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INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
Volume 42

Number 6
Contents
June 2014
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-4

From the Editors Desk - Revitalize & Transform Road Sector to Revive Economy Dawn of New Era - New Hope for
Road Infrastructure with Easy Solutions
IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi Ji
Announcement
7
IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Minister of Road Transport & Highways and Shipping,
Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji
8
New IRC Publications Released During 2013 & 2014
9
IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Minister of State for Road Transport & Highways and Shipping,
Shri Krishan Pal Ji
10
Advertisement Tariff
11

Three Dimensional Nonlinear Finite Element Modeling of Conventional Whitetopping of Asphalt Pavements
D.R. Jundhare, K.C. Khare and R.K. Jain
26

Rutting Studies of 100 MM Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix with Plain and Modified Binders at Varying Temperatures
Satish. B.K and Ganesh
37

A Laboratory Study on Conventional CBR and DCP Method in the Mould

Sunanda Bhattacharjee and Kaushik Bandyopadhyay
43

A Portable Low-Cost System Framework for Automated Road Distress Assessment

Huidrom Lokeshwor, Lalit K. Das and Namita Akoijam
56

Rocks Fill Solution for Kasara Ghat - A Success Story Case Study
K.V. Ghodke, M.S. Nair and Atulesh Sharma
65
Book Review
66

Towards Development of Intelligent Transport System for Control of Traffic Management in Indian Cities
Jyotirmaya Behera
78

Change of Scope in BOT/DBFOT Mode

S.S. Joshi
82-83 Circular Issued by MORT&H

83
Errata to IRC:112-2011
84
Circular Issued by MORT&H
85
Tender Notice, RO Lucknow
The Indian Roads Congress

E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/indianhighways@irc.org.in
Founded : December 1934

IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
From the Editors Desk

Revitalize & Transform Road Sector to Revive Economy
Dawn of New Era - New Hope for Road Infrastructure with Easy Solutions
Dear Readers,
After a long time, people of India have given decisive mandate for a new hope and better living conditions. Every citizen
of the nation is entitled for compliments and kudos for the same.
A new era may be witnessed for road sector in the country which has been witnessing negative growth rate in term of
development especially in the national highways segment catering the bulk of road transport.
The cascading negative impact of slowness in the road sector at national level is being felt by almost all segments
of economy and, therefore, it appears that steps taken/initiated and contemplated during the last few years were not
sufficient to infuse right prescription required to make it vibrant again.
The time has come for carrying out serious introspection with a positive mindset to move forward by learning from
failures. What are the hurdles and whether they are unsurmountable due to which this economically strategic sector
lost its momentum which was witnessed during the initial years of the 21st century. Perhaps the answer may be no.
There may be many issues and reasons but mostly are issues of short sightedness, system failure and poor governance.
Before dwelling upon some of them on priority basis it may be preferable to understand the strength of the road sector
infrastructures economy salvation strength.
The strategic economic importance of this sector needs a pragmatic approach to harness its true potential for a durable
progress and inclusive growth of a society and country. The road sector has the potential for massive job creation
not only in its own area but with every passing day it is opening up more and more opportunities for skilled and highly
skilled work force in the allied areas also like material conservation, environment conservation & protection, tourism,
health care, textiles, capital goods, automobiles, financing, etc. Therefore this sector attains a strategic importance in the
social sector of job creation as well.
Can we dream of empowering people in the villages or remote areas without providing connectivity with better roads?
For empowerment they need connectivity to the education/health care institution as well. The roads are the basic amenity
& essentialities, if we have to achieve inclusive growth for every citizen of this country. The realistic empowerment of
people at grass root level while simultaneously following the basic principles of food security, health security, right to
education to all, etc. perhaps may not be achievable without giving due attention toward efficient road connectivity.
Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas can perhaps be achieved through a Sustainable Road Development Program implemented
in a much faster way.
The roads are rarely considered as a means to control food inflation. However the levels of road connectivity do have
a bearing on the supply chain management of the food articles. The food commodity is the basic essential need of the
mankind and high inflation in this segment severely affects the majority of the population and destabilizes the economic
growth, which in turn impacts other activities - some to a major extent and some to minor extent. The road provides the
cheapest flexible connectivity between the producing and consuming areas. The farmer can get better price especially in
respect of perishable items and other agricultural products which do not require further processing. Therefore, with the
help of road sector the issue of food security & price stability as well as strengthening of agricultural/allied industries
can be addressed to some extent.
The rural economy can be further strengthened with the help of road sector as better, efficient and safe road connectivity
promotes tourism related activities besides inspiring the people to empower themselves (promotes traditional
manufacturing). It may also help in balanced development of all districts and may help in developing a more vibrant &
participatory democracy.
Rarely the road sector is considered as savior to environment. However, this perception needs to be changed. Roads
can be game changer in environment preservation, conservation and protection efforts. With the help of road sector,
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014
EDITORIAL
more ecological friendly process, procedures, techniques & technology can be brought not only to reduce degradation
of the eco-system but to create a process of rehabilitation of eco-system that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed.
The road sector can help in changing the entire concept of waste management in the country for which a positive &
pragmatic approach as well as synergization of efforts from all stakeholders is required duly considering that road sector
has maximum possibilities of use of waste material, industrial by-products as well as municipal waste.
The positivities of the road infrastructure are many, which if adequately harnessed will not only revive the economy but
take the economy towards high growth rate. The dream of Sashakt Bharat can be achieved at an early date with the
help of robust road sector development programs.
To start with, there is a need to bridge the existing gap and to utilize the synergy under different government sponsored
programs like MNREGA (under M/o Rural Development), inter-connectivity of rivers/creating water bodies (under
M/o Water Resources) & Road Construction (under M/o Road Transport & Highways, M/o Rural Development, etc.). By
interlinking such type of programs, the optimization of resources and productivity can be achieved while simultaneously
the issue of availability of natural materials (sand/gravels, etc.), manpower availability, etc. will be addressed. Moreover,
by doing so more and more people may take pride in getting involved with these national assets creation program in the
shape of roads connectivity to all, inter connectivity of rivers water for all, etc. like noble programs.
The road sector in the current scenario requires strong and effective institutional approach which can be pro-active,
pro people and transparent. In todays scenario a paradigm shift is required towards road sector so as to revitalize and
rejuvenate this crucial infrastructure sector. The issues and hurdles which are being witnessed by this sector needs to be
addressed at an early date. The solutions are available, visible and within the reach but the same require change in the
mindset besides institutional restructuring/strengthening as well.
Considering the current state of affairs in the road sector, it may be little surprising to note that the Eco - financial
infrastructure for sustainable road infrastructure is not in place. The road sector projects are not only capital
intensive but are long duration big ticket projects. They require exclusive and dedicated institutional arrangements
catering to different aspects in terms of execution and operation as also in terms of resource mobilization including long
term low investment finance facilities. It may be little amusing to note that till date road projects of such category do not
have a support mechanism for finances over the project life cycle which results in reduced level of confidence among
different stakeholders and consequently implications on the other segments of the economy. Considering the prevailing
economic uncertainty at global level as well as local level the institutionalized mechanism for this sector is much more
needed now than before.
Current PPP model needs a revisit to make it people oriented with inclusive peoples participation. Moreover, the
diagnosis of problems suggests that time has come for the road sector financial support mechanism to consider some
innovative concepts which may allow benefits getting accrued in immediate/short terms:(a)
Making the cheaper funds available for road infrastructure considering it a priority sector of economic strategic
importance.
(b) Debt Bearing Capacity: To ensure quality of debt servicing by the entity.
(c)
Credit Rating of the road sector project executing organizations including Concessionaires, Contractors &
Consultants.
(d) Technical Audit of Financial & Administrative decisions

(e)
Life Cycle Cost of Facility
(f)
Black Spot Free Roads
(g) Rationalizing the toll framework based on the road user cost study and creating transparent toll collection system
by connecting every toll booth with NIC Server.
(h) Dedicated Freight Expressway Corridors (DEFC) for faster timely and safe freight movement (having flexibility
of road connectivity) to provide the robust supply chain mechanism.
EDITORIAL
(i)
Asset Management Strategy & System (AMSS) to overcome the potential dangers of falling into diffuse and
eventually disintegration of road assets on account of inadequate or poor or untimely maintenance (To avoid
consequential & colossal financial implication).
(j)
Capital investment to control inflation & boost investment climate.
These may induce the much needed confidence among investors while simultaneously protect the public interest.
The governance in the road sector is another area which needs immediate attention. The sooner it is addressed the
better it is for the economy. Along with this is the issue of conflict of interest and unwarranted thin spread of resources
while simultaneously choking the established institutional arrangements. The success with which the progress was
made or achieved in the first five years of 21st century can be re-achieved in a bigger way by Robust decentralized
system in conceiving and planning the road sector projects at national level in line with Indian federalism system and by
involving state PWDs in a bigger way in development and maintenance of national highways network. The institutions
and organizations should not go for undesired competition for taking up execution work while ignoring their areas of
core competence & strengths. It has resulted in compromised state of affairs in the area of policy, research and delivery
mechanism. This conflict of interest & activities have created big gap in the governance in the road sector due to which
the safety of the road users are compromised to that extent which had drawn attention of the Honble Supreme Court
of India (Recently constituted a committee on road safety under its supervision). In a broader terms if the issue of road
safety had been adequately addressed during the last few years, perhaps the India would not have seen such a situation in
economic front as the loss in terms of GDP is approximately 3% every year on account of the world highest road accident
death rate in our country. Therefore, road safety is another area which requires immediate attention from the new
government and when the new era has drawn, hope is quite high in this area also.
Another important area which may help in moving towards concept of Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat is the adoption
of multi model transport system which will help Indian economy to transform much faster into globally competitive
economy. This concept of multi model transport system is not a new concept. In fact the Delhi Metro and the Golden
Quadrilateral on Pan India basis having connectivities to ports, airports and railway stations were launched under this
concept but somehow over the years this concept got diluted and needs to be revived.
Another important issue is optimization of existing land resources. Usually, the roads are planned and designed through
the shortest possible routes and, therefore, any by-pass subsequent to it will result in longer travel distance. The way our
cities are expanding, new township are getting developed, satellite townships getting created, there is a need to re-look
the concept of by-passes which results into acquisition of fertile land as well as displacement of people. Considering the
fact that vehicle penetration ratio in our county is still not high, it may be more appropriate if expressways are constructed
along existing alignment on elevated structures which may results in optimized utilization of land resources.
Considering the situation as existing in the road sector, there is a need to have a robust skilled development programs
which unfortunately are not being practiced in the road sector the way it should have been. The institutional arrangements
needs a thorough revisit to harness optimally the human resources as available in the road sector.
A vibrant road sector may help in economy rebalancing which may include the issue of energy management, employment
generation, cultural integration, robust agricultural sector, inflation & CAD control, higher savings with lessor taxation,
etc. The current economic transition demands for a visionary approach in the road sector by harnessing its true
potential.
The more we come out and do good to others, the more our hearts will be purified, and GOD will be in them
His Holiness Swami Vivekanand Ji
Place : New Delhi

Dated : 20th May, 2014
Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General
IRC Fraternity WelcomesEDITORIAL

Honble Prime Minister of India
Shri Narendra Modi Ji
ANNOUNCEMENT
International Seminar
on
Road Safety for Inclusive and Sustainable Development Current Practice
and Perspective
on 24th & 25 th November, 2014 at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi
Organizers :

Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in association with

World Road Association (PIARC) &
Global Road Safety Facility (The World Bank)
Excellent opportunity to learn the best practices from renowned experts across the globe
All are benefitted from better Road Safety. All stakeholders are invited to attend the two days
International Seminar to become partner in road safety.
Who should attend : Central/State Government Ministries/Departments/Agencies, Public Sector
Undertakings, Autonomous Organizations, Law Enforcing Agencies/

Traffic Police, Research/Academic Institutions, Road Sector Project

executing agencies both from Government and Private Sector including

Concessionaires/Transporters/Cargo Movers/Fleet Operators, Automobile

Manufacturers, Devices Manufacturers, NGOs, Emergency Medical

Service Providers & Insurance Companies, etc.
Opportunity available for Advertisers and Display of Products (Exhibition) on first-cum-first
serve basis.
For further details and enquiry contact Shri S.K. Chadha, Under Secretary (I/c), IRC
(email: skcadmn@gmail.com) Tel. 011 2338 7140
Opportunity available for Sponsorship
For further details and enquiry contact Shri S.K. Chadha, Under Secretary (I/c), IRC
(email: skcadmn@gmail.com) Tel. 011 2338 7140
Opportunity available for Registration
For further details and enquiry contact Shri D. Sam Singh, Under Secretary, IRC
(email: samsingh@irc.org.in) Tel. 011 2618 5273
For submitting Technical Papers (Words limit 3000 only)
For further details and enquiry contact Shri R.V. Patil, Asst. Director (Technical), IRC
(email: rahulpatil@irc.org.in) Tel. 011 2671 6778
For further details and enquiry for getting associated with the International Seminar, please contact
Shri D. Sam Singh, Under Secretary, IRC & Shri S.K. Chadha, Under Secretary (I/c), IRC
____________
IRC Fraternity Welcomes Honble Minister of

Road Transport & Highways and Shipping
Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji
NEW IRC PUBLICATIONS RELEASED DURING 2013 & 2014

1.
IRC:37-2012 Tentative Guidelines for Design of Flexible Pavement (Second Revision) (Price Rs.600/+ Rs.40/- for postage & packing charges)
2. IRC:107-2013 Specifications for Bitumen Mastic Wearing Courses (First Revision) (Price Rs.200/- +
Rs.30/- for postage & packing charges)
3. IRC:113-2013 Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Geosynthetic Reinforced Embankment
on Soft Subsoils (Price Rs.700/- + Rs.30/- for postage & packing charges)
4. IRC:114-2013 Guidelines for use of Silica Fume in Rigid Pavements (Price Rs.200/- + Rs.30 for
postage & packing charges
5. IRC:SP:46-2013 Guidelines for Design and Construction of Fibre Reinforced Concrete Pavements
(Price Rs.300/- + Rs.30/- postage & packing charges)
6. IRC:SP:50-2013 Guidelines on Urban Drainage (Price Rs.1000/- + Rs.40/- for postage & packing
charges)
7. IRC:SP:87-2013 Manual of Specifications & Standards for Six Laning of Highways through Public
Private Partnership (First Revision) (Price Rs.1000/- + Rs.40/- for postage & packing charges)
8. IRC:SP:97-2013 Guidelines on Compaction Equipment for Road Works (Price Rs.700/- + Rs.30/- for
postage & packing charges)
9. IRC:SP:98-2013 Guidelines for the use of Waste Plastic in Hot Bituminous Mixes (Dry Process) in
Wearing Courses (Price Rs.300/- + Rs.30/- postage & packing charges)
10. IRC:SP:99-2013 Manual of Specifications and Standards for Expressways (Price Rs.1200/- + Rs.40/for postage & packing charges)
11. MORT&H Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, 2013 (Fifth Revision) (Prices Rs.3000/- + Rs.70/for postage & packing charges)
12. IRC:6-2014 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section-II Loads and
Stresses (Revised Edition) (Price Rs. 700/- + Rs.40/- for postage & package charges)
13. IRC:78-2014 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section VII- Foundations
and Substructures (Revised Edition (Price Rs.700/- + Rs.40/- for postage and packing charges)
14. IRC:115-2014 Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements
Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Technique (Price Rs.300/- + Rs.30/- for postage & packing
charges)
15. IRC:SP:55-2014 Guidelines on Traffic Management in Work Zones (First Revision) (Price Rs.900/+ Rs.40/- for postage & packing charges)
16. IRC:SP:62-2014 Guidelines for Design and Construction of Cement Concrete Pavements for Low
Volume Roads (First Revision) Price Rs.600/- + Rs.30/- for postage & packing charges)
17. IRC:SP:100-2014 Use of Cold Mix Technology in Construction and Maintenance of Roads Using
Bitumen Emulsion (Price Rs.900/- + Rs.40/- for postage & packing charges)
18. HRB SR No.23-2014 State-of-the-Art Report: Design and Construction of Rockfall Mitigation Systems
(Price Rs.900/- + Rs.40/- for postage & packing charges)
19. MORD Specifications for Rural Roads (First Revision) (Price Rs.2100/- + Rs.70/- for postage & packing
charges)
All above Publication can be purchased by making online payment on IRC website http://www.irc.org.in.
Copies can also be had from the office of the Indian Roads Congress on payment in advance through Demand
Draft drawn in favour of the Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress payable at par a New Delhi. For
enquiries please call 011 2338 6274.
8
IRC Fraternity Welcomes Honble Minister of State for

Road Transport & Highways and Shipping
Shri Krishan Pal Ji
Advertisement Tariff
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS, NEW DELHI
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10 per cent Agency commission will be allowed to Advertising Agents only on the advertisements received through them.
10 per cent discount will be allowed to advertisers if space is booked for all the 12 issues of Indian Highways or 4 issue of
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress.
No discount will be allowed for advertisements received directly for less than 12 issues in the case of Indian Highways and
4 issues in case of Journal of the Indian Roads Congress.
Only one voucher copy of the issue will be supplied free to an Advertiser for each advertisement. A copy of the printed
advertisement will be supplied to Agents.
All payments are to be made in advance. This is applicable to advertising agents also. Demand Drafts/Cheques may be drawn
in favour of the Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
Indian Highways is printed one month in advance as such all materials received by the 18th of the preceding month would be
included in the issue to which it pertains.
Release orders may be sent to:

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Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi 110 022
Tel: +91 11 2618 5315,19/Extn. 203, 2618 5273
E-mail: indianhighways@irc.org.in
10
THREE DIMENSIONAL NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT

