Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 36473652

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Expert Systems with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

Study of land cover classication based on knowledge rules using

high-resolution remote sensing images
Zhang Rongqun a,, Zhu Daolin b,1
a
Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Engineering, College of Information and Electrical Engineering, China Agricultural University,
Tsinghua East Road No. 17, Beijing 100083, Peoples Republic of China
b
College of Resources and Environmental Science, China Agricultural University, Yuanmingyuan West Road No. 2, Beijing 100194, Peoples Republic of China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords:
Knowledge rule
Classication
Remote sensing image
Texture feature
Shape feature
Land cover

a b s t r a c t
This paper deals with the limitations of visual interpretation of high-resolution remote sensing images
and of automatic computer classication completely dependent on spectral data. A knowledge-rule
method is proposed, based on spectral features, texture features obtained from the gray-level co-occurrence matrix, and shape features. QuickBird remote sensing data were used for an experimental study of
land-use classication in the combination zone between urban and suburban areas in Beijing. The results
show that the deciencies of methods where only spectral data are used for classication can be eliminated, the problem of similar spectra in multispectral images can be effectively solved for the classication of ground objects, and relatively high classication accuracy can be reached.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Land use/cover is the most outstanding characteristic of landscapes on the earths surface, and so it has become a major part
of studies of global change. At present, remote sensing technology
is one of the most important techniques for the acquisition of land
use/cover data. Previously, visual judgment was the main method
used for the extraction of information from remote sensing images.
This method has a relatively high accuracy but its efciency is relatively low. The main methods for the automatic extraction of remote sensing information are supervised and unsupervised
classication. However, in the presence of spectral confusion
caused by ground objects, it is hard to acquire classication results
with high accuracy.
In the past few decades, a variety of classication algorithms
and theories of images have been proposed, but the accuracy of
the classication of remote sensing images was not ideal. Many
studies have shown that the accuracy of classication of remote
sensing images cannot be effectively increased by improving the
recognition algorithms previously used. Therefore, exploration of
new methods is required, for example by developing image-understanding techniques characterized by articial intelligence (Favela
& Torres, 1998) or diagnostic expert systems (Gamanya, De Maeyer, & De Dapper, 2007; Huang, Jensen, & Mackey, 1996).

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 010 62733930.

1

E-mail addresses: zhangrq@cau.edu.cn (R. Zhang), dlzhu@cau.edu.cn (D. Zhu).

Tel.: +86 010 62732950.

0957-4174/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2010.09.019

Spectral information about ground objects is most important in

the extraction of information from remote sensing data. Studies of
the spectral properties of surface features have interested
researchers in this eld for a long time (Dean & Smith, 2003; Karnieli et al., 2008). Chen (1999) set up a model for extraction of
information about paddy eld areas using a spectral-feature analysis of paddy elds and their background. Mayer and Steger (1998)
extracted information about roads using an analysis of spectral
information from roads. A gradient proling method was used to
extract information about newly built roads from SPOT PAN
images and to upgrade the information about the road network
in a regional GIS database (Wang & Howarth, 1992; Zhang,
2004). The methods for discovering spectral information include
typical sampling, spectral curves and spectral proling (Wang &
Li, 2008).
When the composition of ground objects is complicated and
their sizes are larger than the spatial resolution of the sensors,
the texture and composition of ground objects can be observed.
It has been shown that there are obvious texture features in the
images of ground objects (Segl & Kaufmann, 2001). When there
is a texture feature different from that of the background objects,
a high-accuracy information extraction result cannot be obtained
just by using knowledge about spectral features; in this case,
knowledge about the spectrum and texture of the ground objects
must be used comprehensively to perform the information extraction (De Lange et al., 2008; Sesnie, Gessler, Finegan, & Thessler,
2008; Zhang, Huang, Huang, & Li, 2006). Sometimes ground objects
and their backgrounds not only have the same or similar spectral
features, but also are rather similar to each other in their texture

