Gender in Management: An International Journal

Cultural values and gender gap: a crossnational analysis

Hamid Yeganeh and Diane May

Article information:

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

To cite this document:

Hamid Yeganeh and Diane May, (2011),"Cultural values and gender gap: a cross#national analysis",
Gender in Management: An International Journal, Vol. 26 Iss 2 pp. 106 - 121
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17542411111116536
Downloaded on: 23 November 2014, At: 14:36 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 49 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 2424 times since 2011*
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by 573577 []

For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for
Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines
are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.

About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com

Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as
providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee
on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive
preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1754-2413.htm

GM
26,2

Cultural values and gender gap:

a cross-national analysis

106

College of Business, Winona State University, Winona, Minnesota, USA

Hamid Yeganeh and Diane May

Abstract

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate the effects of cultural values on
gender gap.
Design/methodology/approach First, by relying on the extant literature, the concepts of cultural
values and gender gap are framed and variables are defined. Then, the relationships among variables
are hypothesized and the theoretical model is constructed. Finally, empirical tests are conducted,
the results are analyzed, and theoretical/practical implications are discussed.
Findings The results show that controlling for the effects of socio-economic variables, culture still
has important implications for gender gap. More specifically, it is found that conservatism value
dimension is associated with higher levels of gender gap, but autonomy cultural dimension may lead
to gender equality.
Research limitations/implications This study is limited to three pairs of cultural values as
proposed by Schwartz. Another major limitation of this study resides in the theoretical model and
linear data analysis techniques used to investigate the relationship between culture and gender gap.
Practical implications The findings of this study could have important practical implications in
many areas of social sciences such as political science, management and organizational studies,
education, international law, and human resource management.
Social implications By considering the implications of cultural values, policy makers and business
leaders may adopt effective strategies to promote gender equalities at the societal and organizational
levels.
Originality/value While many studies have focused on some narrow aspects such as gender-based
differences in labour, employment, remuneration, political representation, education, and leadership, in
this study, the authors relied on a comprehensive conceptualization of the gender gap. Considering the
reliability of data and the variety of countries/cultures included, the results seem very significant.
Keywords Cross-cultural studies, Gender, Equal opportunities, Social values
Paper type Research paper

Gender in Management: An
International Journal
Vol. 26 No. 2, 2011
pp. 106-121
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1754-2413
DOI 10.1108/17542411111116536

Introduction
As we start the second decade of twenty-first century, gender-based inequality continues
to be a major preoccupation around the globe. Men and women are treated unequally in
politics, business, organization, and education. Not only in poor, but also in rich countries,
we find ample evidence of a systematic gender gap. Faced with this phenomenon, many
scholars have tried to investigate the factors that affect the gender-based inequality.
Socio-economic development, modernity, historical/political legacies, and institutional
factors have been recognized as the most important factors affecting gender-based
inequality (Bolzendalh and Myers, 2004; Hardford, 2005; Norris and Inglehart, 2001;
Inglehart and Norris, 2003; Inglehart et al., 2002; Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). While all
these factors may explain some aspects of gender-based inequality, an important question
is posed: Do cultural values affect gender-based inequality? Since it is through culture that
societies maintain regularity and order, it would be plausible to suggest that cultural
values might have important implications for gender-based inequality. Some scholars

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

have supported this idea (Inglehart and Norris, 2003; Norris and Lovenduski, 1995);
nevertheless, at the time of writing systematic empirical evidence is rare. Furthermore,
many existing studies deal with a few limited aspects of gender-based inequality such as
gender differences in politics, labour contracts, remuneration, and leadership. However,
we maintain that gender-based inequality is a complex concept and, therefore, necessitates
a multi-dimensional approach.
Along with the above-mentioned arguments, in this study, we aim to empirically
investigate the effects of cultural values on all facets of gender-based inequality.
The findings of this study, therefore, could have important theoretical and practical
implications in many areas of social sciences such as management and organizational
studies, education, political science, and international law. At the theoretical level, this
study untangles the effects of cultural values from other economic variables and
enhances our understanding of the factors underlying the gender gap. At the practical
level, the findings of this study may help policy makers adopt appropriate strategies to
promote gender equality.
The remainder of this paper has been organized as follows. The first part is devoted
to conceptualization of culture and gender-based inequality. The second part discusses
the relationship between the two concepts and presents the hypotheses, variables, and
a theoretical model. Finally, in the third part, empirical tests are conducted, the results
are analyzed, and theoretical/practical implications are discussed.
Culture and Schwartzs value types
Culture can be considered as the accumulation of shared meanings, rituals, norms, and
traditions that distinguishes members of one society from another (Soloman, 1996;
Hofstede, 1980). Krober and Kluckhohn (1952) suggested a very comprehensive definition
as follows: culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit of and for behaviour acquired
and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiment in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional
ideas and especially their attached values [. . .] . Bearing in mind the complexity of culture,
a practical approach among researchers is to identify several of its major dimensions along
with cultures can be analyzed. The cross-cultural literature provides us with different
dimensional models (House and Javidan, 2004; Schwartz, 1992, 1994; Hofstede, 2001;
Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, 1994; Hall, 1977; Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961).
Among all cultural models, Schwartzs work represents a large-scale and innovative
study that improves upon previous research in many respects (Yeganeh et al., 2009).
Schwartz (1992, 1994) made a clear distinction between individual and cultural levels of
analysis and presented the results of each level separately. Furthermore, Schwartzs
questionnaire is not based on outcomes but on preferences for values that guide ones
life. This approach is supposed to produce results that are more accurate by minimizing
the effects of situational factors. On the whole, the work of Schwartz offers many
advantages that make it suitable to be employed in empirical research (Yeganeh et al.,
2009). Considering all these advantages, we believe that the employment of Schwartzs
framework in the current research is appropriate.
Schwartz (1992, 1994, 2006) has described culture in three pairs of value types:
(1) conservatism/autonomy;
(2) hierarchy/egalitarianism; and
(3) mastery/harmony.