MODELING OF CONVENTIONAL WHITETOPPING OF
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
D.R. Jundhare*, K.C. Khare** and R.K. Jain***
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a three dimensional (3D) Finite Element (FE)
Model has been developed for the structural analysis of
unbonded conventional whitetopping. In this 3D Finite Element
modeling, conventional whitetopping of 320 mm thick overlay on
150 mm thick Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavement resting on a
well compacted subgrade, has been developed. This is the case
study of 4 years in- service arterial road of Mumbai-Pune (NH4) in
Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation area. Axle loading has
been applied on the whitetopping and nonlinear static analysis has
been carried out using the ANSYS (Analysis System) software.
The maximum stresses due to the wheel loading and temperature
differential along with deflections at three critical positions in
plain cement concrete overlay, i.e. at interior, corner and edge
have been obtained with this model. The maximum stresses and
deflections obtained from this model have been compared with
the theoretical values obtained from closed form formulae given
by Ioannides et al., Bradbury, Kelly, Pickett and ALIZE Model.
Also Load Transfer Efficiency (LTE) obtained from this model
has been compared with Davids (2000) model and LTE obtained
from the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) test conducted in
the field.
INTRODUCTION
Roads are the backbone for social, economic,

industrial and cultural development of a country. Road
infrastructure plays a major role in the economic growth
of a developing country like India and every year a lions
share of budget is allocated for the transport sector. A
major portion of Indian road network includes Rural
Roads, Major District Roads (MDR), State Highways
(SH) and National Highways (NH). India has a road
network of 4689842 kilometers (2914133 mi) in year
2013, the second largest road network in the world
(Source: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
Govt. of India) Traditionally, most of road pavements
in India have been designed and constructed as Hot
Mix Asphalt (HMA) due to their low initial cost. But,
the deterioration of HMA pavements arises owing to
deformation under traffic loading generally associated
with heavy commercial vehicles. This is particularly

evident at urban intersections where rutting, fatigue
and shoving are often observed. Similar problems
are also encountered in exit/access ramps, busy
intersections, parking areas and bus stops, which
are prone to slow moving traffic and highways. This
leads to the deterioration of the surface of the asphalt
pavements and a need to rehabilitate them before
further damage may occur. Since the use of a concrete
overlay, called as white topping, is a relatively new
concept in pavement rehabilitation in India, there is a
need for its analysis and performance evaluation. For
analysis and performance evaluation of whitetopping,
it is necessary to model pavement system using 3D
Finite Element Method and validate it with available
solutions and field test such as Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD).
Whitetopping is a rehabilitation or structural
strengthening alternative on bituminous pavement. It is
defined as a Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) overlay
constructed on the top of an existing bituminous
pavement. Unbonded PCC overlays, often called as
classical or conventional whitetopping. For making
unbonded the separation membrane commonly used
in India is an impermeable polythene/plastic sheet
of 125 m thickness (IRC:58-2008). This separation
membrane has been placed between Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) and concrete slab (overlay slab) in the field.
Conventional white topping consists of a PCC
overlay of thickness 200 mm or more. It is designed
and constructed like a new rigid pavement without
assuming any bond between the concrete overlay
and existing bituminous layer (Cole 1997). Studies
on conventional whitetopping proved that, this is a
rehabilitation alternative for asphalt maintenance and
Executive Engineer, Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation, Pimpri, Pune, E-mail : d.jundhare@pcmcindia.gov.in
**

Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Vadgaon (Bk.), Pune,
E-mail : khare.kanchan@gmail.com
*** Professor, Pad. Dr. D.Y. Patil Institute of Engineering and Technology, Pimpri, E-mail : jainrb20@gmail.com
11
TECHNICAL PAPERS
repair due to its better performance and durability
(McGhee 1994). There is need for development
of 3D finite element model for conventional white
topping overlays because the closed form analytical
solutions (Westergaard, Bradbury, Ioannides et al.,
Kelly, Pickett) resulted in the overestimation of
the deflections and stresses. As these theories have
number of assumptions such as infinite slab size and
representation of homogenous base (Winkler System)
by a set of springs. In this paper, 3D FE modeling has
been carried out at interior, corner and edge of the slab
to obtain deflections and stresses of 320 mm thick
unbonded conventional white topping overlays laid
on existing 150 mm thick HMA in Pimpri Chinchwad,
twin city of Pune, Maharashtra State, India. This
three dimensional (3D) finite element model has
several unique features for calculating deflections
and stresses and helps to overcome many limitations
embedded in the available two-dimensional (2D)
analysis programs such as ISLAB2000 (Khazanovich
et al. 2000), J-SLAB (Tayabji and Colley 1986), and
FEACONS-IV (Choubane and Tia 1995). The main
objective of this paper is modeling and analysis of the
structural behavior of unbonded conventional white
topping. Wheel loading and temperature gradient
have been studied on the whitetopping and nonlinear
static analysis has been carried out using ANSYS
(version 10) software. The ANSYS software is a
general purpose finite element program that has been
widely used to solve complex engineering problems.
The stresses and deflections obtained from this model
have been compared with the theoretical values
obtained from equations given by Ioannides et al.
(1948), Bradbury (1938), Kelly (1939), Pickett (1946)
and ALIZE Mode (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1989) and
EVERFE by Davids (2000). LTE values of authors
model have been compared with 3D FE model by
Davids (2000), FWD test and with computed values
of LTE obtained from an equation referred in book by
Papagiannakis and Masad (2007).
2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
From the available literature it has been found that

several two dimensional and three dimensional
12
Finite Element (FE) models have been developed

by the researchers to analyze the pavement system.
Various finite element models have been developed
for analysing the behaviour of concrete pavement
systems. For these analysis, computer programs
were developed by using the finite element method
such as ILLI-SLAB (Tabatabaie and Barenberg
1980), WESLIQID (Chou 1981), J-SLAB (Tayabji
and Colley 1986), FEACONS-IV (Choubane and
Tia 1995), KENSLAB (Haung 1993), KOLA (Kok
1990), EVERFE (Davids, Turkiyyah and Mahoney
1998), ISLAB2000 (Khazanovich et al. 2000) and
WESLAYER (Huang 2004). The main advantage of
these approaches is the evaluation of the critical load
transfer phenomena and the stress distributions in
the rigid pavements. Moreover, Channakeshava et al.
(1993), Masad et al. (1996) and William and Shoukry
(2001) employed the finite element methods in order
to analyze the behavior of concrete pavements. Using
ABAQUS software, Zaghloul et al. (1994), Uddin et
al. (1997) and Darter et al. (2001) developed models
for the study of rigid pavements and its foundation.
Davids (2000) studied the effect of dowel looseness on
the structural response of jointed concrete pavements.
The study employed 3D finite element models
developed with EVERFE. A team of investigator
from Tokyo, Japan developed a 3D finite element
model that takes into account the viscoelastic
behaviour of asphalt and the interaction between
the concrete overlay and asphalt base (Nishizawa,
Murata and Kokubun 2003). Kumara et al. utilized 20
node solid elements to model ultra thin whitetopping
pavement layers in their Florida study (2003), whereas
Wu et al. (1998) and Nishizawa et al. utilized the
computationally economical eight node solid element.
From this literature review it can be concluded that
the modeling of nonlinear static analysis of unbonded
white topping using 3D FE model can help to the
researchers in better understand the structural
behavior of plain cement concrete overlay along with
its supporting layers of HMA and subgrade.
This study shows the significant effects of the various
pavement material properties and design parameters
TECHNICAL PAPERS
on the behavior and performance of whitetopping.
Davids (2000) developed 3 D Finite Element package
such as EVERFE for slabs and base with 20- nodded
quadratic hexahedra elements. Cement concrete
joints are usually sawed between 4 to 12 hours after
placement (Okamoto et al. 1994). The depth of saw
cut for standard joint saws should be between onefourth to one-third of the thickness of the slab (Webb
and Delatte 2000). In conventional whitetopping, a
minimum saw cut depth of onethird of PCC overlay
thickness is recommended (ACPA 1998, Sabrina
Garber et al. 2011). Where possible, the depth should
be at least one-third of the thickness. But Davids
(2000) developed geometrical model of full depth
saw cut of slab as shown in Fig. 1, which resulted
the similar deflection shape of both the slab as shown
in Fig. 2. In rigid pavements or conventional white
topping dowel bars are placed at mid depth of the slab.
Therefore saw cut of full depth of slab is not possible,
only it is assumed that crack is going to propagate to

the full depth below the saw cut. To overcome this,
depth of saw cut has been kept one-third of the slab
thickness as shown in Fig. 3 to simulate actual field
conditions in the proposed geometrical model. It
shows saw cut upto one-third depth of overlay slab
and below saw cut propagated cracks have been
shown. This can be applicable for multiple slabs. The
details of transverse joint have been shown in Fig. 4.
Also, in most of the earlier models second order i.e.
higher order (quadratic) elements have been used for
modeling pavement, which consumed more time in
analysis and need fast computing facility to analyzes
the composite and complex model consist spring and
contact elements. Use of first order elements in this
proposed model can save computing time by keeping
reasonable accuracy and analysis of such complex
problems can be done even by using normally available
computing tools.
Fig. 1 Model of Two Adjacent Slabs of Rigid Pavement
Fig. 2 Displaced Shape of Top Slab for Wheel Loading

(Davids, 2000)
Fig. 3 Model of Three Whitetopping Overlay Slabs with Saw Cut of 1/3 Depth of Overlay Slab (Authors)
13
TECHNICAL PAPERS
BEAM 4 elements. These elements have six degree of
freedom per node translations in the nodal x, y and z
directions and rotations about the nodal x, y and z axes.
They are placed at the mid depth of the slabs across the
transverse joint. The interface between the concrete
slab and HMA pavement is represented by contact
element namely TARGE 170 and CONTAC174.
Contacts between two surfaces are modeled in
ANSYS by utilizing the surface to surface contact
element TARGE 170 and CONTAC174 to simulate
unbounded condition. Each of these Contact Pairs
is capable of representing contact and sliding between
two 3D surfaces, with the target element (TARGE
170) defining the stiffer surface and contact element
(CONTAC174) defining the deformable surface.
4
Fig. 4 Cross Section of the Transverse Joint
FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
In the present study, a three dimensional finite element

model for unbonded conventional whitetopping
has been developed. For this, the structural analysis
package ANSYS (ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg,
Pa.) (Version 10) has been used. 3D brick elements
SOLID45, having 8 nodes with three degrees of
freedom per node-translations in the nodal x, y and z
directions, are used to model the concrete slab as well
as the HMA. The sub-grade is modeled as Winkler
foundation that consists of a bed of closely spaced,
independent, spring elements. Each spring deforms
in response to the vertical load applied directly to
that spring, and is independent of any shear force
transmitted from adjacent areas in the foundation.
Spring elements namely COMBIN14 are used to
represent the Winkler foundation which has three
degrees of freedom at each node-translations in the
nodal x, y, and z directions. The effective normal
stiffness of the element is obtained by multiplying
the modulus of subgrade reaction with the influencing
area of that element. In jointed plain cement concrete
overlay, dowel bars connect the adjacent slab to
transfer the loads to the adjoin slab.
The load is transferred through the dowel bars to the
adjacent slab primarily by shear. In this modeling,
dowel bars are modeled as 3D beam element with
14
PARAMETRIC STUDY
The sizes of concrete slabs are 4500 mm X 3650 mm

with 320 mm in thickness shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
All the design details of conventional whitetopping
have been given in the paper published by Jundhare
et al. in Journal of Indian Road congress, Volume
69(1), 2008. The concrete properties are: Modulus
of elasticity, E = 5000 f ck = 31625 MPa (Formula
as per IS:456-2000, and fck = 40), Poissons ratio,
= 0.15, density = 24 kN/m3 and Co-efficient
of thermal expansion, = 1.0 X 10-5 per C
(IRC:58-2002). The asphalt treated base (HMA) is
150 mm thick and has similar dimensions as those of
the plain cement concrete overlay slab. The properties
of the HMA pavement base are: Modulus of elasticity,
E = 800 MPa (as per IRC:37-2001, for BC and DBM
80/100 bitumen for a temperature of 40C), = 0.30.
The subgrade properties are: Modulus of elasticity,
E = 200 MPa, = 0.35. It is assumed that, the cement
concrete overlay slabs are founded on a dense liquid
foundation. The modulus of subgrade reaction of
HMA, k = 0.12 MPa /mm (obtained from Benkelman
Beam Deflection in the field). Benkelman Beam
Deflection test was carried out as per the guidelines
given by IRC:81-1997 (Indian Road Congress, 1997)
to obtain the value of modulus of subgrade reaction
(k value). In this test the deflection measurements were
taken at a distance of 1.5 m from the pavement edge at
50 m interval, in staggered manner in both directions.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The pavement temperature was measured after every
one hour interval during the deflection measurements
using a digital thermometer.
Fig. 5 Three Slab Model used for Whitetopping Overlay
Fig. 6 Pavement Configuration for Model Development
The characteristic deflection has been calculated for

finding modulus of subgrade reaction. The deflection
data was analyzed and characteristic deflection
calculated after incorporating necessary corrections
for temperature and seasonal variations. All the
values were averaged out to get mean deflection and
standard deviation was calculated. The characteristic
rebound deflection was worked out as per guidelines
given in IRC:81-1997. The deflection of existing
asphalt pavement has been obtained as 0.07 mm and
then the modulus of subgrade reaction is determined
by referring the graph shown in of Fig. 8. This graph
showing relation between k value and Benkelman
Beam Deflection on top of HMA has been given in
IRC:SP:76-2008 and same has been used for determine
k value.
Pavement configuration for model development has

been shown in Fig. 6. Single axle load (dual tyres)
P = 100 kN, h = 320 mm and two cases of modulus
of subgrade reaction of HMA k = 0.12 MPa /mm and
k = 0.15 MPa /mm have been considered to simulate
the Indian traffic conditions in terms of legal axle
loading as this differs from country to country. In
mechanistic method of design, it is necessary to know
the contact area between tyre and pavement, so axle
load can be assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the contact area. The real contact surface
and equivalent contact surface has been shown in
Fig. 7 and Figs. 9, 10, and 11 revealed the finite
element mesh of the whitetopping with asphalt
treated base supported on Winkler foundation. Fig. 12
revealed dowel bars of 32 mm diameter and 500 mm
long having spacing 300 mm at mid depth of slab have
been placed and saw cut depth of onethird of PCC
overlay thickness at each transverse joint.
Fig. 7 Real Contact Surface and Equivalent Contact Surface of Tyre
Fig. 8 Relation between BBD and k Value on Top of HMA

Source: Corporation of Engineers/PCA, USA and Canadian
Good Road Association, IRC:SP:76-2008
15
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 9 Magnified Image of Finite Element Meshing of

Whitetopping with Wheel Load at Corner
Fig. 10 Magnified Image of FE Mesh of Pavement System and

Sets of springs at BottomSubgrade
as rectangular in shape and an equivalent area is

calculated and loading it to by a constant pressure of
0.80 MPa. Fig. 7 shows real contact surface of tyre and
an equivalent contact surface. The analysis has been
carried out for unbonded condition, with 125 micron
thick polythene sheet between HMA and plain cement
concrete overlay slab with coefficient of friction is
equal to 2. The separation membrane commonly used
in India is an impermeable polythene/plastic sheet of
125 micron thickness (IRC:58-2002) can lead to the
formation of smooth interface. Sometimes a layer of
hot-mix asphalt is also provided as a separation layer
between the HMA and plain cement concrete overlay
slab. Without the separation membrane, the two
surfaces can be considered as rough interface or fully
bonded. Three critical loading locations i.e. at interior,
corner and edge are considered in the present study.
Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 show the deformed
shapes of three jointed plain concrete overlay slabs
and Table 1 gives the results of 3D FE model. This
finite element model of conventional whitetopping
consists of 1, 49, 942 elements and 1, 70, 771 nodes.
Layer wise analysis by FE model shows that on the
edge of cement concrete overlay maximum stress is
0.832MPa, whereas at same location in HMA stress
induced is 0.0826MPa and maximum deflection is
0.1156 mm and for other loading positions as shown
in Table 1.
Fig. 11 Model of Three Slabs of Whitetopping on Winkler

Foundation with Wheel Load at the Corner of Middle Slab
Fig. 13 Stress (MPa) in Overlay Slab, Wheel Load at Interior

Fig. 12 Dowel Bars at Transverse Joint with Meshing
The properties of steel dowel bars are, E = 200000

MPa, = 0.30 and Modulus of dowel support (K)
has a value of 450 MPa/mm. Material properties
of the pavement material are assumed as linear and
elastic. Although the actual pressure distribution at
the contact area between the tyre and the pavement
is non-uniform, but it was assumed uniform in this
model. Tyre-pavement contact area is simulated
16
Fig. 14 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab, Wheel at Interior
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 15 Stress (MPa) in Overlay Slab, Wheel Load at Corner
Fig. 17 Stress (MPa) s in Overlay Slab, Wheel Load at Edge
Fig. 16 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab, Wheel Load at Corner
Fig. 18 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab, Wheel Load at Edge
Table 1 Stresses and Deflections for Three Loading Cases by 3D Modeling for the Both Layers
(For k = 0.12 MPa/mm and h = 320 mm, Wheel Load = 50 kN)
Loading
Position
Interior loading
Corner loading
Edge loading
5
Cement Concrete Overlay Slab

Maximum Stress, Deflection, (mm)
( MPa)
0.764
0.056
0.785
0.085
0.832
0.129
VALIDATION OF 3D FINITE ELEMENT

MODEL WITH AVAILABLE SOLUTIONS
In order to validate the 3D Finite Element model, LTE

values of this model have been compared with 3D FE
model by Davids (2000), FWD test and with computed
values of LTE obtained from an equation referred in
book by Papagiannakis and Masad, (2007). Theoretical
results of the stresses and deflections obtained from
Westergaards (1926, 1948) modified equations given
by Ioannides et al., Bradbury, Kelly, Pickett and
ALIZE Model (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1989) also
considered for validation of three dimensional finite
element model.
5.1
Hot Mix Asphalt Layer

Maximum Stress,
Deflection, (mm)
( MPa)
0.01545
0.0447
0.0468
0.1115
0.0826
0.1156
Validation of 3D Finite Element Model by
Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Test
Impact deflection testing by FWD for pavement

nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is widely used
testing devices among many nondestructive testing
technologies available for pavement condition
evaluation (Hudson et al. 1987, Uddin 1986). The
FWD device applies an impact load on a steel loading
plate and measures peak deflections on the pavement
surface using seismic velocity transducers at the center
and at the several locations away from the loading
plate as shown in Figs. 19 and 20.
17
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of a joint is generally expressed in terms of its ability
to transfer load from one side of the joint/crack to the
other side and is termed as LTE. LTE is expressed
as a percentage of the unloaded slab deflection to
the loaded slab deflection. The equation 1 is most
commonly used for calculating LTE (Papagiannakis
and Masad, 2007).