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R. Zhang, D. Zhu / Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 36473652

features. In this situation, the extraction of information about

ground objects should be based on the shapes of the objects (MacMillan, Moon, & Coup, 2007; Tseng, Chen, Hwang, & Shen, 2008).
Ground objects can be divided into various classes: circular,
square, rectangular and linear objects, and objects that obey no
rules. By calculating a shape index, it is possible to determine
which ground objects belong to which class of shape. Some ground
objects with an obvious shape can be easily recognized using such
shape information. Li (1995) and Niu (2006) found that the shape
indices that can be used for detecting the shapes of ground object
include indices based on the perimeter and area, on the area alone,
and on the perimeter-area ratio.
In this paper, taking the combination zone between urban and
suburban areas in Beijing as a case, we have set up knowledge rules
for classication of QuickBird remote sensing data with high resolution. The classication objects (ground objects) include buildings,
roads, forestland, farmland and water bodies (both standard and
nonstandard). Above, we have discussed the progress in the classication of remote sensing images based on knowledge rules. In Section 2, we discuss mainly how to process remote sensing data by
using principal component analysis, analysis of the spectral features of typical ground objects and analysis of the spatial and shape
features of typical ground objects. In Section 3, the establishment of
knowledge rules and information extraction are discussed, and the
accuracy is evaluated. In Section 4, we present our conclusions.
2. Data processing and analysis
2.1. Data fusion
The experimental data that we used were QuickBird satellite
images covering the Baijiatuan area in the combination zone between the urban and suburban areas of Beijing in July, 2004. The
data included images from four spectral bands (Band1: blue,
band2: green, band3: red, band4: near infrared, with a resolution
of 2.4 m) used for multispectral imaging, and one panchromatic
band (with a resolution of 0.61 m).
The fusion methods used for the panchromatic and multispectral data included hue, intensity and saturation (HIS) transformation, PCA, color normalization, and a wavelet transform. PCA is a
multidimensional orthogonal linear transformation based on a statistical characterization, which is used mainly for data compression and image intensication in remote sensing applications. In
a comparison of these methods, it was found that the variance,
informational entropy, denition and other relative coefcients
of the fusion images obtained by the PCA transformation were
higher than the values obtained from the other algorithms, the image distortion and the deviation index were slightly lower, and the
visual and spatial detail preservation were improved signicantly
(Wang & Li, 2005). So PCA method was chosen to fusion QuickBird
data. Geometric correction of the satellite images was carried out
rstly, and then principal component analysis (PCA) was used to
fuse the multispectral and panchromatic data. So a multispectral
image with a resolution of 0.61 m could be obtained (Fig. 1).
The four multispectral bands in the QuickBird data were transformed into four principal components by PCA. The rst principal
component contained the spectral data that were common to the
four bands. The rst principal component was then replaced by
the QuickBird panchromatic band to carry out a PCA inverse transformation and complete the fusion.
2.2. Analysis of spectral features
Previously, information about buildings in populated places
generally could not be precisely extracted from medium-to-low-

Fig. 1. A multispectral image after fusion. This image was obtained by the fusion of
multispectral band and panchromatic band through principal component analysis
(PCA). This remote sensing image was acquired in July, 2004.

resolution remote sensing images. More precise information could

be obtained by extracting small clot-shaped ground objects from
the QuickBird satellite images with a spatial resolution of 0.61 m
after the fusion. On the basis of a eld investigation, combined
with visual judgment of land use maps, the experimental area
was divided into land cover types, namely buildings, roads, standard water bodies (no pollution and few hydrophytes growing),
nonstandard water bodies (polluted or with a large amount of
hydrophytes growing), forestland and farmland. In addition, shadows are a typical feature of QuickBird images, and so shadows
were also used as a type of ground object in this study (Wang,
Zhou, & Wu, 2008). Gray-value sampling was conducted for all of
the typical ground objects listed above, and then the maximum,
minimum and mean were calculated, so that spectral response
curves of all of the ground objects in different bands could be calculated (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 shows that forestland and farmland have a spectral reectance that is characteristic of vegetation. That is, in the visible
range, because of the inuence of chlorophylls, blue and red light
are absorbed intensely, although there is a small reection peak
in the green band, whereas near infrared radiation is reected intensely, with a signicantly steep slope, because of the inuence
of the internal structure of the leaves. Nevertheless, the spectral
features of forestland are not completely identical to those of farmland, and the reection of farmland in the near infrared band is far
more than that of forestland. Therefore, by the use of spectral features, forestland and farmland can be differentiated and extracted
from the images. The curve for standard water bodies tallies with
the known spectral reectance characteristics of water bodies,
and is signicantly different from that of any other ground object.
In the visible light bands there is intense reection, whereas in the
near infrared band there is signicant absorption, and so information about standard water bodies can be extracted by xing a corresponding threshold value. The spectral curve of nonstandard