Cultural values
and gender gap

107

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

108

The conservatism value type is characterized by social order, respect for tradition, family
security, and wisdom. Conservative cultures emphasize the status quo, propriety, and
restraint of actions or inclinations that might disrupt the solidarity or the traditional order
(Schwartz, 1992, 1994). By contrast, the autonomy value type emphasizes the pursuit of
individual desires. Another pair of value types is hierarchy/egalitarianism (Schwartz,
1992, 1994, 2006). In hierarchical societies, cultural emphasis is on the legitimacy of an
unequal distribution of power, roles and resources, authority, and wealth. In contrast,
egalitarianism corresponds to features such as equality, social justice, freedom,
responsibility, and honesty. Mastery/harmony is the third pair of Schwartzs cultural
value types. Mastery is characterized by active self-assertion, ambition, success, daring,
and competence. By contrast, the harmony cultural value type accepts the world as it is
and emphasizes the unity with nature (Schwartz, 1992, 1994). The three pairs of
Schwartzs cultural dimensions are described in Table I.
Gender gap conceptualized
Gender is the most universal social organizing principle (Roopnarine and Mounts,
1987).Gender roles create arrangements by which a society transforms biological
sexuality into products of human activity, and in which these transformed needs are
satisfied (Reiter, 1975, p. 159). Gender functions are traditionally divided into distinct
feminine and masculine gender roles that may vary substantially from one society to
another. The differences between gender roles can be explained on the basis of different
theoretical perspectives. According to Parsons and Shillis (1951), the division of labour
based upon sex has survived because it is beneficial for society. Hence, the social
stability is maintained because the male assumes the role of breadwinner and the female
accepts the role of raising children and managing relationships within the family.
In contrast, the proponents of the conflict theory (ONeil et al., 1995) argue that such a
division of labour has been maintained by those men in power and is not necessarily
beneficial to society. Recent trends claim that the gender inequalities are obsolete in
modern times and should be changed (Sandstrom et al., 2006).
Distinct gender roles lead to major inequalities in a wide range of social, economical,
educational, political, social, conjugal, financial, and labour-related issues (Wirls, 1986).

Dimension

Description

Dimension

Emphasis on the desirability of

individuals independently
pursuing their own ideas
and intellectual directions
Promoting pleasure, exciting,
and varied life
Egalitarianism Emphasis on everyones welfare
equality, social justice, freedom,
responsibility, and honesty
Harmony
Emphasis on avoiding selfassertion, quality of life, and
harmony with environment

1. Conservatism The person embedded in society. Autonomy

The emphasis on maintenance (affective and
intellectual)
of the status quo, propriety,
tradition, and family security
2. Hierarchy

Table I.
Schwartzs cultural
dimensions and their
descriptions

3. Mastery

Emphasis on the legitimacy of

an unequal distribution of
power, roles, and resources
Emphasis on self-assertion,
ambition, success, daring, and
competence

Source: Schwartz (1994)

Description

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

Therefore, in any study dealing with gender-based inequalities, it is important to take

into consideration the multi-dimensional character of this concept. The global gender
gap index (GGI), introduced by the World Economic Forum in 2006, can be considered as
a suitable measure that captures national gender-based inequalities on economic,
political, education, and health-based criteria (Hausmann et al., 2007). In other words, the
GGI examines the gap between men and women in four fundamental categories:
(1) economic participation and opportunity;
(2) educational attainment;
(3) political empowerment; and
(4) health and survival (Hausmann et al., 2007).

Cultural values
and gender gap

109

Table II shows these four criteria and the 14 different indicators that form the GGI.
Methodologically, the GGI seems a reliable measure as it is designed to assess
gender-based gaps in access to resources across the world rather than the
actual/absolute levels of the available resources. In other words, the index captures
gaps between women and mens attainment levels, rather than the levels themselves
(Hausmann et al., 2007). Moreover, this index uses outcome variables rather than input
measures. This approach is especially appropriate, as it does not rely on subjective,
country specific, and culture-bound constructs such as female emancipation. Another
advantage of the GGI is that it ranks countries according to their proximity to gender
equality rather than to womens empowerment. Finally, it is important to emphasize that
in calculation of the GGI, the relative weights of variables (economic, educational,
political, and survival) have been considered. In view of all these methodological and
operational strengths, we consider that the GGI is an appropriate measure to evaluate
the gender-based inequalities around the world.