LTE =
ul
100
l
... (1)
Where,
Fig. 19 Use of FWD on Whitetopping under Study
ul = the surface vertical deflection at the unloaded

edges of the joint of approach slab
l = the surface vertical deflection at the loaded
edges of the joint of leave slab
LTE from dowel action is computed on the basis of
the load transfer stiffness variable Jd.
Initially it is given by, Jd =
120d 2
h
Where,
Fig. 20 Schematic of FWD Deflection Sensors
Use of FWD for evaluation of pavements is gaining

popularity in many countries, as it is possible to
simulate the magnitude and duration of load applied
by a fast moving vehicle on highways using this
equipment. In order to determine the applicability
of utilizing the finite element method to analyze the
unbonded conventional whitetopping, non-destructive
field testing of pavement using FWD was performed
on 14 locations in June 2008 on existing conventional
whitetopping under study. In this study, Dynatest 8000
FWD model with 150 mm diameter load plate and
nine displacement measuring sensors, was used which
is trailer mounted and have the capability to apply
load of 50 kN and 100 kN. For details of the testing
procedure, construction report (Cable et al. 2003) is
referred. One transducer is located at the center of
the load plate and remaining transducers are placed
at varying intervals from the plate. Fig. 20 shows
schematic showing the arrangement of the sensors of
FWD test equipment used in this study. The results
obtained by this test are given in Table 2 and 3 along
with Load Transfer efficiency (LTE). The efficiency
18
Jd = load transfer stiffness variable,

h =
slab thickness (inch), d= dowel diameter

(inch).
Finally, the LTE due to dowel action, LTEdowel is

computed using equation 2.

LTEdowel =
100
1 + 1.2 J d 0.849
... (2)
In the subsequent months, load transfer stiffness

variable is computed considering the cumulative
damage of the Portland concrete supporting the
dowels.
The results of authors model have been compared
with the results of EVERFE by Davids W. G. (2000).
Davids (2000) model gives the stresses at the edge
ranging from 0.667 MPa to 1.037 MPa whereas in
authors model it is 0.832 MPa. Also Load Transfer
Efficiency in Davids W. G. (2000) model is 89.2%
(for a gap of 0.02 mm) and in the authors model it is
99%. LTE from FWD test it is ranging from 80.47%
to 96.46% when the load is applied at edge of overlay
slab and 83.58% to 87.04% when the load is applied
at corner of overlay slab as shown in Table 2 and 3.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Also if calculated using equations referred in book by
Papagiannakis and Masad, (2007), it is 89.13%. This
shows the reasonable agreement among LTE values
of 3 D FE model by Davids, authors model and FWD
field test.
LTE ranges from 0% for no vertical load transfer to

100% for perfect load transfer between adjacent slabs.
LTE values above 70%, between 50% - 70% and below
50% characterize load transfer as good, fair and poor
respectively (Papagiannakis and Masad, 2007).
Table 2 FWD Test Stresses and Deflections Data at Edge of Overlay Slab Along with LTE
Sr. No.
Deflection in mm at Distance in mm from Load Point
Stress
In MPa
(Series)
-200
-300
450
600
900
1200
1500
Test Load
(kN)
LTE
%
1800
0.814
0.1223
0.1004 0.0902 0.0857
0.0778
0.0652
0.0585 0.0414 0.0392
51.53
89.84
0.912
0.1214
0.1002 0.0921 0.0899
0.0781
0.0609
0.0552 0.0463 0.0384
54.46
91.91
0.757
0.1229
0.1018 0.0982 0.0878
0.0794
0.0696
0.0518 0.0475 0.0368
50.51
96.46
0.811
0.1187
0.1004 0.0808 0.0715
0.0701
0.0622
0.0566 0.0450 0.0343
51.32
80.47
0.821
0.1115
0.0934 0.0827 0.0728
0.0690
0.0628
0.0586 0.0399 0.0294
53.02
88.54
0.798
0.1195
0.0995 0.0875 0.0724
0.0699
0.0655
0.0546 0.0399 0.0293
51.40
87.93
0.785
0.1183
0.0981 0.0851 0.0786
0.0695
0.0599
0.0502 0.0384 0.0297
51.48
86.74
Table 3 FWD Test Stresses and Deflections Data at Corner of Overlay Slab
Sr. No.
(Series)
5.2
Deflection in mm at Distance in mm from Load Point
Stress
In MPa
0
-200
-300
450
600
900
1200
1500
Test Load LTE

(kN)
%
1800
0.749
0.0861 0.0792
0.0674 0.0611
0.0595
0.0541
0.0485 0.0373 0.0287
52.93
85.10
0.761
0.0879 0.0710
0.0689 0.0605
0.0593
0.0548
0.0459 0.0350 0.0341
53.78
97.04
0.725
0.0893 0.0796
0.0686 0.0615
0.0570
0.0588
0.0455 0.0346 0.0365
51.24
86.18
0.781
0.0896 0.0761
0.0699 0.0581
0.0551
0.0544
0.0438 0.0333 0.0294
51.20
91.85
0.773
0.0791 0.0699
0.0649 0.0615
0.0557
0.0521
0.0405 0.0378 0.0295
54.63
92.84
0.812
0.0872 0.0798
0.0667 0.0619
0.0569
0.0498
0.0398 0.0391 0.0273
51.39
83.58
0.742
0.0832 0.0794
0.0698 0.0616
0.0561
0.0502
0.0399 0.0298 0.0236
52.44
87.90
Validation of 3D Finite Element Model Using

Closed Form Formulae Response to Wheel
Loading
Westergaards (1926) modified equations by Ioannides,

Bradbury, Kelly, Pickett and ALIZE model are used
to verify the finite element model. In 2D Modeling
Westergaards (1926 and 1948) equations are used for
the calculation of the stresses in the single slab of rigid
pavements (Zdiri et al. 2009). Westergaards equations
are applicable for single slab only, hence not used in
this study. The equations given by Ioannides et al.
(1985), Bradbury (1938), Kelly (1939), Pickett (1946)
and ALIZE method (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1949) are
utilized in present study for calculation of maximum
bending stresses and maximum slab deflection in

unbonded conventional whitetopping. Table 4 shows
the values of different parameters for input to be used
in equations. Stresses and deflection values obtained
from these equations are given in Tables 5 and 6.
5.2.1 Interior Loading
For the interior wheel loading case, modified
equations given by Ioannides et al.(1985), are adopted
to determine the maximum stress and maximum
deflection in cement concrete overlay slab under
circular load of radius a, which is represented by the
equation 3 and 4 respectively (Huang 1993, 2004).
The results are summarized in Table 5.
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
=
2
3P (1 + ) 2l
3P (1 + ) a
+
+
In
0
.
5

... (3)

2
2
64h
2h a
l
P
=
8kl 2
2
a
1 a
In
.
+
1
0
673
l

2 2l
poisons ratio for concrete.
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete (N/mm2)

=
load stress (MPa)
= deflection in pavement (mm)
... (4)
I =
Where,
radius of relative stiffness (mm)

Eh3
l =
h =
plain cement concrete overlay thickness (mm)
k =
modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/mm)
b =
radius of equivalent distribution of pressure
a =
tyre pressure (as per IRC:58-2002, q = 0.8

MPa)
P =
design wheel load = half of the single axle load

(kN)
radius of load contact areas, assumed circular

(mm)
0.5

P
a = 0.8521 P + S

q 0.5227 q
Where,
S = c/c distance of two tyres in dual wheel assembly

(As per IRC:58-2002, S=310 mm)
q =
12 (1+ 2 )k
b =
a, for a/h > 1.724
b =
(1.6a2 + h2)0.5 0.675 h
0.5
Table 4 Values of Different Parameters for Input to be used in Equations

Description/
Parameters
k = 12
k = 15
h = 260
h = 280
h = 300
h = 320
h = 260
h = 280
h = 300
h = 320
226.05
226.05
226.05
226.05
226.05
226.05
226.05
226.05
210.97
211.20
211.94
213.14
210.97
211.20
211.94
213.14
792.72
838.02
882.50
926.30
749.70
792.55
834.64
876.04
5.2.2 Edge Loading

The equations 5 and 6 given by Ioannides et al. (1985)
are used for calculating the maximum stresses and
deflections produced by wheel load applied to the
edges of a slab. The maximum tensile stress at bottom
fiber of the slab edge is calculated by the model
ALIZE (Jeuffroy and Sauterey, 1989, Zdiri et al.
2009) through the equation 7. The results are given
in Table 5.
0.803P
a
l
4 log a + 0.66 l 0.034 ... (5)
2
h

0.431P
a
1 0.82 l
2
kl

...(6)
0.572 P
l
4 log10 b + 0.359
2
h

... (7)
Table 5 Results of the Stresses and Deflections for Interior and Edge Loading
Interior Loading
Edge Loading
Ioannides et al. (1985)
k = 12
Ioannides et al. (1985)
k = 15
k = 12
ALIZE Model (1989)
k = 15
k = 12
k = 15
260
0.763
0.083
0.741
0.075
1.143
0.219
1.096
0.192
1.125
1.084
280
0.677
0.075
0.658
0.067
1.004
0.199
0.964
0.175
1.004
0.969
300
0.606
0.067
0.589
0.060
0.885
0.182
0.851
0.160
0.902
0.871
320
0.545
0.061
0.530
0.055
0.782
0.167
0.753
0.148
0.813
0.786
20
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Where c can be taken, c = 1.772 a
5.2.3 Corner Loading

For the wheel loading in the corner, the equations 8
and 9, suggested by Ioannides et al. in 1985
(Huang 2004), equation 10 given by Bradbury (1938),
equation 11 given by Kelly (1939), equation 12 given
by Pickett (1946) are used. The results are summarized
in Table 6 for k = 0.12 MPa/mm and k = 0.15
MPa/mm.
0.72
3P c
... (8)

= 2 1
h l
P
= 2
kl
c
1.205 0.69 l

0.6
3P a
= 2 1
h l
3P a 2
= 2 1
l
h
0.5

4.2 P
l
1
=

2
a
h
0.925 + 0.22
... (10)
1.2
... (9)
... (11)
... (12)
Table 6 Results of the Stresses and Deflections for the Corner Loading
Sr. No.
Description
k = 0.12
Cement Concrete Slab thickness = h (mm)
k = 0.15
260
280
300
320
260
280
300
320
Ioannides et. al. (1985) Stresses (MPa)
0.862
0.788
0.723
0.663
0.806
0.743 0.684 0.631
Ioannides et. al. (1985) Dflections (mm)
0.568
0.519
0.477
0.440
0.496
0.450 0.418 0.386
Bradbury (1938), Stresses (MPa)
1.174
1.042
0.931
0.836
1.138
1.012 0.906 0.815
Kelly (1939), Stresses (MPa)
1.194
1.075
0.971
0.881
1.139
1.030 0.934 0.850
Pickett (1946), Stresses (MPa)
1.427
1.265
1.130
1.016
1.386
1.230 1.100 0.990
5.3
Temperature Stresses
IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2008) for computation of

temperature warping stresses use Bradburys equation
13, 14 and 15 which are based on assumptions such
as (a ) Linear temperature variation through the depth
of slab (b ) slab resting on Winkler foundation. As
per IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2002) for computation
of temperature warping stresses Bradburys equations
have been used. Total of temperature warping stress
and highest axle load stress is compared with flexural
strength for finalizing pavement thickness. For Indian
temperature and moisture conditions, a value of
equivalent temperature gradient of 0.032C/mm depth
of slab can be adopted for pavement design (Kumar
et al., 2006, Maitra et al., 2009). Therefore, in this study
for developing 3D FE model temperature stresses in
overlay slab have been obtained by considering 0C

temperature at top and 10C temperature at bottom of
overlay slab as a linear variation.
Bradbury (1938) developed a solution for temperature
warping stresses in concrete pavement slab with finite
length and width based on Westergaards modified
results. The same equations are used for calculating
the temperature warping stresses in cement concrete
overlay slab and results are tabulated in Table 7
and comparison have been carried out in this study
using proposed 3D FEM model. Fig. 21 shows the
geometrical model for the temperature warping
stresses in overlay slab (0C temperature at top and
10C temperature at bottom of overlay slab) and
Fig. 22 shows the deformed shape of cement concrete
overlay slabs.
Table 7 Comparison of Temperature Curling Stresses at Different Critical Regions of Concrete Slab
Methods
Interior Region (MPa)
Corner Region (MPa)
Edge Region (MPa)
Bradburys equations
2.489
0.042
1.397
3D FEM modeling
0.047
0.0025
0.044
% variation
98.11%
99.40%
98.85%
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Where,
=
temperature curling stress, N/mm2
E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa

= Coefficient of thermal expansion of cement
concrete, per C
t = Maximum temperature differential during day
between top and bottom of slab, C.
(Taking case of Pune City, Maharashtra State,
India = 21C, IRC:58-2002 Table 1)
Fig. 21 Geometrical Model for Temperature Stresses in
Overlay Slab
Cx = Bradburys coefficient, which is based on Lx/l

in desired direction
Cy = Bradburys coefficient, which is based on Ly/l
in desired direction
Lx and Ly are the dimensions of the slab considering
along X and Y directions along the length and width
of slab. Temperature curling stresses develop in
concrete pavements depending upon the temperature
differentials between the top and bottom of a slab.
Fig. 22 Temperature Warping Stresses in Overlay Slab
The maximum temperature warping stresses at the

interior of the slab are given by:

int erior =
E t C x + C y

2 1 2
.. (13)
The maximum temperature warping stresses at the

corner region are given by:

corner =
E t a

3 (1 ) l
... (14)
The temperature stresses in the corner region is

negligible, as the corners are relatively free to warp
and therefore, sometimes may be ignored by some
researchers.
The maximum temperature curling stresses at the edge
region are given by:

22
E t
C x or
2
E t
C y (whichever is higher)... (15)
edge =
2
edge =
Research that has been conducted at Indian Institute

of Technology, Kharagpur, India (Suresh et al., 2004)
has indicated that Bradburys equations adopted
in IRC:58-2002 (equations 13, 14, 15) may lead
to overestimation by over 98 percent of the actual
temperature curling stresses in concrete pavements.
Temperature curling stresses were analyzed by taking
the selfweight of the concrete slab and also taking
into account the loss of subgrade support due to
linear temperature differential across the depth of the
concrete slab. The thickness by this method of analysis
can bring down the pavement design thickness by 10
percent (Suresh et al., 2004).
In this study Interior, corner and edge region
temperature stresses by FE modeling are 98 to
99.40 % less than Bradburys equation values. The
overestimation of stresses by Bradburys formulae is
due to the assumption of linear temperature variation
across the depth of slab whereas practically variation
is nonlinear and same is considered in this modeling.
There is a need to review the results obtained using
Bradburys equations for the temperature stresses by
carrying out an experimental studies on temperature
variation across the depth of slab.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.4
Combination of Stresses
As per IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2002) it is required

to consider the combination of wheel load and
temperature warping stresses for design of white
topping. Total of temperature warping stress and
highest axle load stress is compared with flexural
strength for finalizing pavement thickness. Table 8
shows combination of the stresses obtained by 3D FE

model and IRC guidelines. The temperature stress at
the critical edge region may be obtained as per Wester
aards analysis using Bradburys coefficient. The
temperature stress in the corner region is negligible,
as the corners are relatively free to warp and therefore,
may be ignored.
Table 8 Combination of the Stresses obtained by 3D FE model and IRC guidelines

(For k = 0.12 MPa /mm and h = 320 mm, P = 50 kN)
Type of Methods
3-D FE Model
IRC Guidelines
6
Corner loading stress