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R. Zhang, D. Zhu / Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 36473652

Fig. 2. Spectral response curves of typical ground objects. Horizontal axis represents the four spectral bands of Quickbird imagery: blue: 450520 nm (band1), green: 520
600 nm (band2), red: 630690 nm (band3), near infrared: 760900 nm (band4). Vertical axis indicates the spectral reectance values of seven typical features corresponding
to four spectral bands. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

water bodies is enhanced in the near infrared band, and it shows a

tendency similar to the spectral curves of most shadow areas. This
is a case of the typical phenomenon that different objects have the
same spectrum in remote sensing images. It is hard to differentiate such objects by using spectral features. Buildings and roads are
another case of this phenomenon: the construction materials of
buildings are roughly the same as those of roads (mainly cement
and asphalt). Therefore, their spectral response curves almost coincide and they cannot be differentiated based only on spectral
features.

Table 1
Analysis of texture features of typical objects.

2.3. Analysis of texture features

2.4. Analysis of shape features

Texture is dened as the spatial variation in gray value, and is

independent of color or luminance. It is used to describe the visual
homogeneity of images, and is a common intrinsic property of all
ground object surfaces. Texture is described mainly by histograms,
the gray-level co-occurrence matrix, local statistics and characteristics of the frequency spectrum. At present, the gray-level cooccurrence matrix is most often used. It could describe the gray-level conguration of an image combined by different pixels. This
description of the gray-level conguration can show features of
the texture well, and the spatial dependence of the gray level is
emphasized.
Because texture analysis makes use of a single band, principal
component analysis of the multispectral images was conducted.
The rst principal component is representative of most of the
information about objects, as it materializes marginal texture
information and basic features of the color. Therefore, the rst
principal component can be used to replace any other band. In
the work described in this paper, four statistical indicators of texture information, namely contrast (CON), entropy (ENT), angular
second moment (ASM) and homogeneity (HOMO), were selected
for carrying out an analysis of the texture of all typical ground objects. The analysis results are shown in Table 1.
In Table 1, it is shown that buildings and roads, which cannot be
differentiated based on spectral features, vary in the means of all of
the texture indices, and so they can be differentiated by using a few
texture indices comprehensively to x threshold values. In the
spectral features, standard water bodies overlap partially with
buildings, whereas in the texture features they are signicantly different from each other. By using texture features for classication,
standard water bodies can be differentiated from some buildings
with which they can be easily confused. In contrast, nonstandard
water bodies not only have spectral features extremely similar to
those of shadows, but all of the texture indices are also very near
to each other. Therefore, nonstandard water bodies and shadows
cannot be differentiated based on texture features.

Shape information about ground objects, which is one of the

main features of remote sensing images, is an important aid for
the extraction of information about ground objects. In the present
study, both the spectral and the texture features of nonstandard
water bodies where a lot of hydrophytes grow are similar to those
of building shadows, and so information was extracted based on
knowledge of shapes. The methods for discovering shape information about ground objects include methods based on perimeter and
area, on area alone, and on perimeter-area ratio (Li, 1995). From visual judgment of images, it was found that the shapes of shadows
were fragmented into nearly rectangular shapes, rivers were linear,
lakes were nearly circular and the areas of water bodies were more
than those of shadows, in the area studied. Therefore, nonstandard
water bodies and shadows can be differentiated based on the area
or by establishing a shape index based on area and perimeter.