GGI dimensions

Indicators

(I) Economic participation and

opportunity

Ratio: female labour force participation over male value

Wage equality between women and men for similar work
Ratio: estimated female earned income over male value
Ratio: female legislators, senior officials, and managers over male
value
Ratio: female professional and technical workers over male value
Ratio: female literacy rate over male value
Ratio: female net primary level enrolment over male value
Ratio: female net secondary level enrolment over male value
Ratio: female gross tertiary level enrolment over male value
Ratio: females with seats in parliament over male value
Ratio: females at ministerial level over male value
Ratio: number of years of a female head of state (last 50 years)
over male value
Ratio: female healthy life expectancy over male value
Sex ratio at birth (converted to female-over-male ratio)

(II) Educational attainment

(III) Political empowerment

(IV) Health and survival

Source: Hausmann et al. (2007)

Table II.
GGI four dimensions
and the corresponding
indicators

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

110

Hypotheses
I. Conservatism/autonomy
The conservatism value type is characterized by social order, respect for tradition,
family security, and wisdom. In conservative societies, the person is viewed as
embedded in the group. Thus, cultural emphasis is put on maintenance of the status quo,
propriety, and restraint of actions that might disrupt the solidarity or the traditional
order. In that sense, conservatism corresponds to collectivistic and traditional
societies as described, respectively, by Hofstede (1980, 2001) and Inglehart (1997). Such
collectivistic/traditional societies insist on distinct gender roles and emphasize the
importance of parent/child ties and reject divorce, homosexuality, abortion, euthanasia,
and suicide (Inglehart and Baker, 2000; Inglehart and Welzel, 2003, 2005). Thus, it seems
plausible to associate Schwartzs conservatism cultural dimension with gender gap.
Intellectual autonomy as described by Schwartz (1992) implies curiosity,
broadmindedness, and creativity. In other words, those dominated by intellectual
autonomy seek actively to express and fulfil their intellectual preferences and feelings.
Similarly, affective autonomy is related to social behaviour based on pursuit of
pleasure, excitement, and varied life. Schwartzs autonomy dimension corresponds to
Hofstedes (1980, 2001) individualism and Ingleharts (1997) self-expression. In such
societies, authority is less respected, gender roles are less distinct, and divorce,
homosexuality, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide are tolerated (Hofstede, 1980, 2001;
Inglehart and Baker, 2000; Inglehart and Welzel, 2003, 2005). Therefore, it is plausible to
associate Schwartzs autonomy with gender-based equality.
On the basis of above discussions, we put forward the following hypotheses:
H1a. Conservatism is positively associated with gender gap.
H1b. Autonomy is negatively associated with gender gap.
II. Hierarchy egalitarianism
In societies marked by hierarchy, cultural emphasis is on the legitimacy of an unequal
distribution of power and wealth. The manifestations of the hierarchy dimension
include more concentration of authority, authoritarian decision-making, inequality of
roles, and a strong sense of class culture. Schwartzs hierarchy dimension is very
similar to Hofstedes (1980, 2001) power distance and can be associated with
traditional societies as described by Inglehart and Baker (2000). Hierarchical cultures
are economically less developed, are less democratic, and show the prevalence of
traditional gender roles both in and outside family (Hofsetde, 1980). Furthermore, the
tolerance of divorce, homosexuality, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide is much lower in
hierarchical cultures (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Inglehart and Baker, 2000; Inglehart and
Welzel, 2003, 2005). Thus, it is argued that people in hierarchical cultures may cherish
the gender gap.
Schwartz (1992) maintains that the egalitarianism cultural value corresponds to
features such as equality, social justice, freedom, responsibility, and honesty.
Egalitarian cultures are economically more developed, tend to be democratic, and are
pervaded by modern values such as gender equality and tolerance of divorce,
homosexuality, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Inglehart and
Baker, 2000; Inglehart and Welzel, 2003, 2005). Therefore, it is plausible to suggest that
egalitarian cultures do not show a tendency toward gender gap.

Accordingly, we hypothesize as following:

H2a. Hierarchy is positively associated with gender gap.

Cultural values
and gender gap

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

H2b. Egalitarianism is negatively associated with gender gap.

III. Mastery/harmony
The mastery cultural value is characterized by active assertiveness, ambition, success,
daring, and competence (Schwartz, 1992). It is associated with masculine values such
as hard work, achievement, material reward, and functionality. As such, Schwartzs
mastery corresponds to the masculinity cultural dimension as described by Hofstede
(1980, 2001). Therefore, it seems plausible to argue that the mastery cultural dimension
is associated with masculine values and increasing levels of gender gap.
The harmony cultural orientation involves accepting the world as it is (Schwartz,
1992). In societies marked by this cultural value, people should fit harmoniously into the
natural and social world and avoid conflict and self-assertion. In that sense, harmony
resembles the femininity dimension as described by Hofstede (1980, 2001) and involves
feminine values that are opposed to assertiveness, ambition, and conflict. Therefore,
it might be plausible to argue that the harmony cultural dimension has a tendency
toward the prevalence of feminine values.
Therefore, we put forward the following hypotheses:
H3a. Mastery is positively associated with gender gap.
H3b. Harmony is negatively associated with gender gap.
Control variables
The connection between culture and economic development has been emphasized by
many scholars (Bell, 1973; Chirot, 1977; DiMaggio, 1994; Hein, 1992; Inglehart, 1997;
Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Schwartz, 1992, 1994; Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). Therefore, in
investigating the relationship between culture and the gender gap, we should control for
some macro-level indicators to remove the possibility of mediation (Hofstede, 1980).
Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and human development index (HDI) are two
reliable macro-level variables that are often used to measure the level of economic
development. Accordingly, in this study, we control for GDP per capita and HDI to
assess the effects of cultural values on gender gap.
It has been suggested that economic development may adversely affect the gender
gap (Inglehart et al., 2002). The classical modernization perspective holds that economic
development brings about a more broad-based distribution of educational and
occupational resources that ultimately leads to lower levels of the gender gap
(Kenworthy and Malami, 1999; Reynolds, 1999; Rule, 1994; Siaroff, 2000; Welch and
Studlar, 1996; Wilensky, 2002).
Thus, it is plausible to put forward the following hypothesis:
H4. Economic development is negatively associated with gender gap.
Theoretical model
Based on the previous discussions, we define the GGI as the main dependent variable
that is likely to be affected by cultural dimensions (independent variables) and economic