( MPa)
0.785
0.881
CONCLUSIONS
A three dimensional Finite Element (FE) model was

developed using the ANSYS finite element program
for the nonlinear structural analysis of unbonded
conventional whitetopping. The model in this study
is a simple non-linear type developed by applying
static wheel loading and temperature gradient.
Conventional whitetopping, ultra-thin whitetopping
and thin whitetopping have been built in India since
2003, but there is no specific follow-up regarding their
performance. In this paper, structural analysis and the
performance evaluation of conventional whitetopping
has been estimated for Indian traffic and climatic
conditions by calculating stresses and deflections
using FWD test, closed form formulae and compared
them with the stresses and deflections obtained by
3D FE model which shows good agreement. Through
the present study following conclusions have been
drawn:
In the corner loading case, the maximum tensile
stresses obtained by FE model at the interface between
plain cement concrete overlay and HMA layer with
a maximum magnitude of 0.785MPa. When same
is compared with Ioannides et al. it gives 15.41 %
less stress and 417.64 % more deflection, whereas
comparison with Bradbury method gives 6.49 %
more stress. Comparison of 3D FE model results with
equation given by Kelly and Pickett shows 12.22%
and 29.42% more stresses respectively.
Temperature Stress
( MPa)
0.047
1.07
Total Stresses
( MPa)
0.832
1.951
For the interior loading case, the equation of Ioannides

et al gives 28.66% less stresses and 8.92% more
deflection when compared with 3D FE model results.
For the edge loading case, when compared with 3D
FE model results ALIZE Method gives stress 2.09%
less and Ioannides et al. gives 6.02% less stress and
29.45% more deflection.
The FE model analysis of the whitetopping shows
stresses and deflection induced in the whitetopping
within the safe limits. Therefore, unbonded plain
cement concrete overlays can be an economical
and durable rehabilitation option, when the existing
pavement is severely deteriorated as compared to
construction of conventional rigid pavement or HMA
overlay.
To simulate actual field conditions in this threedimensional FE model of conventional whitetopping
while calculating stresses and deflections, the depth
of saw cut of slab has been kept one-third of the slab
thickness since dowel bars are placed at mid depth of
slab and below saw cut cracks get propagated.
Interior, corner and edge region temperature stresses by
3D FE modeling are 98 to 99.40 % less than Bradburys
equation values. The overestimation of stresses by
Bradburys formulae is due to the assumption of linear
temperature variation across the depth of slab whereas
practically variation is nonlinear.
The comparisons of the LTE generated by this 3D FE
model, computed using equations referred in book
23
TECHNICAL PAPERS
by Papagiannakis and Masad, (2007), Davids (2000)
model and the LTE results obtained by FWD test
conducted on the conventional whitetopping, show
good agreement.
Good correspondence between the values of LTE
obtained from 3D FE modeling method using
computer code ANSYS and field FWD test shows
that FE modeling is a reliable method. The difference
between the values of the stresses and deflections
in the conventional whitetopping from this method
and the closed form formulas is due to the various
assumptions adopted in deriving these theories.
An analysis by FE model for various layers of
the pavement system reveals that the stresses and
deflection found in the layer of HMA are less as
compared with the plain cement concrete overlay.
This shows flexural rigidity of the cement concrete
slab provided as overlay.
It is revealed that, increasing the modulus of subgrade
reaction (k) of HMA resulted in reducing the stresses
and deflections in the plain cement concrete overlay.
The 3D FE method using first order elements can
save computing time of determining the stresses
and deflection for composite pavements by keeping
reasonable accuracy. The analysis of such complex
problems can be done even by using normally available
computing tools.
The stress and deflection calculated from closed
form formulae as per IRC:58-2002 are overestimated
resulting into increase in thickness of concrete slab of
the pavement in comparison to 3D FE model.
3D FE modeling illustrates location of maximum
stress and deflection in the panel which helps in better
understanding the variation of stress and defection
intensity/pattern for different loading positions. 3D
FE model can also predict the failure zone in panel of
the concrete pavement.
Maharashtra State, India for kind permission and

availing the required data. The authors express their
deep gratitude to Prof. B.B. Pandey, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur, India for his valuable
suggestions in developing 3D Finite Element Model.
Also authors are thankful to respected Shri Rajan
P. Patil, Joint City Engineer, Pimpri Chinchwad
Municipal Corporation, Pimpri-Pune for his guidance,
advice and encouragement.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to respected Dr. Shri
Shrikar Pardeshi (IAS) former Commissioner and
Shri E. P. Ugile former City Engineer, Pimpri
Chinchwad Municipal Corporation, Pimpri-Pune,
24
11.
ANSYS Release 10.0 (2008). Users Manual, ANSYS,

Inc. Canonsburg, PA, USA.
Bradbury,
R.D.
(1938).
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Concrete
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Burnham, T., and Rettner, D. (2003). Whitetopping
and Hot- Mix Asphalt Overlay Treatments for Flexible
Pavement. Maplewood, MN: Minnosota Department of
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M. (2003). Evaluation of Composite Pavement Unbonded
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Nonlinear FE Analysis of Plain Concrete Pavement
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Chou, Y.T. (1981). Structural Analysis Computer
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of Thermal-Gradient Effects on Concrete Pavement.J. of
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Hallin J., (2001), Development and Calibration of a
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Davids, W. G. (2000). Effects of Dowel Looseness on
Response of Jointed Concrete Pavements J. of Transp.
Eng. ASCE, 126(1), 50-57.
Davids, W. G., Wang, Z., Turkiyyah, G., Mahoney, J. P.,
and Bush, D. (2003).Three Dimensional Finite Element
Analysis of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement with Ever
FE 2.2.Transportation Research Record, 1853, National
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Huang Y. H. (2004). Pavement Analysis and Design.2nd

Edition, Kentucky University USA Prentice Hall,
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Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Huang, Y.H., and Wang, S.T. (1973).Finite Element
Analysis of Concrete Slabs and its Implications on Rigid
Pavement Design.Highw. Res. Rec., 466, 55-79.
Hudson, W. R., Elkins, G. E., Uddin, W. and Reilly,
K.T.(1987). Evaluation of Pavement Deflection
Measuring Equipment.FHWA TS- 87-208, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington D.C.
Ioannides A. M., Thompson, M.R., and Barenberg,
E. J. (1985). Westergaard Solutions Reconsidered.
Transportation Khazanovich L., Yu H.T., Rao S., Galasova
K., Shats E. and Jones R. (2000). ISLAB2000, Finite
Element Analysis Program for Rigid and Composite
Pavements. Users Guide, ERES Consultants, Champaign,
Illinois.
Research Record, 1043, Transportation Research Board,
13- 23.
IRC:37-2001. Guidelines for Design of Flexible Road
Pavements.Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India.
IRC:58-2002. Guidelines for the Design of Rigid
Pavements for Highways.Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi, India.
IRC:81-1997. Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible
Road Pavements using Benkelman Beam Deflection
Technique.Indian Road congress, New Delhi, India.
Kelly, E. F. (1939). Application of the Results of Research
to the Structural Design of Concrete Pavement. Public
Roads, 20(6).
Kumara Wasantha, Tia, M., Wu, C.-L., and Choubane,
B. (2003).Evaluation of Applicability of Ultra-Thin
Whitetopping (UTW) in Florida Transportation Research
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Maitra, S. R., Reddy, K. S. and Ramachandra, L. S. (2009)
Load Transfer Characteristics of Dowel Bar System in
Jointed Concrete Pavement, Journal of Transportation
Engineering, ASCE, 135(11), 813-821.
Masad E., Taha R., and Muhunthan B., (1996). Finite
Element Analysis of Temperature Effects on Plain Jointed
Concrete Pavements. J. of Transp. Eng. ASCE, 122 (5),
388-398.
McGhee, K. H. (1994). NCHRP Synthesis of Highway
Practice 204: Portland Cement Concrete Resurfacing,
Transportation Research board, Washington, D. C.,
73-79.
Okamoto, P.A., P.J. Nussbaum, K.D. Smith, M.I Darter, T.P.
Wilson, C.L. Wu, and S.D. Tayabji. (1994). Guidelines
for Timing Contraction Joint Sawing and Earliest Loading
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Packard, R.G., and S.D Tayabji, (1985). New PCA

Thickness Design Procedure for Concrete Highway and
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Pavement Design and Rehabilitation, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Ind., 225236.
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Pickett, G. (1946). Appendix III: A Study of Stresses in
Corner Region of Concrete Pavement Slab Under Large
Corner Loads. Concrete Pavement Design, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, III.
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Papagiannakis, A. T., Masad, E. A. (2007). Pavement
Design and Materials.John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, New Jersey.
30.
Sabrina Garber, Robert Otto Rasmussen and Dale
Harrington (2011) Guide to Cement Based Integrated
Pavement Solutions Report by Iowa State University,
Ames, IA.
31.
Santosh Kumar, S., Srinivasa, T., and Pandey, B.B. (2006).
Mechanistic Design of Concrete Pavement Journal
of the Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, Vol. 67(3),
209-215.
32.
Suresh, K., Singh S. K., and Pandey, B. B. (2004).
Innovative Design of Concrete Pavements. Seminar
on Design, Construction and Maintenance of Cement
Concrete Pavements, New Delhi.
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Tayabji S.D. and Colley B.E. (1986).Analysis of Jointed
Concrete Pavements.Federal Highway Administration,
McClean VA, Report No. FHWA/RD- 86/041.
34. Uddin W., Noppakunwijai P. and Chung T.,
(1997).Performance Evaluation of Jointed Concrete
Pavement Using Three-Dimensional Finite-Element
Dynamic Analysis.Transportation Research Board, 76th
Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., Paper No. 1414.
35.
Webb R. D., and Delatte N.J. (2000). Performance of
Whitetopping Overlays, Preprint No. 001068, Presented
at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C., 2000.
36.
Westergaard, H.M. (1926). Stresses in Concrete
Pavements Computed by Theoretical Analysis. Public
Roads, 7(2), 25-35.
37.
Westergaard, H.M. (1948). New Formulas for Stresses
in Concrete Pavements J. of Transp. Eng. ASCE, 113,
425-444.
38.
Wu, C. L., Tarr, S.M., Refai, M. A., Nagi, M. A., and
Sheehan, M. J. (1998).Development of Ultra-Thin
Whitetopping Design Procedure. Portland Cement
Association Research and Development Report No. 2124.
Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
39.
Yoon-Ho Cho and Han-Mo Koo. (2003). A Behavior
Analysis of Concrete Overlay Based on the Characteristics
of Asphalt Pavements, Transportation Research Board,
2003, Annual Meeting (CD-ROM), Transportation
Research Board.
40.
Zdiri, M., Abriak N.,Neji, J., and Ben Ouezdou, M.
(2009). Modeling of the Stresses and Strains Distribution
in RCC Pavement using the Computer Code ABAQUS
Electronic J. of Struct. Eng., 9, 37-44.
25
RUTTING STUDIES OF 100 MM THICK BITUMINOUS

CONCRETE MIX WITH PLAIN AND MODIFIED
BINDERS AT VARYING TEMPERATURES
Satish. B.K and K. Ganesh**
ABSTRACT
The present study involves determination of rutting characteristics
on 100 mm thick beams of Bituminous Concrete mixes i.e., number
of passes of the roller and the maximum Rut depth for varying
Temperatures (30C, 35C, 40C, 45C and 50C) at a constant
Tire Pressure of 7.2 kg/cm2 tested using three binders VG-10
grade, CRMB-60 grade and PMB-70 grade with Treaded wheel.
The rut depth values are correlated and analysed with Number of
passes at 20 mm max Rut depth, varying Temperature and Plain
wheel configuration.
The results are analyzed; it is found that modified binders resist
rutting compared to conventional binder. PMB-70 grade binder
perform better than VG-10 grade and CRMB-60 grade binders
under the laboratory induced applied pressures and number of
passes.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
Rutting is a longitudinal depression or groove in the

wheel tracks. The ruts are usually of the width of
wheel path.
Swerving from a rutted wheel path at high speed
can be dangerous. Accumulation of water in the
impressions can cause skidding. Rutting may or may
not be accompanied by adjacent bulging of the road
surface, which may give some indication of the depth
of the source of failure.
users. In recent years, pavement rutting rate has

increased significantly due to constant traffic intensity
increment. Due to these solicitations, bituminous
layers can quickly attain their permanent deformation
limit resistance and this phenomenon can lead to a
pavement depression, located in the tyre road contact
surface.
Road maintenance is one of the important components
of the entire road system. The maintenance operations
involve the study of road condition, analysis of
problems and adopting the most suitable maintenance
steps. Even if the highways are well designed and
constructed, they require maintenance of pavements
(flexible pavements).
A flexible pavement failure is defined by formation of
pot holes, ruts, cracks, depressions and settlements.
Failure of wearing course are observed due to lack of
proper mix design, improper gradation of aggregates,
inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder,
results in a poor bituminous surfacing. The failure
of any one or more components of the pavement
structure develops the waves and corrugations on the
pavements surface or longitudinal ruts and shoving as
shown in Figs. 1 to 3.
The causes of rutting are the following :

Heavy channelized traffic, Inadequate compaction
of the mix at the surface or in the underlying courses
during construction, Improper mix design, lacking in
the stability of mix to support the traffic and leading
to plastic movement laterally under traffic, Weak
pavement, Incidence of high contact stress caused
by heavy bullock-cart traffic, Intrusion of subgrade
clay into the sub base course due to shear failure
or pumping, Aggregates of surface dressing being
pressed into the lower supporting bituminous layer.
Pavement rutting not only decreases the road service
life but also creates a danger for the safety of road
*
Post Graduate Student in Transportation Engineering,
**
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
26
Fig. 1 Rutting on Weak Asphalt Layer

BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 2 Rutting Occurs on Pavement
Fig. 3 Sketch Above Showing the Permanent Deformation

in the Flexible Pavement.
Ruts are depressions along the wheel path caused by

traffic loading, depending on the type and design of
the carriageway surfacing, high temperature, etc.
Polymer modified binders have been

found to be especially effective.
The addition of polyethylene improves

also the resistance of bituminous
binders.
Researchers have found that when

polyethylene is used as additive, it is
highly resistant to oxidation and other
forms of environmentally induced
distress.
PRESENT INVESTIGATIONS
The present investigation is focused on the rutting

characteristics of 100 mm thick bituminous concrete
mix with modified binders (PMB-70 & CRMB-60)
and normal bitumen (VG-10) for beam specimen
using optimum binder content, different parameters
like applied pressure, number of passes, room
temperature for bituminous concrete mix. The BC
mix design details obtained like Stability, flow, VMA,
VFB and Vv for VG-10 grade binder are 3010.5 kg,
1.85 mm, 18.55%, 73.67% and 5.45%. Similarly,
for CRMB 60 grade binder, the values were 3737.5,
2.75 mm, 17.71%, 57.29% , 7.64% and for PMB
70 grade binder, the values obtained were 3515.3 kg,
2.825 mm, 18.38%, 63.78% and 6.66%.
2.1 Methodology

Preparation of Bituminous Concrete beam

specimens of size 600 mm x 100 mm
x 100 mm in the laboratory with the above
graded aggregate mix with Bitumen of
VG-10 grade, CRMB-60 grade, PMB70 grade with optimum binder content
of 5.97 percent, 5.60%, and 5.77%
respectively.
Conducting rutting tests under Immersion

Wheel Tracking device at a constant tire
pressure of 7.2 kg/cm2 and 25 passes/
minute speed for temperatures of 30C,
35C, 40C, 45C and 50C.
Bituminous Concrete mixes with Plain

and Modified binders using Graphs
1.2 Solutions to prevent Rutting in Bituminous

Pavements
Rutting causes due to Heavy channeled traffic,
Inadequate compaction of the mix at the surface or in
the underlying courses during construction, lacking in
the stability of mix to support the traffic and leading
to plastic movement laterally under traffic, improper
gradation of aggregates, inadequate binder content
and inferior type of binder, hence in order to prevent
rutting following are some of the solutions:

The use of quality design, aggregate and

liquid asphalt.
Adequate drainage.
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and Tables were analysed with Number
of passes, varying Temperature and
Plain wheel configuration for their
performance.
2.2 Materials used in the Study

Granite aggregate available near
Bangalore were collected for specimen
preparation.
Aggregate fraction retained on 4.75 mm

sieve was used as coarse aggregate.
Aggregate fraction passing 4.75 mm

sieve and retained on 75 microns sieve
were used as fine aggregate.
Crusher dust is used as filler. The

properties of aggregates used are shown
in the Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of Aggregates
Sl. No.
Tests
Obtained Result
1
2
3
4
5
Specific gravity
Aggregate Impact value (%)
Aggregate Crushing value (%)
Combined Flakiness & Elongation Index
Los Angeles Abrasion value
2.62
14%
20%
22%
24%
2.3
Gradation of Bituminous Concrete Mix
The different sizes of aggregates, that is, 20 mm,

12.5 mm, 10 mm, 6 mm and dust are selected from
the heap and the sieve analysis is done to obtain the
individual gradation of these aggregates. Then by
trial and error method, by using the Microsoft excel,
the desired gradation for bituminous concrete were
Range of Values as per

IS/MoRT&H Specifications
2.6-2.8
Max 27%
Max 45%
Max 30%
Max 40%
obtained to match the midpoint gradation as shown in

Table 2. Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and modified
bitumen CRMB-60, PMB-70 were used for the study
and the physical properties of the binders obtained
as given in Tables 3 and 4 meeting the requirements
of MoRT&H have been selected for the study. The
gradation obtained for bituminous concrete mix is
shown in Fig.4.
Table 2 Individual Gradation of Aggregates for Bituminous Concrete Mix

Sieve
size
(mm)
Obtained Gradation
20
mm
12
mm
6
mm
Dust
26.5
100
100
100
19
75.05
100
13.2
1.625
9.5
Desired Gradation
Total
Middle
Limits
Lower
Limits
Upper
Limits
20 mm
12 mm
6 mm
Dust
29%
20%
23%
28%
100
29
20
23
28
100.0
100
100
100
100
100
21.7645
20
23
28
92.76
92.7645
79
100
100
100
100
0.47125
20
23
28
71.47
71.47125
59
80
0.15
48.75
100
100
0.0435
9.75
23
28
60.79
60.7935
52
70
4.75
3.6
35.8
100
0.72
8.234
28
36.95
36.954
35
55
2.36
0.45
22.6
99.2
0.09
5.198
27.776
33.06
33.064
28
50
1.18
0.35
20.7
79.2
0.07
4.761
22.176
27.00
27.007
20
35
0.6
0.3
20.4
70.4
0.06
4.692
19.712
24.46
24.464
15
30
0.3
0.25
20.1
53.2
0.05
4.623
14.896
19.57
19.569
10
20
0.15
0.2
19.4
17.6
0.04
4.462
4.928
9.43
9.43
10
0.075
0.1
18.7
0.2
0.02
4.301
0.056
4.37
4.377
28
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 3 Physical Properties of Bitumen
Sl. No.
Properties
Test Method
Penetration (100 g, 25C, 5 s)
IS:1203 1978
Softening point
IS:1205 1978
Ductility at 25C
IS:1208 1978
Specific gravity
IS:1202 1978
Flash and fire point (C)
IS:1206 1978
2.4
Table 4 Properties of Plain and

Modified Binders Obtained
Properties
VG-10
CRMB-60
PMB-70
Penetration
(0.1 mm)
82
42
62
Ductility (cm)
89
65
45
Softening Point (C)
48
84
89
Specific Gravity
1.0
1.07
1.12
Flash & Fire point