Ground-object type

CON

ENT

ASM

HOMO

Building
Road
Forestland
Farmland
Standard water body
Nonstandard water body
Shadow

130.312
47.506
32.309
12.977
11.810
13.102
1.482

193.977
120.761
107.950
54.187
41.986
3.433
5.005

96.560
47.265
32.193
11.940
11.012
3.274
1.357

67.713
136.634
146. 526
199.536
214,971
242.448
260.269

3. Establishment of knowledge rules and classication

In accordance with the above analyses of the spectral and spatial features of ground objects, the following extraction rules were
established using KnowledgeEngineer, from ERDAS, so as to extract
typical ground object information.
3.1. Establishment of knowledge rules
3.1.1. Forestland and farmland
Because they have spectral features associated with vegetation,
the reectance values of forestland and farmland in the near infrared band are signicantly more than those in the red band. Using
the ratio vegetation index RVI = band 4/band 3, a threshold value
can be xed, so that both of these types of land can be extracted
from the images. Rule 1 below, established by experiment, can
be used to extract almost all of the information about forestland
and farmland. The spectral response curves also show that the

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R. Zhang, D. Zhu / Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 36473652

reectance values of farmland are far more than those of forestland

in the near infrared band, although forestland and farmland have
almost identical values in the visible band, and so Rule 2 was
established and the forestland information was extracted from
the mixture. Rule 3 was established so as to extract farmland information. These rules are:
 Rule 1: RVI > 1.7.
 Rule 2: 200 < band 4 < 600.
 Rule 3: band 4 > 600.
3.1.2. Standard water bodies
In Fig. 1, the spectral curve of the river is signicantly different
from that of any other ground object, i.e. the values in the near
infrared band are less than those in the red band. Moreover, the
difference in values between the green band and the near infrared
band is signicant. Rules 4 and 5 below were established to extract
information about standard water bodies, but the extracted results
have some building information mixed with them. From an analysis of the texture features in Table 1, it was found that there are signicant differences in all of the texture indices between standard
water bodies and buildings, and so Rule 6 was established so as
to extract information about standard water bodies. These rules
are:
 Rule 4: RVI < 1.
 Rule 5: band 2  band 4 > 180.
 Rule 6: HOMO > 140 and ENT < 120 and CON < 30.
3.1.3. Nonstandard water bodies and shadows
Shadows and nonstandard water bodies that are polluted or
where a lot of hydrophytes grow both have low spectral values
in all of the bands, and there is a signicant difference between
the green and red bands. By experiments, Rules 7 and 8 below were
established, so that information about both shadows and nonstandard water bodies can be almost completely extracted. However,
they cannot be well differentiated based on spectral and texture
features. By considering shape information about shadows and
nonstandard water bodies, information about rivers and large lakes
p
can be extracted according to Rule 9. Using a shape index k = (a/

p) (where p and a are the perimeter and area, respectively), shadows and nonstandard water bodies that are polluted or where a lot
of hydrophytes grow can be differentiated according to Rule 10.
These rules are:





Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule

7: band 4 < 200 and band 3 < 180.

8: band 2  band 3 > 150.
9: area > 11,000.
10: k > 0.27.

3.1.4. Buildings and roads

From the above analyses, it has been shown that the above
ground objects can be eliminated completely just by making use
of the spectral information. So, if Rules 1, 4, 5, 7 and 8 are negated
in the knowledge database, mixed images that contain only buildings and roads can be obtained. Because the percentage of forest
cover is relatively high in the research area, most roads between
buildings are covered by trees in the images, and so these roads
cannot be identied easily. According to the analysis results for
texture features in Table 1, texture indices can be used to differentiate further between buildings and roads. Rule 11 was established
for this purpose. Information about roads can be extracted from
the mixture of buildings and roads in this way, but many fragmentary nonroad spots are mixed into the extraction at the same time.
By the use of a roundness index c = p2/a (to describe the degree to
which the shape of an object can be approximated by a circle), Rule
12 was used to eliminate most of the nearly circular nonroad spots
that were too big or too small, and so information about the roads
in the research area could be obtained. These rules are:
 Rule 11: HOMO > 90 and CON < 70 and ASM < 70.
 Rule 12: c > 70.
3.2. Processing after classication
By means of the knowledge rules listed above, information
about all of the typical ground objects in the research area could
be extracted. When pixel-based image classication is adopted,
the data after classication often show some so-called saltpepper
noise because of the inuence of the inherent changeability of

Fig. 3. Classication map. It is the land-use classication map extracted by knowledge rule established in this study. The total accuracy is 90.91% and kappa coefcient is
0.8341.