111

GM
26,2

112

development (control variable). Therefore, to investigate the effects of independent and

control variables, we may estimate the following theoretical models:
GGI a0 a1 CON a2 HIR a3 MAS a4 LnGDPCap 1i

GGI a0 a1 CON a2 HIR a3 MAS a4 HDI 1i

where:
GGI

stands for the gender gap index;

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

CON HIR and MAS are scores for conservatism, hierarchy, and mastery cultural
dimensions;
LnGDP

represents natural logarithm of the GDP per capita (PPP);

HDI

is the human development index; and

1i

is a randomly distributed error term denoting any effects not

captured in the independent variables of the model.

Based on our hypotheses, we expect positive signs for a1 , a2 , and a3 and negative sign
for a4 .
Data
We chose 53 countries for which both Schwartzs cultural scores and gender gap data
were available. Table III presents all 53 countries and their respective data. Schwartzs
model has been tested and validated in cross-cultural research in over 70 countries
(Schwartz and Sagiv, 1995; Spini, 2003). The data for the gender gap were obtained
from the World Economic Forum (Hausmann et al., 2007). Through a very vigorous
methodology, the World Economic Forum constantly collects data from more than
120 countries and calculates the gender gap score annually. Therefore, the sources of
data seem quite reliable.
We utilized the 2005 release of Schwartzs data for 55 countries surveyed during the
years 1988-2004. We reversed the gender equality scores provided by the Global
Gender Gap Report (Hausmann et al., 2007) in order to calculate the GGI. The GDP
per capita data for all included countries (except Cyprus) were obtained from the World
Economic Forum report. The GDP per capita data in US dollars were adjusted for
purchasing power parity (PPP). Furthermore, given the wide variation in the GDP
per capita data and its skewed distribution, the natural logarithm of this variable was
computed to reduce the distorting effects of very large numbers. The data for HDI were
obtained from the United Nations Report (2000, 2001).
Empirical analysis
First, the relationships between cultural values and GGI were explored by computing
the Pearson correlations. The first model in Table V shows that GGI has significant
correlations with two cultural dimensions, the natural logarithm of GDP per capita, and
HDI. Both conservatism (CON) and hierarchy (HIR) have positive correlations with GGI,
but apparently, mastery (MAS) is not correlated with GGI. While the relationship
between each cultural dimension and gender gap seems plausible, it does not imply any
causal relationship because it does not take into account the effects of other variables

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

Country
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.

Argentina
Australia
Austria
Bolivia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
Chile
China
Cyprus
Czech
Denmark
Egypt
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Jordan
Macedonia
Malaysia
Mexico
Namibia
Nepal
The Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Russia
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Korea
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
UK
USA
Venezuela
Zimbabwe

Egalitarianisma

Harmonya

Conservatisma

LNGDPcapb

HDIc

GGIb

5.098
4.921
5.059
4.834
5.037
4.249
4.985
5.109
4.312
5.061
4.589
5.147
4.827
4.752
5.026
5.183
4.742
5.14
4.854
4.979
4.507
4.494
4.325
4.987
4.857
5.376
4.466
4.47
4.475
4.497
4.774
4.599
4.703
5.083
5.027
5.285
4.984
4.603
4.546
5.388
4.641
4.691
4.578
4.581
4.471
5.203
4.96
4.979
4.909
4.998
4.799
4.734
4.311

4.266
4.129
4.622
4.26
4.04
4.251
4.199
4.493
3.762
4.323
4.661
4.32
4.2
4.663
4.586
4.495
4.094
4.706
3.433
4.683
4.384
3.979
3.992
3.897
3.352
4.905
4.302
3.704
4.14
3.681
4.576
3.561
4.156
4.192
4.193
4.635
3.913
4.084
4.235
4.57
4.254
3.979
4.526
4.774
3.562
4.636
4.54
4.526
4.309
3.814
3.694
4.026
3.573

3.625
3.847
3.186
4.214
3.8
4.026
3.521
3.902
3.738
4.194
3.768
3.289
4.692
4.078
3.532
3.097
4.245
3.183
4.3
3.469
3.727
3.913
4.503
3.598
3.823
3.611
3.547
4.354
4.048
4.332
3.792
4.02
4.276
3.355
3.471
3.55
4.141
4.071
4.051
3.513
4.043
4.213
4.049
3.816
3.784
3.363
3.234
3.043
4.026
3.552
3.771
3.943
4.068

9.44967218
10.2501223
10.3083191
7.8272409
8.9193194
8.99168673
10.2986666
9.27799902
8.70151275
9.96175646
9.81312511
10.3163916
8.25790419
9.53024759
10.2613368
10.2048136
8.00436556
10.1738963
7.6989362
9.94275634
9.67489166
8.03008409
8.13710339
10.441617
10.0436842
10.1417561
10.2334026
8.50106381
8.76483421
9.17792048
9.16576133
8.81714962
7.22911388
10.2777372
10.0095578
10.5145838
8.58914169
8.42748728
9.41889806
9.80686651
9.17450592
10.1807404
9.55534751
9.89419451
9.8831828
10.0929088
10.2728418
10.3641035
8.91998807
10.2945494
10.5258635
8.68270763
7.50273821