(C)
Fig. 4 Gradation obtained for Bituminous Concrete mix
Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen are abbreviated

as Modified Binders, which is obtained incorporation
of thermoplastic synthetic thermo hardening resins and
powdered rubber from scrap truck tires is also called
elastomers in ordinary Bitumen. Modified binders
have the ability to offer improved performance over
conventional binders.
2.5
279 & 292 276 & 310 270 & 295
Elastic Recovery
of Half Thread in
Ductilometer at
15C, %
60
79
Separation
Difference in
Softening point,
R&B, C
3.6
1.3
Modified Binder
Automatic Immersion
Equipment
Wheel
Tracking
This equipment has been designed for the research

work conducted by Shri K. Ganesh (Research Scholar)
under the guidance of Dr. R. Satyamurty (Professor
Department of Civil Engineering), BMS College of
Engineering) and Dr. H.S. Jagadeesh (Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering), BMS college of
Engineering.
The wheel tracking apparatus measures effects of
rutting by rolling a rubber wheel on the surface of a
Bituminous Concrete (BC) slab.
Thin Film Oven test (TFOT) on Residue

Loss in Weight, %
0.37
0.29
Penetration of
Residue at 25C, 0.1
mm, 100 g, 5 sec
24
26
Increase in
Softening Point,
R&B, C
3.4
0.8
Elastic Recovery
of Half Thread in
Ductilometer at
25C,%
58
62
The wheel tracking apparatus consists of a loaded

rubber wheel mounted on the surface of the bituminous
concrete mix slab (specimen to be tested) fitted on a
movable table driven from AC motor through crank
and pinion.
The water bath reciprocates with to and fro motion at
a frequency of maximum 40 passes per minute. The
wheel is of 200 mm x 50 mm solid rubber wheel. The
wheel is loaded by using cantilever arrangement up to
a maximum load of 3925 N.
A tank with temperature controlled is fitted on the
moving platform. The specimen in the form of
bituminous concrete beam is fitted inside the tank. A
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
screw lever arrangement is provided for adjustment
for the slab thickness. The water temperature inside
the tank is maintained at room temperature.
Two LVDT (Linearly Variable Differential Transducer)
are fitted on the axel of the rubber wheel to monitor
the rut depth. The output of the LVDT is connected
to computer through PC ADD ON card. A dedicated
software monitors the rut depth and plots the graph
for no. of passes Vs rut depth. The test DATA is
stored in a text file for further analysis of the data.
The photographic view of Immersion Wheel Tracking
Equipment is shown in Fig. 5.
i)
Preparation of the Specimen
The different size of aggregates i.e., 20 mm, 12 mm,

6 mm, and dust were selected from the stack and the
sieve analysis is done to obtain the individual gradation
of these aggregates for each IS sieve individually.
The dimension of specimen is 600 mm x100 mm x
100 mm. Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and Modified
Bitumen of grade CRMB-60 and PMB-70 were used
for the study.

Weigh the quantities of aggregates

(20 mm, 12 mm, 6 mm and stone Dust)
required for each specimen.
Pour all the weighed aggregates into

the pan and heat the aggregates up to
150-170C.
Add binder to the pan (pouring

temperature of 150-165C) and mix
it. Heat to the required temperature of
mix which should be between 140C to
160C.
The above bituminous mix is poured in a

pre-heated mould when the temperature
of the mix is between 100C to 145C.
The mix is compressed at a constant

rate of loading using Universal Testing
Machine up to a required thickness of
40 mm as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5 View of Immersion Wheel Tracking Equipment
2.6
Procedure and Operating Instructions
Fig. 7 Rutting Specimen under Universal Testing Machine
Fig. 6 Wheel Tracking Machine
30
Cure the specimen in air for 24 hours.
Remove the specimen and measure its

dimensions as shown in Fig. 8.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
switch on the heater without water in
the tank. Now, close the steel tank with
the lid provided.

Fix the loading pan and apply the

required load by the ten kg. Load pads
(slot) provided to achieve the required
pressure on the wheel.
Before switching on the control panel,

ensure the following:
Make the specimen in the required mould

and cool it for minimum twenty four
hours. Remove the specimen from the
mould and keep it in the water tank for
required period of soaking and place on
the platform for the rut testing.
Fix the support plates and lift the

(600 mm x 100 mm x 75 mm) plate and
place it in the steel tank platform and
lock the same using bolts, after fixing the
mould, place the cover after filling water
in the tank.
Fig. 8 Rutting Beam Specimen after De-Molding
ii)
Procedure for fixing the specimen

immersion wheel tracking machine
Remove the loading from the Lever arm

pan.
Remove the LVDT mounted to the axle

of the wheel as shown in Fig. 6.
Move the lever arm and lock the same at

zero position on electronics control panel
by using the locking pin (L - Pin).
Remove the mould plate and place the

specimen on the platform.
Fix steel tank firmly. Opening at the center

of this cover plate will make provision
for rutting through wheel.
in
a)
Forward/reverse,
number
of
pass counter, proximity switches
are connected to the connectors
provided on the rear panel of the
cycle control cubical.
The steel tank is covered to avoid spillage

of water from the tank during to and fro
motion of the tank.
b)
Rut depth is being measured

through LVDT which is connected
to terminals marked LVDT.
Now, hold the lever arm and release the

locking pin and slowly bring the lever
arm downwards till the rubber wheel is
touching the top surface of the specimen.
Fix the LVDT and see that the LVDT
plunger tip touches the rubber wheel
axle.
c)
Ensure that LVDT are connected

to respective LVDT signal
conditioners.
d)
All DAS (Data Acquisition System)

wires and cables are properly
connected to computer port.
Steel tank is provided with two heaters

(thermostatically controlled). Water
drain is provided at the bottom of the
tank along with regulated valve as shown
in the drawing. Close the drain and fill.
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
3.1
General
Water from the tap. Water level should

be up to the top of mould plate. Do not
The Bituminous concrete beams of 100 mm thickness

were prepared and subjected to rutting at varying
pavement temperature (30C to 50C) using the
Immersion Wheel Tracking equipment. The variables
considered are the mix characteristics defined by
31
TECHNICAL PAPERS
varying temperature and type of Binder, number of
passes of the roller and applied pressure on the roller.
The binder used is Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and
Modified binders of grade CRMB-60 and PMB-70.
The results of rutting characteristics of Bituminous

Concrete mix using Conventional and Modified
Binders obtained as shown in Table 5 are summarized
and analyzed below.
Table 5 Rutting Test Results in Bituminous Concrete Mix at Varying Temperatures

Number
of Passes
VG-10
CRMB-60
PMB-70
Rut Depth (mm)
Rut Depth (mm)
Rut Depth (mm)
30C
35C
40C
45C
50C
30C
35C
40C
45C
50C
30C
35C
40C
45C
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
50C
0.00
500
4.88
5.51
5.49
6.07
7.12
5.38
6.02
6.49
7.47
7.61
3.35
3.44
5.1
6.43
6.81
1000
6.92
7.75
8.41
8.92
9.96
7.43
7.85
8.23
9.57
9.88
5.77
5.92
6.95
7.82
8.96
2000
11.57
12.01
13.33
14.48
15.02
9.88
10.05
11.77
12.87
13.31
7.11
7.39
8.7
10.48
12.24
3000
14.81
16.14
17.88
18.57
20(2800)
12.11
12.51
13.68
15.28
16.53
9.13
9.71
12.88
13.76
14.7
4000
18.23
19.11
20(3910)
20(3338)
13.87
14.78
16.22
17.79
18.86
11.41
11.75
15.2
15.81
17.53
5000
6000
20(4734) 20(4300)
-
16.1
17.15
18.62
19.44
20(4630)
13.52
13.88
17.41
18.82
19.59
18.04
19.06
20(5794)
20(5322)
15.55
16.68
19.28
20(5761)
20(5270)
7000
19.07
20(6584)
17.63
19.42
20(6533)
8000
20(7634)
19.72
20(7367)
9000
20(8241)
3.2
Analysis of Rutting Characteristics in

100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix
Using Conventional and Modified Binders
The analysis of rutting is done for obtained values

from laboratory using both Conventional and Modified
binders for Bituminous Concrete mix. The summarized
rut depth values for three binders which are VG-10,
CRMB-60 and PMB-70 for various temperatures
of 30C, 35C, 40C, 45C and 50C are indicated
below. Table 5 shows rut depth versus number of
passes for all binders at varying temperatures (from
30C to 50C). The graphs are plotted for obtained
rut depth values which are mentioned in consolidated
Table 4.1 as shown in Figs. 9 to 11 using the above
three binders.
Fig. 9 Rut Depth Versus Number of Passes at Varying

Temperature for VG-10 Grade Conventional Binder
in 100 Thick BC Mix
32

Temperature for CRMB-60 Grade Modified Binder in 100 mm
Thick BC Mix

Temperature for PMB-70 Grade Modified Binder in 100 mm
Thick BC Mix
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.3
Comparison of Number of Passes at Failure

(20 mm) Rut Depth in 100 mm Thick
Bituminous Concrete Mix at Different
Temperature for Treaded Wheel and Plain
Wheel Configuration
Treaded wheel and Plain wheel configuration were

influence on the rutting characteristic in bituminous
concrete mix as indicated by number of passes to

failure (20 mm). Table 6 shows number of passes upto
failure (20 mm) rut depth at different temperature for
both Treaded wheel and Plain wheel configuration
using Conventional and Modified Binders in
100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete Mix. Graphs
have been plotted for above binders and are shown in
Fig. 12 and 13.
Table 6 Number of Passes at Failure of 20 mm Rut Depth for Different Temperature in 100 mm Thick Bituminous
Concrete Mix for Both Treaded Wheel and Plain Wheel Configuration
Treaded Wheel
Plain Wheel
Temperature, C Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Temperature, C Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm)
VG-10
CRMB-60
PMB-70
VG-10
CRMB-60
PMB-70
30
4734
7634
8241
30
3997
4942
5832
35
4227
6581
7367
35
3063
4285
5199
40
3783
5794
6533
40
1959
3706
5041
45
3205
5322
5653
45
1480
3414
4754
50
2800
4630
5104
50
1182
3280
4272
3.4
Analysis of Rutting Co-efficients A & B for

Various Binders in 100 mm Thick Bituminous
Concrete Mix at Different Temperatures
The rutting Coefficients A and B are obtained using

the above selected binders for varying temperatures
from 30C to 50C by fitting an exponential curve as
shown in Table 7. The results fit an exponential curve
of the form
Table 7 Rutting Co-efficients A and B for Various
Binders in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix at
Varying Temperatures
Fig. 12 Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Versus Varying
Temperature for Conventional and Modified Binders Using
Treaded Wheel Configuration
Fig. 13 Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Versus Varying

Temperature for Conventional and Modified Binders Using Plain
Wheel Configuration
Rutting Co-efficients A and B

Temperature, C Co-efficient A
30
0.086
35
0.108
40
0.15
VG-10
45
0.183
50
0.223
30
0.236
35
0.272
0.326
CRMB-60 40
45
0.496
50
0.565
30
0.056
35
0.067
0.127
PMB-70 40
45
0.299
50
0.333
Binder
Co-efficient B
0.673
0.621
0.596
0.581
0.562
0.493
0.483
0.47
0.422
0.417
0.639
0.63
0.569
0.479
0.474
33
TECHNICAL PAPERS

RD = ANB
Where,

RD = Rut depth,
= Number of Passes
A & B are exponential coefficients representing the

elastic and plastic components after deformation
4
DISCUSSIONS ON TEST RESULTS
4.1
General
The Rutting tests conducted on 100 mm thick

Bituminous Concrete beams with 7.2 kg/cm2 tire
pressure at varying temperatures from 30C to 50C
and using three different Binders VG-10, CRMB-60
and PMB-70 has yielded the data for discussions as
given below.
4.2 Effect of Binder on the Rutting Characteristics
of 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix
From Table 3.1 and Figs. 3.1 to 3.3 the Rut Depth and
Number of Passes defined on the type of the Binder
and Temperature.
Comparing the Rutting Characteristics at 30C (Room
Temperature) in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete
mix with Conventional VG-10 Binder has failed
(20 mm Rut depth) at 4734 passes, CRMB-60 at 7634
and PMB-70 at 8241 number of passes, the percentage
increase compared to VG-10 is 61.3 percent for
CRMB-60 and 74.1 percent for PMB-70. This shows
that the PMB-70 Binder mix is more resistance to
rutting. Similarly increasing trend is observed for
other temperatures also.
The Rut depth versus Number of passes always
follows an exponential trend as shown in Fig. 3.1 to
3.3 for above three types of binder and for different
temperatures. Initially for 1000 passes the mix exhibits
its elastic deformation and on further increasing the
passes, the mix undergoes Plastic deformation up to
failure.
The Regression analysis was carried out for VG-10,
CRMB-60, and PMB-70 at 30C to 50C yield A & B
34
values as given in Table 4.4. From this table at 30C

VG-10 has Coefficient A elastic component is 0.086,
and for PMB-70 is 0.056. Indicating that the VG-10
binder results in more elastic deformation compared
to PMB-70, Similarly B plastic component is 0.673
for VG-10 and 0.639 for PMB-70 indicating that the
plastic deformation is more or less independent of the
type of binder.
4.3 Effect of Temperature on the 100 mm Thick
Bituminous Concrete Mix for Rutting
Comparing the Rutting characteristics in 100 mm
thick Bituminous Concrete mixes using Conventional
and Modified binders for varying temperatures at 30C
(Room temperature) the Bituminous Concrete with
conventional VG-10 binder has failed at 4734 passes,
CRMB-60 at 7634 and PMB-70 at 8241 number
passes, the percentage increase compared to VG-10
is 61.3 percent, for CRMB-60 and 74.1 percent for
PMB-70. At higher temperature of 50C, in 100 mm
thick Bituminous Concrete mix with Conventional
VG-10 binder has failed at 2800 passes, CRMB-70 at
4630 passes and PMB-70 at 5270 number of passes,
the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is
65.4 percent, for CRMB-60 and 88.2 percent for
PMB-70.
As the temperature increases, the resistance to rutting
decreases in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete mixes
using Conventional and Modified binder, where as the
Bituminous Concrete mix with PMB-70 binder shows
maximum resistance to rutting compared to VG-10
and CRMB-70 binders for varying temperatures as
indicated by higher number of passes up to failure i.e.,
20 mm Rut depth.
4.4
Effect of Wheel Configuration on Rutting

Characteristics of 100 mm thick BC Mix
Two wheel configuration Plain Wheel (PW) and

Treaded Wheel (TW) in the present study has clearly
demonstrated that there is considerable influence of
wheel configuration on the rutting characteristics as
indicated by number of passes to failure and the trend
TECHNICAL PAPERS
wheel configuration which also suggest that
Treaded wheel configuration is more resistant to
rutting compared to Plain wheel configuration.
This clearly shows that the PMB-70 grade
had compensates showed higher number of
passes using Treaded wheel configuration
than Plain wheel configuration for 100 mm
thick bituminous concrete mix using Plain and
Modified binders at varying temperature.
of number of passes versus temperatures is shown in

Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 and tabulated in Table 3.2.
From Fig. 3.4 for VG-10 it is seen that the difference
in number of passes at 20 mm rut depth (failure)
increases with temperature 30C to 50C. The Treaded
wheel has always indicated higher number of passes
compared to the Plain wheel the difference is 4734
passes at 30C to 2800 passes at 50C, whereas plain
wheel showed 3997 passes at 30C to 1182 passes at
50C.
Comparing Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 with Table 3.2 indicated

PMB-70 grade in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete
Mix has with more number of passes at failure of
20 mm. This shows that PMB-70 grade is not very
sensitive to the wheel tread configuration compared to
the VG-10 grade conventional bitumen.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Comparing the three Binders VG-10, CRMB60 and PMB-70, the PMB-70 grade modified
bitumen showed maximum resistance to rutting;
the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is
61.3 percent for CRMB-60 and 74.1 percent for
PMB-70. This shows that the PMB-70 Binder
mix is more resistance to rutting.
At lower temperature of 30C, the percentage

increase compared to Bituminous Concrete mix
with Conventional VG-10 grade is 61.3 percent
for CRMB-60 and 74.1 percent for PMB-70.
At higher temperature of 50C, the Percent
increase compared to Bituminous Concrete mix
with Conventional VG-10 grade is 65.4 percent
for CRMB-60 and 88.2 percent for PMB-70.
As the temperature increases from 30C to
50C, the resistance to rutting decreases for
Bituminous Mixes using Conventional and
Modified binders.
The difference in number of passes is
observed to be higher in case of Treaded wheel
configuration for 100 mm thick BC mix at
20 mm failure rut depth comparing to Plain
At 30C, the rutting co-efficient A which is the

elastic component of rutting showed a higher
value for VG-10 grade compared to PMB70 and CRMB-60 grades, indicating that the
VG-10 grade binder in Bituminous concrete
mix is least resistant to rutting as compared
to CRMB-60 and PMB-70 grades modified
binders. But, the rutting co-efficient B which
is the plastic component of rutting showed no
substantial deviation for all the selected binders
indicating that plastic deformation is more
or less independent of the types of binders in
bituminous concrete mix.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Department of
Civil Engineering B.M.S. College of Engineering,
Bangalore for providing the facilities and extending
the help in different aspects of academia. Authors
would like to thank the reviewers for their constructive
comments and their suggestions.
REFERENCES
1.
IRC; Special Publications-53 : 2002, Tentative Guidelines

On Use Of Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen in
Road Construction.
2.
MoRT&H, Specfication for Road and Bridge Works,

Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Fourth Revision,
2001.
3.
Dr. S. K. Khanna and Dr. C. E. G. Justo, Highway

Engineering Eighth Edition, 2001.
4.
Dr. S. K. Khanna, Dr. C. E. G. Justo and Dr. A.