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R. Zhang, D. Zhu / Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 36473652

Table 2
Classication accuracy report.
Type

Building

Road

Forestland

Farmland

Standard water body

Building
Road
Forestland
Farmland
Standard water body
Nonstandard water body
Shadow
Total
Production accuracy

180
5
4
1
2
6
41
2
0
0
5
2
190
2
3
1
0
3
51
1
0
0
0
0
73
2
1
1
0
0
4
0
1
1
0
198
49
201
55
79
90.91
83.67
94.53
92.73
92.40
Total accuracy = 90.91%, kappa coefcient = 0.8341

spectra. After we had performed the classication, cluster analysis

was used to carry out type deletion and type unication, and a
classication image was nally obtained (Fig. 3).
3.3. Evaluation of accuracy
In order to evaluate the accuracy of the classication results, the
investigation of water bodies in this study was combined with visual judgment of some remote sensing images; 600 samples were
selected in order to establish confusion matrices and compute relative indices, and then the classication accuracy was evaluated
(see Table 2). The results of this accuracy evaluation show that
information about forestland, standard water bodies, farmland
and buildings can be extracted effectively (over 90%), whereas
information about nonstandard water bodies, roads and shadows
can be extracted only relatively ineffectively (over 80%). This result
is mainly caused by the high percentage of forest cover and the
interlaced distribution of roads, shadows and forestland. These
types of land use are relatively fragmentary, and so it is hard to
them. On the whole, however, the classication is effective, with
a total accuracy of 90.91% and a kappa coefcient of 0.8341, satisfying the requirements for practical applications.
4. Conclusions
The classication method for remote sensing images based on
knowledge rules described in this paper is one in which knowledge
rules are established on the basis of spectral, texture and shape features of ground objects. In this study, after data fusion was performed on QuickBird satellite images, the spatial resolution was
up to 0.61 m; compared with the case of medium-to-low resolution images, the inuence of mixed pixels on the classication
accuracy was signicantly reduced. The results showed the
following:
(1) Principal component transformation was an efcient
method for performing the fusion of the QuickBird panchromatic and multispectral data, when knowledge rules were
to be used to classify the images. In the images after fusion,
not only were the spectral features signicant, but the
geometric structure and the texture information were
enriched. Therefore, the spectral and spatial information in
the images could be fully extracted and then all of the information could be comprehensively applied in a classication
study.
(2) Many ground objects with similar spectra cannot be differentiated just on the basis of spectral information. However,
classication by using texture and shape features as an aid
can effectively solve the problems of differentiation of mixtures such as different objects with similar spectra, and the
object extraction accuracy has been increased.

Nonstandard water body

Shadow

Total

Use accuracy

1
0
0
1
2
26
1
31
83.87

2
1
0
0
3
2
39
47
82.98

195
50
202
57
78
32
46
660

92.31
82.00
94.06
91.07
93.59
81.25
84.78

(3) The classication method described in this paper can effectively increase the classication accuracy of ground objects,
and could provide theoretical bases and approaches for
autoimmunization of land cover. The method is expected
to be applicable to a wide range of high-resolution remote
sensing images from different data sources, with good prospects for the study of land cover in a wide range of situations
and the extraction of detailed information for analysis. In
this paper, spectral, texture and shape information were
used to establish knowledge rules, but if more geographic
information can be comprehensively used, the classication
accuracy will be increased further. With the development of
remote sensing technology, comprehensive analysis of multigeographic information will become a trend in the development of the classication of remote sensing images in
the future.

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the Evolution mechanism research of wetland landscape based on spectral characteristics project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
40771161) and the National Science and Technology Planning of
the 11th Five-year Plan Task (Project No.: 2006BAJ05A03). The
authors are highly grateful to Wang Zhicheng, Cai Simin and Yuan
Hui from China Agricultural University for data processing.
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