V.T.M, and/or %V.F.B.

Step (9):- Check the optimum binder content with design specification.

Step (10):- If the optimum binder content does not meet the allowable limits of
specification, it is necessary to reject the mix and to adjust the grading of the original
aggregate blend and carry out step 1-9 again.
The Iraqi Roads Design Specification
Property
Stability (kN) , (min.)
Flow (mm)
V.T.M. (%)
V.M.A(%), (min)
Index of retained strength (%), (min)
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Wearing coarse
8
2-4
3-5
14
70

Binder coarse
7
2-4
3-5
13
70

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Base
5
2-4
3-6
12
70

University of Kerbala
College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

Adjustment of Mix Design

The final design composition is usually a compromise between the requirements
of stability and air void content and the requirements of good durability, flexibility,
and economy. Information to assist in the modification of mixes to meet specification
requirements is given below:1- stability satisfactory but voids too low: Reduce the filler and/or the binder.
Change the proportions of the coarse and fine aggregates to produce higher voids
in the mineral aggregates.
2- stability satisfactory but voids too high: Increase the amount of filler and/or binder. Porous aggregate absorbs binder and
requires a higher binder content.
Change the proportion of the coarse aggregate to the fine aggregate to product lower
voids in the mineral aggregate.
3- stability too low and voids too low: Increase the filler and reduce the binder.
Increase the proportion of coarse aggregate.
4- stability too low and voids too high: Increase the percentage of filler.
Change the proportion of coarse to fine aggregate to produce lower voids in the
mineral aggregate.
5- stability too low but voids within the specified limits:If the percentage of binder is near the upper limit, try increasing the proportion
of coarse aggregate and reducing the binder. If the percentage of binder is near the
lower limit, it is probable that the aggregate is inherently unstable. It may therefore be
necessary to change the source of aggregate. It is usual to change the fine aggregate if
the coarse aggregate is a crashed stone, or the coarse aggregate if it is a round gravel.
6- stability too high :High stability may be due to one of the following factors:a- Critical location of one or more large aggregate fragments in the compacted
specimen. This may result in a false value which dose not indicate the true stability
of the mix.
b- Inherent stability of the mineral aggregate owning to interlocking of angular
fragments. This type of high stability is very desirable and requires no upper limit.
It can usually be identified by re-designing the mix to use a minimum of fine
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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

Highway Engineering

aggregate with a binder content slightly above the optimum for the particular mix.
The re-designed mix may not have a satisfactory density, but if its stability is still
high, the apparently excessive stability of the original design is desirable rather than
otherwise.
c- Excessively high density and low voids of the compacted mineral aggregate. This
type of stability is undesirable as it leads to brittleness in cold weather and relatively
low resistance to cracking and raveling. Mixes of this type frequently carry an
excess of mineral filler and a deficiency of binder. Proper correction is achieved by
increasing the voids of the compacted mineral aggregate so that a greater amount
of binder may be used without filling the voids. This can be achieved by the use of
less fine aggregate and filler.

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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

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College of Eng.
Department of Civil Eng.

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