Veeraragavan (2009), Highway Materials and Pavement
Testing Laboratory Manual, Revised Fifth Edition, Nem
Chand & Bros., Roorkee 247 667, India.
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.
6.
K. Ganesh, H.S. Jagadeesh & R. Sathyamurty, Design

of Automatic Immersion Wheel Tracking Equipment to
Measure the Rutting Characteristics of Bituminous Mixes
with Plain and Modified Binders, Highway Research
Journal, January-June 2010.
Suriyanarayan Sadasivam, Evaluation of the effects of
compaction methods on the predicted performance of
Superpave Mixtures, Raleigh, July 2004.
7.
I. Srinivasa Reddy and M. Amarnath Reddy, Indian

Highways Low Cost device for evaluating rutting
characteristics of bituminous mixes march 2011.
8.
Evaluation of the Effects of Crumb Rubber and StyreneButadiene Rubber (SBR) on Rutting Resistance of Asphalt
Concrete, Chuang-Tsair Shih, Mang Tia & Byron E.
Ruth, Department of Civil Engineering University of
Florida, Gainesville.
36
9.
Evaluation of Rutting on different types of Hot Mix

Asphalt Gradation with Modified Bitumen as Binder,
Wong Yee Fung, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University
Technology Malaysia.
10.
Rut Prediction for Semi-rigid Asphalt Pavements K.

Su, L.J. Sun and Y. Hachiya, Airport Research Institute,
Nagase, Yokosuka, Japan.
11.
Ronald E. Baker, Polymer Modified Bitumen, Journal

of Indian Highways, (January - 1998).
12.
Manoj Kumar Effect of soaking on rutting characteristics

of bituminous concrete mix with modified binders
M.Tech report, Dept. of civil engineering, B.M.S College
of Engg , VTU, (June 2007).
13.
Praveen Mugalkhod Effect Of Gradation On The Rutting

Characteristics Of Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete Mix
M.Tech report, Dept. of civil engineering, B.M.S College
of Engineering , VTU, (June 2011).
A LABORATORY STUDY ON CONVENTIONAL CBR AND

DCP METHOD IN THE MOULD
Sunanda Bhattacharjee* and Kaushik Bandyopadhyay**
ABSTRACT
Road connectivity is essential for socio-economic growth of the
country. Construction, proper compaction and choice of suitable
material for embankment are main criterion to reduce early
distress of service life of pavement. In this study conventional
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test (as per IS Method) and
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test of fly ash material are
carried out in laboratory scale into the CBR mould at unsoaked
and four days soaked conditions. Therefore laboratory CBR test
by conventional method is checked by DCP method into the mould
which is always appreciable and good alternative for practicing
engineers and researchers and comparison is made between two
methods. Tests were carried out for different parameters like
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content obtained
from different Proctor energy levels, different degree and mode
of compactions and deviation of moisture contents from optimum
condition. In most of the cases laboratory DCP CBR is higher than
conventional CBR and higher values are also reached in case of
dynamic compaction.
INTRODUCTION
The basic advantage of fly ash is its light weight as

compared to commonly used fill material (like soil).
Being less compressible it causes lesser settlement and
can be handled and compacted easily. There is little
chance of formation of large size lumps which need to
be broken down to smaller sizes during compaction.
Higher value of California Bearing Ratio as compared
to soil provides a more efficient design of road
pavement. Fly ash embankment can be compacted
over a wide range of moisture contents, and therefore
results in less variation of density with changes in
moisture content. Considerable low compressibility
results in negligible subsequent settlement within the
fill. Always correctness of the results needs validation.
Due to this laboratory DCP was another alternative for
comparing and checking the results from conventional
laboratory CBR method. Besides in rural or remote
sites where makeshift laboratories are made with no
electricity, laboratory DCP is more helpful method
than performing conventional laboratory CBR
method. Thirdly, after or before construction, if
*
Research Scholar, E-mail: bhattacharjees2000@gmail.com
**
Associate Professor, E-mail: kb@const.jusl.ac.in
CBR is checked by DCP at field and simultaneously

laboratory DCP is done, comparison of laboratory and
field values would be more reliable due to use of same
equipment compared to laboratory and field CBR by
conventional IS method.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
From different literature review studies, it is followed
that DCP was mainly designed for field conditions.
The application of DCP in the laboratory inside a CBR
mould has rarely been reported and it may be due to the
effect of lateral confinement. By using trial, Nguyen
and Mohajerani (2012)8 selected the optimized mass
of hammer 2.25 Kg which eliminates the influence of
confining pressure from the sidewall in a CBR mould.
Ese et al (1994)2 used a relationship,

Log10 CBR = 2.438-1.065 Log10 (DCP).
by which confining pressure inside the CBR mould

was accounted.
3 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORK
The objective and scope of work includes the
following:

i)
To study the unsoaked and four days

soaked percent CBR variations between
conventional IS:2720 (Part 16)5 and
DCP method into the CBR mould (as
per ASTM D6951-03)1 in laboratory for
100 and 97 percent degree of compaction
of different maximum dry densities
and corresponding optimum moisture
contents obtained by modified and
standard proctor energy levels.
ii)
To examine the unsoaked and four days

lab IS and lab DCP methods for static
and dynamic mode of compaction.
Department of Construction Engineering,

Jadavpur University (2nd Campus), Kolkata,
37
TECHNICAL PAPERS

iii)
To investigate the unsoaked and four days

two methods into the CBR mould at
laboratory for 2 percent variations from
optimum moisture content at dynamic
mode of compaction.
iii)
4 MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this work the source of fly ash used in laboratory
was procured from Farakka Thermal Power station,
West Bengal, India. The test programme was carried
out by following steps:

i)
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) were
found out from modified proctor energy
level at 100 mm diameter (1000 cc
volume) mould as per IS:2720 (Part 8)4.
ii)
Laboratory four days soaked and unsoaked

CBR tests were carried out as per IS:2720
(Part 16) method ( Photo-1) by both
static and dynamic mode of compaction
for 100 and 97 percent of Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) obtained from modified
proctor energy level. In addition to this
the same were carried out at OMC 2%
variations by only dynamic compaction.
Photo 1 Conducting Laboratory CBR Test in CBR Mould

as per IS Method
38
Similarly, four days soaked and unsoaked

DCP CBR were carried out at CBR
mould in laboratory (Photo-2) as per
ASTM D6951 by both static and dynamic
compaction for 100 and 97 MDD & OMC
obtained from modified proctor energy
level. Besides the same were tested at
OMC 2% variations by only dynamic
compaction.
Photo 2 Conducting Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)

Test in CBR Mould
iv)
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
were determined from standard proctor
energy level at 100 mm diameter (1000 cc
volume) mould as per IS:2720 (Part 7)3.
v)
Laboratory four days soaked and

unsoaked CBR tests were carried out as
per IS:2720-(Part 16) by both static and
dynamic mode of compaction for 100
and 97 percent of Maximum Dry Density
(MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) obtained from standard proctor
energy level. In addition to this the same
were carried out at OMC 2% variations
by only dynamic compaction.
vi)
Similarly four days soaked and un soaked

DCP CBR were carried out at CBR
mould in laboratory as per ASTM D6951
TECHNICAL PAPERS
by both static and dynamic compaction
for 100 and 97 percent MDD & OMC
obtained from standard proctor energy
level. Besides the same were tested at
OMC 2% variations by only dynamic
compaction.
In this study DCP CBR is calculated using the
following equation suggested by TRL9 and ASTM
D6951
Log10 CBR = 2.48-1.057 Log10 (DCP). By this
relationship DCP CBR showed almost similar results
compared to the results calculated by the relationship
of Ese et al(1994) and confining effect inside the CBR

mould was accounted. Light weight hammer 2.25 Kg
(suggested by Nguyen and Mohajerani 2012) is used
for avoiding confinement effect of mould instead of
8 Kg hammer suggested by ASTM D6951.
5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Geotechnical properties of fly ash specimen is
furnished in Table 1. The maximum dry densities and
optimum moisture contents are obtained as 1.145 gm/
cc and 36% at Modified (Heavy) compaction energy
level and 0.975 gm/cc and 45% at Standard (Light)
compaction energy level respectively.
Table 1 Geotechnical Properties of Fly Ash Specimen

Sl. No.
Geotechnical Properties
1
Specific Gravity
Grain Size Distribution
Gravel
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
2
Silt
Clay
As per IS:1498-1970,Classification
Uniformity Co-efficient (Cu)
Co-efficient of curvature (Cc)
3
Plasticity
Modified Proctor (Heavy Compaction, as per IS:2720(Part-8)
4
Maximum Dry Density
Optimum Moisture Content
Standard Proctor (Light Compaction, as per IS:2720(Part-7)
5
Maximum Dry Density
Optimum Moisture Content
6
Permeability
7
Drained Friction Angle ()
Fig. 1 shows moisture density relationships at modified

and standard proctor energy level of compaction.
Comparatively flatter curves were observed in dry
density and moisture relationships for both energy
levels of compaction which indicate that dry density
of fly ash is not much sensitive to moisture.
Fig. 2 indicates grain size distribution of fly ash
specimen. Grain size distribution reveals that fly ash
specimen is classified as SM group (Table 1).
Value Obtained
2.093
0 Percent
0.2 Percent
7.1 Percent
52.1 Percent
36.3 Percent
4.3 Percent
SM
7.0
1.1
Nil
gm/cc
36.00%
0.975 gm/cc
45.00%
2.5975 x 10-4 cm/sec
31
In case of unsoaked condition of MDD = 1.145 gm/cc,

OMC = 36% from Table 2, laboratory CBR values
by IS method and lab DCP by ASTM D6951 method
into the mould vary slightly. The variation between
lab CBR and DCP method is (-) 4.54 to (-) 8.80%
compared to IS method. Even in case of OMC-2% and
OMC + 2% conditions (Table 3) variations observed
are (+) 4.76% and (-) 4.26% respectively. Table 2
indicates that almost every cases of 4 days soaked
39
TECHNICAL PAPERS
condition laboratory DCP values are higher than
laboratory IS method values.
Fig. 1 Moisture Density Relationship at Modified (Heavy)

and Standard (Light) Proctor Energy Level
Fig. 2 Grain size Distribution of Fly Ash Specimen
The variation observed between IS and DCP method is

(-) 27.66% to(-)28.68% with respect to the IS method.
In case of OMC -2% condition (Table 3), variation
is (-) 2.27% and for OMC +2% condition, variation
follows by (-) 8.11%. For both the cases laboratory
DCP values are higher compared to laboratory
IS method values.
In case of unsoaked condition of MDD = 0.975 gm/cc,
OMC = 45% from Table 2, laboratory CBR values
by IS method and DCP methods vary through a wide
range. The variation between IS and DCP method is
(-) 1.19 to (+) 15.25% compared to IS method. (-)
12.36% & (+) 16.67% variations are followed for
OMC - 2% & OMC + 2% conditions respectively
(Table 3). Table 2 shows that in case of 4 days soaked
condition, laboratory DCP CBR is higher than
laboratory IS method values. The variation between
IS and DCP method is found to be (-) 2.051% to (-)
19.26% with respect to IS method. In case of OMC
-2% condition from Table 3 variation is (-)13.82%
and in case of OMC + 2% condition laboratory IS
method value is higher than laboratory DCP value
where variation follows (+) 14.29% compared to
IS method.
Figs. 3 to 6 shows the variations for different
conditions and relations developed between lab CBR
by IS method and lab DCP CBR and same is shown in
Figs.7 & 8 for OMC 2 percent conditions.
Table 2 Unsoaked and 4 Days Soaked CBR at Different Mode of Compaction

Description
MDD = 1.145
gm/cc
OMC = 36%
MDD = 0.975
gm/cc
OMC = 45%
CBR method in Dynamic Compaction

Laboratory
at 100% MDD
Un Soaked 4 Days
Soaked
IS
22.4
14.1
DCP
24.0
18.0
IS
DCP
16.8
17.0
10.9
13.0
Static Compaction
at 100% MDD
Un
4 Days
Soaked
Soaked
22.0
13.3
23.0
17.0
17.7
15.0
Dynamic Compaction
at 97% MDD
Un
4 Days
Soaked
Soaked
20.1
12.2
21.8
15.7
10.4
12.0
14.0
14.6
9.4
9.1
Static Compaction
at 97% MDD
Un
4 Days
Soaked
Soaked
19.3
11.7
21.0
15.0
14.2
14.0
9.8
10.0
Table 3 Unsoaked and 4 Days Soaked CBR for OMC 2% Conditions

Description
MDD =1.145 gm/cc,
OMC = 36%
MDD = 0.975 gm/cc,
OMC = 45%
40
CBR Method in Laboratory

IS
DCP
IS
DCP
Unsoaked
OMC - 2%
OMC + 2%
25.2
21.1
24.0
22.0
17.8
20.0
14.4
12.0
4 Days Soaked
OMC - 2%
OMC + 2%
17.6
14.8
18.0
16.0
12.3
14.0
10.5
9.0
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 3 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus

DCP Method at 100% MDD (By Dynamic Compaction)

DCP Method at 100% MDD (By Static Compaction)

DCP Method at 97% MDD (By Dynamic Compaction)

DCP Method at 97 % MDD (By Static Compaction)

DCP Method at OMC-2% (By Dynamic Compaction)

DCP Method at OMC+2% (By Dynamic Compaction)
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
It is observed that variations between four days soaked
lab DCP CBR and lab IS CBR are much higher in case
of MDD =1.145 gm/cc and OMC =36% at different
conditions.
Variation between laboratory CBR by IS and DCP method
into the mould at laboratory might have occurred due
to different procedures. IS method is based on gradual
penetration of a plunger into the CBR mould at the time
of testing but DCP method is followed by free falling of
a cone from a particular height. In conventional CBR
plunger is penetrated into the fly ash material. Therefore
undrained shear strength is measured but in case of DCP
the resistance of material is obtained through falling of
a hammer. DCP is the indirect measure of stiffness of
fly ash material. Therefore, undrained strength versus
stiffness is compared from conventional CBR and
DCP in the mould at the laboratory. In case of four
days soaked condition reduction in CBR is happened
due to saturation. Saturation is expected to remove the
suction and therefore, reduce strength. In case of four
days soaked condition variations observed between two
methods are higher also due to saturation.
It is observed that CBR values were increased at
OMC-2% and decreased at OMC + 2% as compared
with OMC condition.
The variation of CBR with respect to moisture content
and dry density is in the form of parabolic shape
(Ref:IRC:Special Report No. 36). It can be seen from
CBR curve that peak occurs on the dry side of the OMC.
The general trend of CBR for variation in density and
moisture content was depicted by the contours of CBR
(Ref: IRC Special Report No.3). Alternatively, the
resistance to penetration depends upon the gradation,
density, moisture content, frictional resistance between
the material particles and the cone, applied pressure for
penetration, upon the true and apparent cohesion and
possibly other factors. Penetration of a plunger gets
easier as the moisture content increases. At OMC - 2%
& OMC + 2% condition, it can be noted that (Jumikis7)
dry densities are equal and less than maximum and void
contents are also equal. At OMC - 2% moisture content,
the penetration resistance is high but at OMC + 2%
moisture penetration resistance is very low at the same
densities in both cases. When moisture content increases
from optimum, CBR decreases. Yoder (1967)10 super
imposed test results of CBR of unsaturated specimen
showing higher strength at lower moisture content and
there is a rapid fall in strength with increased moisture
content.
42
CONCLUSIONS
From present study following conclusions are drawn.