0.818333
0.916667
0.907667
0.695
0.7345
0.829
0.933
0.806333
0.635833
0.903
0.845
0.911667
0.708
0.817
0.9085
0.914833
0.754
0.902833
0.553
0.887167
0.825667
0.509333
0.625
0.893
0.868
0.895833
0.921
0.773
0.8
0.745167
0.786833
0.657
0.534
0.924167
0.898667
0.935
0.7224
0.695333
0.83725
0.836
0.798667
0.8575
0.863
0.891
0.922
0.8995
0.9205
0.9235
0.710333
0.902333
0.924167
0.7865
0.541

0.302
0.28
0.294
0.343
0.336
0.292
0.28
0.352
0.336
0.348
0.328
0.248
0.419
0.299
0.196
0.318
0.334
0.238
0.327
0.335
0.327
0.406
0.345
0.254
0.304
0.35
0.355
0.38
0.303
0.356
0.356
0.299
0.442
0.262
0.235
0.194
0.338
0.237
0.324
0.304
0.313
0.339
0.32
0.316
0.359
0.256
0.185
0.308
0.423
0.256
0.3
0.32
0.354

Sources: aSchwartz (2006); bHausmann et al. (2007); cUnited Nations Report (2000, 2001)

Cultural values
and gender gap

113

Table III.
The list of 53 countries
and respective variables
and data

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

114

incorporated into the theoretical model. In other words, we need to test the marginal
impact of each cultural dimension on gender gap by controlling for other cultural and
economic factors. For this purpose, we employed the ordinary least squares (OLS) to
estimate the coefficients of all variables incorporated in equations (1) and (2). As shown
in Table V, Models 2-4 take into consideration the effects of other cultural and
controlling variables such as LnGDP and HDI.
In order to avoid the disturbance of outliers in LnGDP per capita, the casewise
diagnostic technique was employed (Meyers et al., 2006). The OLS models were
checked for the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) values (tolerance . 0.25
and VIF , 10) suggesting that multicollinearity was not present among independent
variables (Allison, 1999). Furthermore, all estimates were checked for the presence of
homoskedasticity using Whites test (Meyers et al., 2006; Stevens, 2002).
Table V shows that by incorporating cultural and control variables, our theoretical
models can explain about 40 per cent of the variation in gender gap (see the R 2 in
Table V). Among cultural variables, the effects of conservatism seem very considerable,
because it has a significant positive estimate in all models. While hierarchy has a
significant bivariate correlation with gender gap, it does not show any significant
estimates when we add other cultural and control variables (LnGDP and HDI). In other
words, the correlation between hierarchy and gender gap is erased by other cultural and
economic variables and arguably might be spurious. As shown in Table IV, hierarchy

Hierarchy Mastery Conservatism

Table IV.
Correlations among all
variables (hierarchy,
mastery, conservatism,
LnGDP per capita,
and HDI)

Hierarchy
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n
Mastery
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n
Conservatism
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n
Ln GDP capita
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n
HDI
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n
Gender gap
Pearson correlation
Significance (two tailed)
n

53

Ln GDP
capita

HDI

Gender
gap

0.449 *
0.001
53

0.557 *
0.000
53

20.506 *
0.000
53

2 0.478 *
0.000
53

0.387 *
0.004
53

53

0.451 *
0.001
53

20.402 *
0.003
53

2 0.457 *
0.001
53

0.224
0.107
53

53

20.734 *
0.000
53

2 0.646 *
0.000
53

0.588 *
0.000
53

Note: Significant at: *0.01 level (two tailed)

53

0.931 * 2 0.588 *
0.000
0.000
53
53
1

53

2 0.569 *
0.000
53
1

53

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

has significant correlations with economic variables such as GDP per capita and HDI.
In fact, the economically undeveloped societies tend to have higher scores in cultural
hierarchy (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005; Schwartz, 1994; Hofstede, 2001).
As shown in Table V, mastery is not related to the dependent variable and,
therefore, it does not seem to have any implications for gender gap. Models 3 and 4 in
Table V indicate that economic variables measured in terms of natural logarithm of
GDP per capita (PPP) or HDI have significant implications for gender gap. This finding
confirms the mediating impact of economic variables on gender gap and justifies their
inclusion in the theoretical model. On the basis of empirical analysis (Table V), H1a,
H1b, and H4 are confirmed and others are rejected.
Discussion
The empirical analysis confirmed three hypotheses, namely, H1a, H1b, and H4.
In other words, among all independent variables, conservatism and socio-economic
development (measured as LnGDP per capita or HDI) have significant implications for
the gender gap (Table IV). According to the structural explanation suggested
by Wilensky (2002), developed societies are involved in a continuous process
of industrialization leading to changes in the occupational structure and dominance of
skilled workers, professionals, and managers. In these societies, the economic costs of
having children increases, while the economic benefits go down. As a result, women in
the developed economies have more incentives for taking part in the labour market,
rather than staying at home and taking care of children (Bergh, 2006). At the same
time, modern types of jobs also raise the need for higher education, for both men and
women. As women study and work alongside men, social attitudes become more
liberal and the society shows a tendency toward gender equality (Wilensky, 2002).
Similarly, the modernization theory as put forward by Inglehart (1997) emphasizes the
conversion of economic development into a cultural process of human development
that gives rise to an emancipative worldview, reflected in self-expression values that
emphasize human choice and autonomy, including the choices and autonomy of
women (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005; Welzel et al., 2003).
Among three cultural dimensions, we find out that mastery/harmony does not seem
to have any significant correlations with the gender gap (Table IV and Figure 1). This is
surprising, because this cultural dimension has some considerable similarities with
Hofstedes masculinity/femininity and involves such values as self-assertion, ambition,
success, daring, and competence. One possible explanation is that the concept of gender
gap does not denote the absolute extent of masculinity or femininity in a society; rather
it indicates the relative differences between men and women in accessing available
resources and opportunities. For example, a society like the USA is high in masculinity
and low in gender gap because women are masculinized. In other words, to promote
gender-based equality, there are two directions: one is when women become
masculinized and the other is when men become feminized. As such, the extent of
mastery/harmony or masculinity/femininity in a society does not impact the gender gap.
Another important result of this study is that hierarchy/egalitarianism cultural
dimension has a significant correlation with gender gap (Table IV; Figure 1), but once
we control for the two other cultural dimensions and the economic variable (LnGDP
per capita or HDI), its effects are erased. This finding leads us to say that the relationship
between hierarchy/egalitarianism and gender gap might be spurious. As a matter of fact,