For most of the cases laboratory CBR by DCP is higher
than conventional laboratory IS method.
Laboratory CBR values by IS and DCP method both are
higher at modified compaction energy level compared to
standard (light) compaction energy level.
Variations between four days soaked lab DCP CBR and
lab IS CBR are much higher in case of MDD = 1.145 gm/cc
and OMC =36% at different conditions.
Laboratory CBR values by IS and DCP method both are
always higher at 100% MDD compared to 97% MDD.
CBR values for the mould prepared at dynamic
compaction are slightly higher than mould prepared at
static compaction for both the methods.
For both the methods, CBR values increases at OMC-2%
and decreases at OMC+2% compared with OMC
condition.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ASTM D6951-03, Standard Test Method for use of

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow Pavement.
Ese, D., Myre, J.,Noss, P. and Vaernes, E.(1994) The
Use of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) for Road
Strengthening Design in Norway, Proc., the 4th Int.,
Conf., on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields,
pp.343-357
IS:2720 (Part 7)-1980 Methods of Test for Soils: Part 7
Determination of Water Content-dry Density Relation
Using Light Compaction.
IS:2720 (Part 8)-1983 Methods of Test for Soils: Part 8
Determination of Water Content-Dry Density Relation
Using Heavy Compaction.
IS:2720 (Part 16)-1979 Methods of Test Forsoils: Part 16
Laboratory Determination of CBR.
IRC: Special Report No. 3(1999), State of the Art:
Compaction of Earthwork and Subgrades.IRC Highway
Research Board, (Indian Roads Congress), New Delhi,
India.
Jumikis (1962), Soil Mechanics, D Van Nostrand
Company, Inc, New York.
Nguyen and Mohajerani (2012). A New Lightweight
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer for Laboratory and Field
Applications. Australian Geomechanics Journal, Vol. 47,
No.2, pp. 41-50.
TRL, Transport Research Lab., A User Manual for a
Program to Analyse Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Data,
Overseas Road Note 8, Dept., of Transport, UK, 1990.
Yoder, E.J. (1959), Principles of Pavement Design, John
Wiley and Sons. Inc., U.S.A.
A PORTABLE LOW-COST SYSTEM FRAMEWORK FOR

AUTOMATED ROAD DISTRESS ASSESSMENT
Huidrom Lokeshwor*, Lalit K. Das** and Namita Akoijam***
ABSTRACT
India, with over 4.1 million km road networks, has become the
second largest road networked country in the world after United
States of America. However, often stretches of the existing road
networks deteriorate and fall below the acceptable level, required
to serve the increasing Indian traffic and population. According
to the Indian guidelines, cracks, potholes, patches and rutting are
some types of road surface distresses whose evaluation is essential
for developing repair and maintenance strategies to ensure a good
and an effective road network. At present, the evaluation of these
distresses are done manually by finding their location, number of
occurrence per km, length (m), area (sq.m), extent of area (%)
and/or classifying their types using traditional field inspection
techniques or dedicated road survey vehicles. This is very
expensive, time consuming and slows down road maintenance
management.
In this paper, a portable low cost system framework that uses
omnipresent passenger vehicles, low end laptop, webcam and
digital camera for automated road distress assessment is proposed.
Using the proposed framework that is equipped with a webcam
and digital camera, raw video clips of Indian highways are
captured without any artificial lighting systems in normal day light
conditions. Then, the collected video clips are processed using a
robust algorithm presented earlier by the authors for automated
detection and measurement of potholes from road surface
video clips. The results indicate that the proposed framework
has a significant capability in detecting and assessing potholes
automatically and efficiently. The information extracted using the
proposed framework can be used for determining maintenance
levels for Indian roads and taking further appropriate actions for
repair and maintenance related issues in a short duration of time.
INTRODUCTION
India, with over 4.1 million km road networks1, has

become the second largest road networked country in
the world after United States of America2. However,
often stretches of the existing road networks deteriorate
and fall below the acceptable level, required to serve
the increasing Indian traffic and population. In the
year 1990, some road studies had revealed that India
was losing about Rs. 60 billion ($2 billion) per year
in additional vehicle operation costs because of poor
road conditions3. In the year 2004, it was estimated

that more than 50% of the Indian primary road
networks (National Highways and State Highways)
were in bad shape and needed immediate attention.
An annual loss of approximately over Rs.6000
crores ($1.33 billion) was incurred through increased
vehicle operating costs due to the poor road quality4.
As early as 1988, the World Bank asserted that one
dollar spent on maintenance will save four dollars
spent on rehabilitation5. A little improvement in
maintaining the physical infrastructure, road transport
provision and operation can result in large economical
benefits. Today, these losses are increasing due to poor
maintenance and increasing traffic. This needs to be
controlled or minimized by improving their conditions
and upgrading the maintenance practices for road
networks. To achieve this goal, one of the important
tasks is to develop a sustainable road maintenance
management system that can monitor and assess the
conditions of road networks objectively and rapidly.
In a road maintenance management system, the
assessment of road surface distresses is an essential
part for developing repair and maintenance strategies
of the existing road networks. Further, a quality road
network is the foremost requirement for achieving the
desired economic growth of a nation because of its
various social and economical implications6. Thus,
there is an urgent need for quickly assessing critical
road surface distresses before they further deteriorate
and damage the whole road networks completely.
According to the Indian guidelines4,7, cracks, potholes,
patches and rutting are some types of road surface
distresses whose evaluation is essential for developing
repair and maintenance strategies to ensure a good and
an effective road network. At present, the evaluation
of these distresses are done manually by finding their
Technical Officer, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI), Delhi, E-mail: hlokeshwor@gmail.com
**
Former Head, IDD Centre, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, E-mail: lalitdas@gmail.com
*** Director, Betq Data Analytics (BETQ), India, E-mail: betqdata@gmail.com
43
TECHNICAL PAPERS
location, number of occurrence per km, length (m),
area (sq.m), extent of area (%) and/or classifying their
types using traditional field inspection techniques
or dedicated road survey vehicles costing crores
of rupees on Indian soil. This is very expensive,
time consuming and slows down road maintenance
management. And majority of road authorities in India
such as municipalities, public works departments and
central public works departments may not have enough
budgets to procure such costly multifunctional road
survey vehicles from abroad. Thus, there is a need
of developing an automated system, which is more
economical, efficient and accurate, for assessing the
road surface distresses35.
In this paper, a portable low cost system framework that
uses omnipresent passenger vehicles, low end laptop,
webcam and/or digital camera for automated road
distress assessment is proposed. Using the proposed
framework that is equipped with a webcam and digital
camera, various video clips of Indian highways are
captured without any artificial lighting systems in the
normal day light conditions. Then, the collected video
clips are processed using a robust algorithm presented
earlier by the authors for automated detection and
measurement of potholes from road surface video
clips8. In the presented algorithm, potholes are
automatically detected and assessed from the video
clips using various image processing techniques
supported by heuristically derived decision logic. The
algorithm applied in the proposed framework has been
implemented in a Windows environment with the help
of Visual Studio 2008 and Open CV, an open source
computer vision library and tested on 7 road surface
video clips. The results indicate that the proposed
frame work has a significant capability in detecting and
assessing potholes automatically and efficiently. The
information extracted using the proposed framework
can be used for determining maintenance levels for
Indian roads and taking further appropriate actions
for repair and maintenance related issues in a short
duration of time.
44
2 BACKGROUND
2.1
Current Field Practices in Road Distress

Assessment
The road condition assessment is reported to be done

through distress data collection and processing of the
collected raw data. This uses various road distress
data evaluation systems. The evaluation systems
currently used in the field can be grouped into three
different categories depending upon the techniques or
methods employed viz. manual, sensor, and imaging
based systems9,10. The manual techniques are based on
visually observing distresses and then recording the
data on paper. Sensor techniques use accelerometer,
ultrasonic or laser sensors to measure the deformations.
The imaging techniques capture road surface images
either discretely or continuously, and then analyze the
images to report on the surface distress.
2.1.1 Manual Systems
Generally, manual systems use the technique of visual
field observation of distress on road surface and
record the extent, severity and location of the distress
on either paper forms or using some type of data
logging systems9. The plus point of such systems is
higher accuracy and psychological confidence when
measured manually using measuring tapes or accurate
data loggers. However, this technique has many
limitations such as very low speed of data collection,
minimum safety of crews or staffs, disturbances in
traffic movements.
2.1.2 Sensor Based Systems
Sensor based systems use non contact sensors to
measure deformations of the road surface from a
horizontal plane. Some of them include vibration
based systems, laser, ultrasonic and infrared profiles
with or without accelerometers.
In analogy to the video recording which looks at the
surface of the road, the vibration based system feels
the ground conditions based on mechanical responses
of the testing vehicle11. The road surface distresses
impose impacting forces on the testing vehicle. The
frequency and magnitude of these forces are measured
TECHNICAL PAPERS
using accelerometers and they are dependent on the
extent and magnitude of the road distresses.
Profilers operate by having sensors to record the
elevation of a sensor relative to the road surface.
From these, transverse profiles are established and
the data are then analyzed to determine the extent of
distress such as rutting. The accelerometers provide
a horizontal plane of reference, whereas the sensors
(lasers or ultrasonic) measure pavement deviations
from a horizontal plane10. An example of such a system
is the Nericell presented by Mohan et al.12.
Ultrasonic sensors are the lowest cost sensors and are
used in systems like ARAN and ROMDAS. These
have sensors at approximately 100 mm intervals that
measure 3 m or more across the pavement. While older
systems sampled only every 2.5 5 m along the road,
new high speed ultrasonic systems sample at intervals
similar to lasers9.
Laser profilers use point lasers or scanning lasers.
Point lasers give the elevation at a point. The number
of laser varies, with systems such as the Greenwood
profilometer having as many as 40 lasers. Much faster
than ultrasonic sensors, these record the transverse
profile at intervals as close as 10 mm along the road.
Scanning lasers measure almost a continuous profile.
An example of such a system is the Phoenix Science
Ladar which samples a 3.5 m road width from a
single scanning laser mounted 2.3 m above the ground.
Nine hundred and fifty points are sampled across
the transverse profile, every 25 mm along the road9.
Examples of such systems include Digital Profiler
System (ARRB, Australia), Smart Rutbar System
(Fugro-Roadware, Canada), Laser Profilometer
System (Data Collection Limited, New Zealand) etc.
These systems are commonly used to collect Rutting
and Road profiles (roughness).
2.1.3 Imaging Based Systems
Imaging based systems are widely used to collect and
analyze road distresses automatically. These systems
use 2D-Video, 3D-Stereovision and 3D-Laser Imaging
techniques.
2D-Video Based Imaging Systems

2D-Video based imaging Systems consist of analog
or digital cameras used to record road surface images
in distance or time mode. The processing is done
manually, semi-automatically or automatically using
a toolkit. This depends upon the degree of human
intervention required to extract useful information
from the collected road video images10.
In the context of this research, manual methods of
road distress data processing include those methods in
which the road distress images are visually assessed
using an image player and computer. The process
involves a trained staff sitting at a workstation where
road surface video or images are systematically
examined visually based on the persons experience.
In some cases, the trained staff uses Microsoft Paint,
Adobe Photoshop, ImageJ Software etc. to estimate
the extent and severity of the visually identified
distresses. The useful information is entered manually
in a file for future reference.
Semi-automated methods of road distress data
processing include those methods in which the road
video clips or images are assessed at a workstation
equipped with image players and computers installed
with a specialized program or software for distress
rating and location-referencing10. Such software can
extract frames out of a road video. This involves
significant amount of human intervention in regards to
distress identification, classification and measurement.
This technique is primarily manual since distress
analysis is done visually. An example of such systems
is ARRB Hawkeye Network Survey Vehicle 2000
(ARRB, Australia)13. In the case of ARRB Network
Survey vehicle, the video processing toolkit supplied
with the vehicle at CSIR-CRRI is semi-automated
type. With the toolkit, a trained staff needs to mark the
distress area by drawing a rectangle with the mouse
over the distress on each frame of the video and the
system measures the influenced area covered by the
distress, i.e. the area of bounding rectangle. Using this
toolkit, the amount of human intervention is being
reduced as compared to that of a traditional field
inspection technique. The detection and classification
of a distress is done manually through visual
45
TECHNICAL PAPERS
assessment and video frames extraction, distress area
measurement and information reporting is done using
pre-designed forms. The toolkit takes many hours to
analyze road video data of only one kilometer length.
Automated methods of road distress data processing
include those methods in which road distresses are
identified and quantified through processes that require
no or very minimal human intervention. Typically,
automated method in the context of crack analysis
involves the use of digital recognition software
capable of recognizing and quantifying variations in
grayscale that relate to distresses on a road surface. It
is in these automated methods of cracks detection in
road images or video clips that the greatest amount of
research and development seems to have occurred over
past decade. Examples of such systems employing
automated methods are Automatic Road Analyzer
(Fugro-Roadware, Canada)14, Road Crack System
(Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization, Australia)15, Digital Highway Data
Vehicle (Dynatest and WayLink, USA)16 etc. In the case
of Automatic Road Analyzer, Fugro-Roadware has
advanced video data processing software called Wise
Crax17, specially designed for automated evaluation
of cracks. Furgo-Roadware claims that WiseCrax can
detect Longitudinal, Transverse, Alligator and Block
cracks and can recognize cracks as narrow as one
millimeter and classify automatically. For road surface
data collection, high speed cameras on retractable
booms are used in their vehicle. These cameras record
sharp, clear images at variable highway speeds up to
80 km/h (50 mph). Video is recorded as a continuous
series of non-overlapping, high contrast images of 1.5
m by 4 m (4.9 ft by 13 ft). For elimination of shadows
from trees, bridges, tunnels and other overhead objects
even in bright sunlight, they used high intensity
synchronized strobe lights. Then the pavement
images are processed off-line overnight at the office
workstation by a unique open architecture process
using advanced image recognition software. Reports
can be produced describing crack type, severity, extent
and location. Crack maps can also be easily produced
and printed on a laser printer for hard copy output.
WiseCrax can be used in automated and interactive
modes. In automated mode, all the processing is done
without human intervention, once the initialization
46
parameters of pavement type, camera, light settings

etc. are set. Interactive mode allows the user to review,
validate and edit the results obtained automatically for
quality control purposes. However, the performance
of this toolkit depends upon the quality and resolution
of the images captured by Automatic Road Analyzer.
The Image processing methods or techniques are
company secrets and are not available in literature.
The Road Crack System from Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization is
another automated system. It consists of a high speed
camera mounted under the floor of the vehicle, a special
reflector system to illuminate pavement surface and an
image processing toolkit that can detect and classify
cracks. This system first collects high resolution images
for small sections of pavement and then consolidates
into bigger images that cover half-meter intervals
of the pavement. The Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization claimed this system
as the first system in the world to achieve the Road
and Traffic Authority standard for an automated,
objective and accurate crack detection system and it
can detect cracks as fine as one millimeter in width,
while travelling up to 105 km/h. Moreover, it can also
operate in night time and in real-time.
Recently, a start-up company called BETQ DATA
ANALYTICS36 from India claimed that their
automated software tools such as Auto Distress, Auto
Pothole and Auto Cracks can detect and analyse road
surface distress, potholes and cracks automatically on
a single mouse click from the 2D-video clips collected
by ARRB Hawkeye Network Survey Vehicles and
ROMDAS systems with accuracy upto 91%.
3D-Stereovision Based Imaging Systems
3D-Stereovision based imaging systems consist of
one or more pairs of digital cameras to reconstruct
the 3D pavement surface from a pair of 2D images.
Such systems are in development phase and give low
resolution as compared to their 2D counterparts. In
the IDEA project18, researchers used four area scan
cameras in two pairs to collect pavement surface
across a 4-metre wide pavement. Each pair of cameras
covers two meters of road with the image resolution of
TECHNICAL PAPERS
1300 X 1024 at a speed of more than 25 frames per
second. The lighting system includes a generator
and a series of high power xenon lighting bulbs.
The algorithm developed for 3D pavement surface
reconstruction is based on the geometrical relation
between two 2D image planes and the object space coordinates. It includes four steps: calibration, distortion
adjustment, matching, and 3D reconstruction.
3D-Laser Based Imaging Systems
3D-Laser based imaging systems consist of scanning
laser and reflector/detector to measure the reflecting
time of flight across pavement surface and therefore
establish a 3D pavement surface after the laser radar
moves longitudinally along the travelling direction.
Such systems are found to be useful for measuring
roughness, cracks and rutting data only. Examples of
such systems include 3D-Profile Scanner (Phoenix
Scientific)19, Laser Vision System (GIE Technologies,
Canada)20, Laser Rut Measurement System (LRMS)21
and Laser Crack Measurement System (LCMS)22 from
Pavemetrics and INO, Canada.
Recently, a special class of imaging system which uses
both laser line projectors and line- scan cameras with
advanced optics called Laser Road Imaging System
(LRIS)23 was developed by Pavemetrics Corporation
and INO, Canada to capture the pavement images. It
uses two high resolution line-scan cameras and lasers
that are configured to capture 4 m transverse road
sections with 1 mm resolution at speeds that can reach
up to 100 km/h. The patented imaging system was
designed to increase the contrast and visibility of both
longitudinal and lateral road cracks. The performance
of laser imaging is invariant to the change of weather
or shadows. Laser power consumption is about 1%
of that of xenon bulbs. Due to these advantages, this
system has been used by some researchers to detect
and measure cracks automatically with the help of a
specialized data processing toolkit called Automated
Distress Analyzer24. This toolkit was designed to detect
longitudinal, transverse, block and alligator cracks,
calculate their lengths, widths and other general
information sets , in real-time with a speed up to
60 mph. The image processing techniques used in the
toolkit include histogram equalization and adaptive
thresholding algorithms for image enhancement. To

determine geometric characteristics of cracks, such
as length, width, orientation (angle), algorithms such
as morphological closing, thinning operations and
Hough transformation are applied to the enhanced
thresholded images. For classification and analysis
of cracks detected from previous steps, methods such
as projections are used to determine the main types
of cracks, such as longitudinal and transverse cracks,
fatigue and block cracks. Moreover, Yu24 has also
highlighted the uses of road data collected by LRIS
for potholes detection. For potholes detection, the
captured images of road surface with laser line patterns
are subjected to various image processing techniques
such as median filtering, global thresholding (Otsus
method) and mathematical morphological operations.
Later, regions corresponding to the potholes are
represented by a matrix of square tiles and the estimate
shape of the pothole is determined. For pothole
severity and crack type classification, the vertical
and horizontal distress measure, the total number
of distress tiles and the depth index information are
calculated and given as input into a three layer feedforward neural network.
2.2 State of Research in Indian Conditions
In India, MORTH has been conducting various
R&D projects from time to time through CSIRCRRI and NHAI etc.25. During 1984-87, CSIR-CRRI
had collected road inventory data including road
distress data through instrumented vehicle for entire
National Highways and analyzed the data manually
for developing various pavement deterioration
models. Recently, a large database of video clips of
National Highways have been collected during 20062011 by CSIR-CRRI with the help of a road network
survey vehicle under one of such MORTH sponsored
projects. However, processing of the collected video
clips for distress analysis has been done manually
through visual assessment due to absence of reliable
automated video processing toolkits. In current
practice, Indian highway professionals still assess
the road distresses via traditional field inspection or
manual visual assessment techniques using road video
or still images collected by costly road survey vehicles.
47
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Although the use of digital image processing methods
for automated detection and analysis of road surface
distresses was not new to the highway professionals,
the real applications of these methods in the field are
not seen in India. Therefore, some research efforts are
needed for effective application of these methods in
Indian context.
Most recently, BETQ DATA ANALYTICS, a start-up

company born in India, claimed that their company is
the only the consulting firm in India that can provide
reliable services for automated processing and analysis
of pavement video/image data collected in real-life
conditions36.
Some research initiatives12, 26-28 could be seen in the

area of automated distress detection in Indian roads.
The works of Rode et al.26 and Vijay27 paid attention
to the development of potholes detection and warning
system based on the vibration measurement using
accelerometer sensor. Rode et al.26 proposed an
integrated system for vehicle navigation purposes.
The work of Dhar28 highlighted the sensing issues
involved in the use of analog accelerometers for
potholes detection. Mohan et al.12 proposed a system
called Nericell for rich monitoring of road and traffic
conditions using mobile smart phones equipped with an
array of sensors (GPS, accelerometers, microphones)
and communication radios. However, the uses of
accelerometers are only intended for preliminary and
rough condition surveys and therefore lack accuracy
and reliability11, 29, 30. Erikson et al.29 found that the use
of accelerometers could provide wrong results, e.g.
bridge expansion joints have been falsely detected as
potholes. Moreover, potholes in the centre of a lane
are not hit by any of the vehicles wheels and thus
cannot be recognized using accelerometers30.
From the literature survey for the present research, the

following gaps are currently seen in Indian context:
Recently, Govt. of Tamilnadu has procured two road

survey vehicles (Mahindra Scorpio SUVs fitted with
LCMS and Road Measurement Data Management
Systems) from Data Collection Ltd., New Zealand to
profile 61,500 km of the states road network as a part
of a project to priorities maintenance and repair of state
highways, national highways, major district roads and
other district roads. It is claimed that the LCMS fitted
in the vehicle can detect and analyze cracks/potholes
in Indian conditions31. However, its performance is
neither documented nor validated so far.
48
2.3
Gaps in Literature
i)
Majority of the reported research have

focused on automated detection and
classification of cracks only, as the cracks
are the earliest forms of road surface
distress and progress to more severe
forms of distress like potholes, when left
unattended. This may be due to the fact
that most of the reported studies have
been from the developed countries and
the road distress issues in the developed
countries are managed at the crack
level before these become more critical.
However in India, several road distress
issues get addressed at the pothole level
rather than at the crack level.
ii)
There are some unique features of