Cultural values
and gender gap

115

Table V.
OLS results for the
theoretical model

53

0.109
2 0.079
0.563

20.162
0.760
20.595
3.924 *

R 2 0.356
Adjusted R 2 0.316
53

0.068
0.027
0.019
0.021
1.561
1.352
1.565

0.067
2 0.099
0.346
2 0.339

1.832
0.476
20.763
1.976 *
22.034 *

R 2 0.407
Adjusted R 2 0.357
53

0.179
0.027
0.019
0.025
0.010

1.596
1.359
2.485
2.250

Model-3: cultural dimensions

LnGDP
Beta
SE
t
VIF

Notes: Significant at: *0.01 level (two tailed); dependent variable: gender gap

0.387 *
0.224
0.588 *
20.588
20.569 *
NA

Model-2: cultural dimensions

Beta
SE
t
VIF

2 0.351

0.067
2 0.142
0.388

1.974
0.483
21.088
2.483 *
0.070 22.352 *
R 2 0.422
Adjusted R 2 0.374
53

0.133
0.026
0.019
0.023

1.854

1.588
1.410
2.027

Model-4: cultural dimensions HDI

Beta
SE
t
VIF

116

Const
HIR
MAS
CON
LnGDP
HDI

Model-1: bivariate
r

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

there is a strong correlation between hierarchy/egalitarianism and socio-economic

development, and arguably, the effects of hierarchy/egalitarianism are directed toward
LnGDP per capita or HDI.
Finally, we find out that conservatism/autonomy has considerable implications for
gender gap, as it has significant estimates in all models and in the presence of control
variables. As mentioned previously, conservatism is associated with traditional values
emphasizing social relationships, maintenance of the status quo, and restraint of actions
or inclinations that might disrupt the traditional order. Conservative societies remain
mainly religious and reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. The conservative
cultures generally believe that men make better political leaders than women and men
have more right to a job than their female colleagues (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005).
By contrast, autonomy is the cultural orientation of those modern societies that cherish
individual desirability, enjoy economic development, and are marked by low birth rate,
tolerance of abortion/divorce/homosexuality/euthanasia/suicide, and gender equality.
Therefore, we may conclude that conservatism and autonomy, respectively, have
negative and positive effects on the gender equality.
The results of this study indicate that holding socio-economic factors constant,
countries with higher conservative values are more likely to emphasize the gender
inequality. Therefore, while the economic development is an important cause in the rise
of gender equality, the favourable cultural factors cannot be overlooked. Cultural
explanations provide a plausible reason why women seem to have made such striking
advances within the Nordic region compared with other comparable European societies
like Italy or Belgium, since all these are affluent welfare states and parliamentary
democracies (Norris and Inglehart, 2000). Culture also seems like an important reason
why many traditional and Islamic nations such as Yemen, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
Morocco, Egypt, and Turkey are ranked at the bottom of the gender gap list (Table III).

Cultural values
and gender gap

117

Conclusion
This paper was an attempt to investigate the effects of cultural values on gender equality.
While many studies have focused on some narrow aspects such as gender-based
differences in labour, employment, remuneration, political representation, education, and
leadership, in this study, we relied on a comprehensive conceptualization of the gender
gap. We defined the gender gap, as all gender-based inequalities with respect to four
major criteria: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, political
empowerment, and health and survival. We defined culture as meanings, rituals, norms,
Gender gap

Gender gap

Gender gap

0.45

0.45

0.45

0.40

0.40

0.40

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.30

0.30

0.30

0.25

0.25

0.25

0.20

0.20

0.20
0.15

0.15

0.15
3.00

3.50

4.00
Conservatism

4.50

5.00

1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80

Hierarchy

2.00

2.50

3.00
Masculinity

3.50

Figure 1.
The relationships between
gender gap and three
cultural dimensions:
conservatism, hierarchy,
and masculinity

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

118

and traditions that distinguish members of one society from another and we adopted
the Schwartz framework to measure cultural values. The empirical analysis showed that
controlling for the effects of socio-economic variables, culture still has important
implications for the gender gap. More specifically, it was found that conservatism is
associated with higher levels of gender gap, but autonomy may lead to gender equality.
Further analysis and discussion revealed that conservatism and autonomy are two
important cultural dimensions that are, respectively, associated with traditional and
modern societies. The relationship between cultural dimensions and the gender gap is of
paramount importance, because as found in this study, socio-economic development,
cultural values, and the gender gap are closely intertwined. Therefore, while culture is
very likely to affect the gender gap, we should be cautious about considering a linear
causal relationship between two concepts. At the practical level, by considering the
implications of cultural values, policy makers and business leaders may adopt
effective strategies to promote gender equalities at the societal and organizational levels.
More specifically, to advance the gender equality, it is important to stay away from the
conservative/traditional cultural values such as religiosity, social status,
authoritarianism, and intolerance of homosexuality, divorce, and abortion.
The findings of this study bring insights into the nature of the gender gap and its
relationship with cultural values. Considering the reliability of data and the variety of
countries/cultures included, the results seem very significant. However, we need to keep
in mind that this study is limited to three pairs of cultural values as proposed by Schwartz
(1992, 1994). Indeed, culture is a complex phenomenon that cannot be fully captured by
such simple models (Yeganeh and Su, 2006). Moreover, cultural dimensions rely solely on
cultural means and fail to discern the effects of intra-cultural variations within large and
sometimes heterogeneous countries like China, India, and Canada (Yeganeh and Su,
2006). Another major limitation of this study resides in the theoretical model and linear
data analysis techniques that we used to investigate the relationship between culture
and gender gap. Further studies may develop mix models by including more cultural
and non-cultural variables to uncover the major factors underlying the gender gap.
References
Allison, P.D. (1999), Multiple Regression: A Primer, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Bell, D. (1973), The Coming of Post-industrial Society, Basic Books, New York, NY.
Bergh, J. (2006), Gender attitudes and modernization process, International Journal of Public
Opinion Research, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 6-23.
Bolzendalh, C.I. and Myers, D.J. (2004), Feminist attitudes and support for gender equality:
opinion change in women and men 1974-1988, Social Forces, Vol. 83 No. 2, pp. 759-90.
Chirot, D. (1977), Social Change in the Twentieth Century, Harcourt College, New York, NY.
DiMaggio, P. (1994), Culture and economy, in Smelser, N.J. and Swedberg, R. (Eds),
The Handbook of Economic Sociology, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 27-57.
Hall, E.T. (1977), Beyond Culture, Doubleday, New York, NY.
Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompernaars, F. (1994), The Seven Cultures of Capitalism, Piatkus
Books, London.
Hardford, J. (2005), The movement for the higher education of women in Ireland: gender equality
or denominational rivalry?, History of Education, Vol. 34 No. 5, pp. 497-516.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

Hausmann, R., Tyson, L. and Zahidi, S. (Eds) (2007), Global Gender Gap Report, World Economic
Forum, Geneva, available at: www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/report2007.pdf
Hein, S. (1992), Trade strategy and the dependency hypothesis: a comparison of policy, foreign
investment and economic growth in Latin America and East Asia, Economic Development
and Cultural Change, Vol. 13 No. 79, pp. 495-521.
Hofstede, G.H. (1980), Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values,
Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
Hofstede, G.H. (2001), Cultures Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and
Organizations Across Nations, 2nd ed., Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W and Gupta, V. (2004), Culture, Leadership
and Organizations: The GOBE Study of 62 Societies, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Inglehart, R.F. (1997), Modernization and Post Modernization: Cultural, Economic and Political
Change in 43 Societies, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Inglehart, R.F. and Baker, W. (2000), Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of
traditional values, American Sociological Review, Vol. 65, pp. 19-51.
Inglehart, R.F. and Norris, P. (2003), Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around
the World, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Inglehart, R.F. and Welzel, C. (2003), The theory of human development: a cross-cultural
analysis, European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 341-79.
Inglehart, R.F. and Welzel, C. (2005), Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy:
The Human Development Sequence, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Inglehart, R.F., Norris, P. and Welzel, C. (2002), Gender equality and democracy, Comparative
Sociology, Vol. 1, pp. 321-45.
Kenworthy, L. and Malami, M. (1999), Gender inequality in political representation: a worldwide
comparative analysis, Social Forces, Vol. 78, pp. 235-68.
Kluckhohn, F. and Strodtbeck, F. (1961), Variations in Value Orientations, Row, Peterson,
Evanston, IL.
Krober, A.L. and Kluckholn, C. (1952), Culture: a critical review of concepts and definitions,
Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, pp. 1-223.
Meyers, L.S., Gamst, G. and Guarino, A.J. (2006), Applied Multivariate Research, Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA.
Norris, P. and Inglehart, R. (2000), Cultural barriers to womens leadership, IPSA, paper
presented at Special Session 16 Social Cleavages and Elections at the International
Political Science Association World Congress, Quebec City, Quebec, 3 August.
Norris, P. and Inglehart, R. (2001), Women and democracy: cultural obstacles to equal
representation, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 12, pp. 126-40.
Norris, P. and Lovenduski, J. (1995), Political Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British
Parliament, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
ONeil, J.M., Good, G.E. and Holmes, S. (1995), Fifteen years of theory and research on mens gender
role conflict: new paradigms for empirical research, in Levant, R. and Pollack, W. (Eds),
The New Psychology of Men, Basic Books, New York, NY, pp. 164-206.
Parsons, T. and Shills, T. (1951), Toward a General Theory of Action, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA.
Reiter, R. (1975), Introduction, in Reiter, R. (Ed.), Toward an Anthropology of Women,
Monthly Review Press, New York, NY, pp. 11-19.

Cultural values
and gender gap

119

GM
26,2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

120

Reynolds, A. (1999), Women in the legislatures and executives of the world: knocking at the
highest glass ceiling, World Politics, Vol. 51, pp. 547-72.
Roopnarine, J.L. and Mounts, N.S. (1987), Current theoretical issues in sex roles and sex typing,
Current Conceptions of Sex Roles and Sex Typing: Theory and Research, Praeger,
New York, NY, pp. 7-32.
Rule, W. (1994), Womens underrepresentation and electoral systems, Political Science and
Politics, Vol. 27, pp. 689-92.
Sandstrom, K.L., Martin, D.D. and Fine, G.A. (2006), Symbols, Selves, and Social Reality:
A Symbolic Interactionist Approach to Social Psychology, Roxbury, Los Angeles, CA.
Schwartz, S.H. (1992), Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances
and empirical tests in 20 countries, in Zanna, M. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology, Vol. 25, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, pp. 1-65.
Schwartz, S.H. (1994), Are there universal aspects of the structure and contents of human
values, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 19-45.
Schwartz, S.H. (2006), A theory of cultural value orientations: explication and applications,
Comparative Sociology, Vol. 5 Nos 2/3, pp. 137-82.
Schwartz, S.H. and Sagiv, L. (1995), Identifying culture specifics in the content and structure of
values, Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, Vol. 26, pp. 92-116.
Siaroff, A. (2000), Womens representation in legislatures and cabinets in industrial
democracies, International Political Science Review, Vol. 21, pp. 197-215.
Soloman, M. (1996), Consumer Behavior, 3rd ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Spini, D. (2003), Measurement equivalence of 10 value types from the Schwartz value survey
across 21 countries, Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, Vol. 34, pp. 3-23.
Stevens, J.P. (2002), Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences, L. Erlbaum,
Hillsdale, NJ.
United Nations Report (2000, 2001), available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en
Welch, S. and Studlar, D. (1996), The opportunity structure for womens candidacies and
electability in Britain and the United States, Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 49, pp. 861-74.
Welzel, C., Inglehart, R. and Klingemann, H.D. (2003), The theory of human development:
a cross-cultural analysis, European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 42, pp. 341-80.
Wilensky, H.L. (2002), Rich Democracies: Political Economy, Public Policy, and Performance,
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Wirls, D. (1986), Reinterpreting the gender gap, Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 50, pp. 316-30.
Yeganeh, H. and Su, Z. (2006), Conceptual foundations of cultural management research,
International Journal of Cross-cultural Management, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 361-76.
Yeganeh, H., Su, Z. and Sauers, D. (2009), The applicability of widely-employed frameworks in
cross-cultural management research, Journal of Academic Research in Economics ( JARE),
June, pp. 13-32.
About the authors
Hamid Yeganeh is an Assistant Professor of International Management at Winona State
University in Minnesota, USA. His research focuses on international business and
cross-cultural/comparative management. His work has appeared in various journals such as
International Journal of Cross-cultural Management, International Journal of Human Resource
Management, International Journal of Commerce & Management, Personnel Review, Journal of
Strategy and Management, Cross-cultural Management: An International Journal, International

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

Journal of Business and Emerging Markets, and Gestion-2000. Hamid Yeganeh is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: hyeganeh@winona.edu
Diane May received her Juris Doctor degree from the University of San Diego School of Law.
After receiving her law degree, she practiced in a general litigation firm in San Diego County for
five years before leaving to teach full-time at California Western School of Law, also in San Diego.
She also served as an Editor of the California Law Alert newsletter. In 1995, Diane May became
an Assistant Dean, and later an Associate Dean at the University of South Dakota School of Law
until 2002. While serving as an Associate Dean she was responsible for both academic and
student affairs and taught courses in interviewing, counseling, negotiation, and legal writing.
In the summer of 2003, Diane May directed the University of San Diego School of Laws Institute
on Comparative and International Law in Mexico City. She is currently working as an Assistant
Professor at Winona State University in Winona, Minnesota. She is licensed to practice law in
California and Minnesota.

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

Cultural values
and gender gap

121

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX At 14:36 23 November 2014 (PT)

This article has been cited by:

1. Mirian Palmeira, Denise Palmeira, Cassia Maria dos Santos. 2014. A Perception of Prejudice in Face-toFace Retail Services. International Journal of Applied Behavioral Economics 1:4, 22-40. [CrossRef]
2. Anusorn Singhapakdi, M. Joseph Sirgy, Dong-Jin Lee, Kalayanee Senasu, Grace B. Yu, Amiee Mellon
Nisius. 2014. Gender disparity in job satisfaction of Western versus Asian managers. Journal of Business
Research 67:6, 1257-1266. [CrossRef]
3. Kim Klyver, Suna Lwe Nielsen, Majbritt Rostgaard Evald. 2013. Women's self-employment: An act
of institutional (dis)integration? A multilevel, cross-country study. Journal of Business Venturing 28:4,
474-488. [CrossRef]
4. Belen Fernandez-Feijoo, Silvia Romero, Silvia Ruiz-Blanco. 2013. Women on Boards: Do They Affect
Sustainability Reporting?. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management n/a-n/a.
[CrossRef]
5. Rhys Rowland-Jones. 2012. The EFQM concepts of excellence approach to management development
within the UAE healthcare industry utilizing action modalities. Human Resource Development International
15:4, 501-514. [CrossRef]