Indian road distresses which have not
been reflected in the world scientific
literature so far. For instance, earlier
research work30, 32, 33 has reported that the
color intensities of the potholes, cracks
and patches are darker than that of the
background color intensities in a road
surface image. However, in the case of
Indian roads, cracks and potholes are
often filled with dust which makes the
distress sometimes brighter than that of
the background of a road surface image.
These unique features are needed to be
considered while developing methods
for automated distress assessment using
2D-video imaging systems.
TECHNICAL PAPERS

iii)
Prior to this research work, no method is

reported in literature that can identify and
quantify potholes, cracks, and patches
automatically from Indian road video
images. The development of such method
is required for automated processing of a
large road video clip. This will enable us
to save a considerable amount of time and
manpower resources while overcoming
the limitations of field practices currently
employed by highway professionals for
assessment of road conditions.
Based on the aforementioned gaps in literature and

current needs in the road sector, the idea of doing this
research was taken up to develop indigenous low-cost
solutions for automated road distress assessment.
3
PROPOSED SYSTEM FRAMEWORK
The overall objective of this study is to test whether

a portable low-cost system framework can detect and
measure road surface distresses automatically and
accurately using a number of passenger vehicles plying
(a)
on Indian roads such as passenger vans, buses and

trucks etc. The motivation behind the proposed study
lies in the deficiencies of current field practices used
in assessing Indian road conditions and the potential
of using omnipresent passenger vehicles networks for
reporting road condition more economically, quickly
and accurately. Since the framework doesnt use any
additional costs of distance measuring instrument,
vehicle and data acquisition system, this will be
able to save considerable time and money in speedy
assessment of roads condition. Besides, the system
framework can be installed easily in any vehicle as
the framework is designed to be modular, portable and
sustainable. With regard to this objective, a passenger
van (Tata Magic) running on State Highway No.1
of Manipur, India has been chosen as a road survey
vehicle and two imaging systems are equipped in the
van. First imaging system is a digital camera (Kodak
Easy share) held manually in the back door of the
van while the second imaging system is a webcam
(Logitech) fitted in the back door of the same van
(Fig. 1).
(b)
Fig. 1 Different Views of the Proposed System Framework on State Highway No.1, Manipur, India
Using this framework, the road distress assessment

has been performed in two stages. In the first
stage, raw video clips of road surfaces are captured
without any artificial lighting systems in normal
day light conditions and stored in a hard drive.
In the second stage, the database of video clips
captured with or without distresses is processed

using a robust algorithm for automated detection
and measurement of potholes from road surface
video clips. The methodology for developing
the proposed system framework is illustrated in
Fig. 2.
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS
with a frame rate of 25 frames per second (fps) and
resolution of 640 X 480. During recording, speed of
the van is kept at 30 km/hr approximately so that there
is minimum number of over lapping frames when
the video frames are extracted at the rate of 5 fps in
workstation.
Fig. 2 Methodology for Developing the Proposed Framework
3.1
Distress Data Collection Procedure
For field data collection using Kodak Easy share

camera, the camera is held manually by sitting in the
back seat of a moving passenger van (Tata Magic)
plying on State Highway No.1 (Mayailambi Road)
of Manipur, India (Fig. 1). Using this van, the km
distance surveyed and survey speed is measured
using its inbuilt trip meter/odometer and speedometer.
In this van, the camera is supported manually on
the back door in such a way that each recorded
road image covers 2.0 m width by 1.5 m length of
a road section approximately with pixel coverage of
3.125 mm X 3.125 mm. This field of coverage is
adjusted manually using two measuring tapes of 3 m.
Then, the detail of the survey to be started is noted
down as a survey reference file in note pad or survey
diary. This survey file contains name of the surveyor,
highway section, event (km stone) and place (city
or town) from where the survey is to be started and
stopped along with date and time of the survey as
well as km readings of the van. Later, video clips of
road surface are recorded in continuous (time) mode
50
For field data collection using the Logitech Webcam,

the webcam is fitted in a moving passenger van, Tata
Magic plying in State Highway No.1 (Mayailambi,
Imphal West) of Manipur, India. In the first case,
the webcam with resolution of 640 X 480 pixels
is fitted at a height of 1 m from the ground on the
back door of the van. In the second case, the webcam
with resolution of 1280 X 960 is fitted at a height
of 2 m from the ground on the roof of the van, near
rear brake signal light (Fig. 1). Then, the webcam
is calibrated manually using two measuring tapes to
estimate the field of coverage and pixel coverage. The
parameters used for calibrating the pixel coverage are
the field of coverage at a fixed height and orientation
angle of the camera used and the pixels resolution
of the camera. In the first case, the webcam (640 X
480) is configured in such a way that each captured
road image covers 2.0 m length by 1.5 m width of
a road section approximately with pixel coverage of
3.125 mm X 3.125 mm. In the second case, the
webcam (1280 X 960) is configured in such a way
that each captured road image covers 3.0 m length by
2.5 m width of a road section approximately with pixel
coverage of 2.5 mm X 2.5 mm. This configuration is
also customizable according to the requirements of
the concerned agency/authority. However, based on
the various experiments done by the authors, it has
found that the two sets of pixels resolutions result
the reasonable accuracy in pothole detections. After
the successful completion of this configuration and
calibration, a reference file is prepared manually.
After that, the video of the road surface is recorded by
running the vehicle at a speed of 30 km/hr (first case)
and 45 km/hr (second case) so that there is minimum
numbers of over lapping frames when the video frames
are extracted at the rate of 5 fps in workstation. These
vehicle speeds can be determined based upon the
frame rate at which the video is to be recorded and the
field of coverage of the camera. Finally, the captured
TECHNICAL PAPERS
video clips stored in the laptop are transferred to an
external hard drive and stored in a safe place for future
data processing.
3.2
Road Video Data Processing
The collected video clips are processed using a

robust algorithm presented earlier by the authors8.
In this algorithm, a frame was extracted from an
input road video clip and selected its blue channel
from default 24-bit RGB format for applying image
processing techniques more efficiently. The blue
channel image was subjected to median filtering,
followed by a clipping technique for noise removal.
Then, the clipped image was applied to an adaptive
thresholding, followed by a chain of morphological
operations for image binarization. Later, the binary
image was applied to a connected component labeling
using contour tracing technique and Freeman chain
coding supported by heuristically derived decision
logic for the potholes detection and their measurement.
The decision logic was developed based on three
distinctive visual properties of potholes. The first
property is the statistical visual texture as given by
standard deviation (STD) of the pixels intensities
representing the pothole region. The second property
is the shape of pothole as given by circularity (CIRC)
while the third property is the dimension of pothole as
given by average width (W). According to this decision
logic, a critical object is classified into (a) Potholes if
STD > = 10.0 & CIRC > = 20.0 & W > = 60 mm (b)
Non-Potholes if otherwise. Here, the values of STD,
CIRC and W are the minimum threshold values and
these values have been determined by experimenting
on 120 video images having potholes of various shapes
and sizes. This results in two different types of frames
category viz. frames without potholes and frames with
potholes which are tagged with their respective frame
numbers or locations. Besides, frame regions are also
tagged with the identified potholes while the extracted
information such their size and numbers of occurences
are reported in a printable format.
3.3 Maintenance Level Determination using
Potholes Information
The distress information which is obtained using this
algorithm can also be quantified for developing repair
and maintenance strategies for the road networks. The
three maximum permissible maintenance levels based

on potholes information for Indian highways given in
the committee report4, 6 can also be determined using
the proposed method by applying Equations (1) to
(2).

Percentage of frames with potholes (%) = (No.

of frames with potholes/TNF)*100;
... (1)
Number of potholes per km = Sum of total

number of potholes in each frame/RL; ... (2)
Where,

TNF = Total number of frames in the video

clip
RL
= Total number of frames in one km

of the video = 1000 (m)/length of
road covered by one frame (m)
The determined maintenance levels (one, two or three)

will automatically identify roads that require repair
while allowing the concerned authority/agency to
plan budgets accordingly and judiciously. Besides, the
extracted distress information will serve as an input
to many platforms such as GIS Platforms (Auto CAD
Map, Map Info Map and Arc GIS etc.) and Highway
Development & Management System (HDM-4) for
developing various deterioration models.
4
IMPLEMENTATION,
AND RESULTS
EXPERIMENTS
For testing its performance, a sequence of 7 video clips

has been selected randomly from a large database of
noisy raw video clips collected using the proposed
framework without any artificial lighting systems.
Out of 7 video clips, three (webcam 1 to 3) have been
captured by using Logitech webcam fitted in the back
door of a passenger van running at a constant speed
of 45 km/hr. Each video image covers approximately
3 m width by 2.5 m length of the road with a frame
resolution of 1280X960 pixels and pixel size of
2.5 mm x 2.5 mm. The remaining four video clips
(Camera 1 to 4) have been captured manually by using
a Kodak digital camera in the running passenger van
on State Highway No.1, Manipur, India. Each color
image covers approximately 2.0 m width by 1.5 m
length of the road surface with a frame resolution
of 640 x 480 pixels and pixel size of 3.125 mm X
51
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.125 mm. The test samples contain features such as
normal roads, distress like potholes, cracks, patches,
bleedings, discoloration, dark spots, road marking,
and shadows of trees, animals, human beings, and
vehicles or their parts.
The pothole detectional gorithm has been applied to
these video clips in a Windows environment (BENQ
Joybook mini-Laptop with Intel Atom CPU 1.60 GHz,

1 GB RAM and OS XP SP3) with the help of Visual
Studio 2008 and Open CV library. The test results
are compared with a manual method using Image J
Software, an open source image analysis software34.
The detailed analysis report which has been obtained
by implementing the algorithm is listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparisons of Evaluation Done Using the Proposed Framework and Manual Method
Video Clips
(Road Length)
TNF
Proposed Framework
Webcam.1
(0.413 km)
165
158
11
Webcam.2
(0.418 km)
167
161
Webcam.3
(0.410 km)
164
154
Camera.1
(0.338 km)
225
Camera.2
(0.555)
No. of
Nour
Manual Method
No. of Time Taken No. of

Pour
(min)
Nm
Error
Time
(%)
Saving
(min)
Time Taken
(min)
No. of
Pm
Falses
in Nour
Falses
in Pour
165
330
4.2
330-11 = 319
11
167
334
3.6
334-11 = 323
10
11
164
10
328
6.0
328-11 = 317
32
193
46
179
431
3.5
431-7 = 424
370
231
139
233
137
701
2.2
701-9 = 692
Camera.3
(0.648 km)
432
377
55
11
374
58
840
1.2
840-11 = 829
Camera.4
(0.273 km)
182
30
152
34
148
355
2.2
355-5 = 350
Note :- P = Frame with potholes, N = Frame without potholes; Falses = No. of false detections

Error(%) = {(No. false detections in Pour + No. false detections in Nour)/ TNF}*100;
Based on Table 1, the total processing time taken

by the applied algorithm on a sequence of video
clips having 164 to 432 frames has been found to be
only 5 to 11 minutes depending upon the video frame
size and the total number of critical objects in the
video. The same sequence when analyzed using the
manual method has taken around 324 to 840 minutes.
The average processing time taken per frame by the
proposed method has been found to be 4.0 seconds,
1.5 seconds for webcam and camera video respectively,
while each frame has taken120 seconds approximately
when analyzed using the manual method depending
upon the number of potholes. Thus, we are able to save
considerable time, money and manpower resources
in processing of road video clips, using the proposed
system. Much more savings can be done if we could
afford a higher speed computer with a larger memory at
a little extra cost. Further more, the applied algorithm
52
has been able to retrieve frames with potholes with

accuracy up to 94%.
Examples of video frames without potholes obtained
by applying the algorithm are illustrated in Fig. 3
while the examples of video frames with potholes
obtained by applying the algorithm are illustrated in
Fig. 4. In Fig. 4, images in column (a) are original
images; column (b) are processed images with detected
potholes with a minimum size of 177cm2 in binary
image B where black pixels/regions represents critical
potholes (P), dark gray pixels represents non-critical
potholes (NP) while bright gray pixels represents noncritical objects (NCO); and column (c) are extracted
information reporting all the required measurements
with POTHOLE_REPORT representing information
of detected potholes, NON-POTHOLE_REPORT
representing information of detected non-potholes;
TECHNICAL PAPERS
BIGGEST_CO_REPORT representing extracted
properties of the Biggest Critical Object (BCO) based
on which the decision logic has been developed. This
BCO report is just to illustrate the effectiveness of

the heuristically derived decision logic used in the
algorithm.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Fig. 3 Examples of Processed Video Frames without Potholes but with Bleedings, Discoloration Spots
and/or Shadows of Vehicle Parts/Trees
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4 Examples of Processed Video Frames with Potholes
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
costs and makes it affordable for local agencies.

Use of low end laptop, digital camera and/or
webcam for distress data collection is convenient
in the field due to its portability from one location
or vehicle to another. The findings from this
research have the potential to deliver indigenous
solutions to the local challenges faced by Indian
highway professionals and at the same time
contribute an improved methodology of road
distress evaluation in highway engineering.
Based on the above research following conclusions can

be drawn.
1.
2.
54
In this paper, the authors presented a portable lowcost system framework using a passenger vehicle
for automated road distress assessment. The road
distress data collection was done using a common
digital camera and webcam fitted in a passenger
vehicle, under real life conditions without any
artificial lighting systems. The processing of the
collected raw video clips was done using a robust
algorithm developed for automated detection
and measurement of potholes from road surface
video clips. The test results were compared with a
manual method and found to be highly accurate for
potholes assessment, while saving considerable
time, money and manpower resources. The
information extracted using the algorithm, such
as potholes locations, number per km, area and
extent, can be used for determining maintenance
levels of the road under evaluation.
The successful implementation of the presented
framework indicates that it has a potential impact
and will reduce the overall system development
3.
In future, when the road maintenance management

practice in India becomes more mature and
efficient, there is scope for further development
of an automated road distress analyzer with some
extra costs of distance measuring instrument and
real-time algorithms for automated assessment of
cracks, potholes and patches in one pass/run.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
authors
gratefully
acknowledge
the
support of this research by CSIR-CRRI, particularly
Dr. S. Gangopadhyay, Director (CSIR-CRRI). Furthermore,
the authors are grateful to referees for their valuable
comments and suggestions.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
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55
Rocks fill solution for Kasara Ghat A success

Story Case Study
K.V. Ghodke*, M.S. Nair** and Atulesh Sharma***
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and History

The Kasra Ghat in Nashik/Thane District is traversed
through by NH-3 from Km 466.00 to Km 474.00. Going
to Mumbai from Nashik end the Highway drops its RL
from 535.809 to 203.102 i.e. a drop of nearly 333 m in
a length of 7.5 Km. In the Existing highway which was
built in British period and has a history dating back
to the Mughal and Shivaji periods is passing through
a mountainous terrain which is winding and having
sharp curves in steep gradient. This led to frequent
fatal accidents scenario for men and machines as the
chasm in some place was nearly 35 m deep. This was
a two lane highway and traffic jams for 5-6 hours was
the order of the day. As Nashik is one of the Important
tourist destination and since NH-3 is the Link to
Mumbai Agra highway, lot of commercial and Tourist
vehicles carrying heavy loads and people of all sorts
have to make use of this highway as there is no other
choice. Vehicles going to central India from Mumbai
are also plying through this route. The traffic studies
conducted by DPR consultant shows a traffic volume
of 26675 PCU in 2002 and anticipated a traffic volume
of 42681 PCU during year 2010. Same is observed
after commissioning of Project in December 2009.
NHAI therefore, decided to construct a bye pass in
this area so as to meet these requirements and avert
the causalities. The trunk railway route from Mumbai
to Calcutta and north also passes through the same
region in close proximity mostly via tunnels to byepass the Kasara Ghat. Therefore, the new bye pass of
the NH could not be aligned near the existing highway
as any blasting near the tunnels was ruled out by

railway. NHAI hence decided to go for an entirely
a new alignment sufficiently away from existing
highway and railway lines through the forest area.
This new alignment approximately 7.5 Km was to

cross 11 valleys some of them as deep as 30 m. Also
to maintain grades as per standard, Rock blasting to
the tune of 35 m (Max) has had to be resorted to. The
crossings proposed were mostly Viaducts as the flow
through the valleys was only minimal based on rain
fall received in the area. There was no perennial river
originating or passing through the proposed inhabited
alignment. The terrain was very sparsely inhabited
by some tribal community and was mostly free from
Manager Technical, NHAI PIU Nashik, Maharashtra
**
Sr. Bridge Design Engineer, Sheladia Associates INC, Consultant to NHAI PIU Nashik, Maharashtra
*** Acting Team Leader, Sheladia Associates INC, Consultant to NHAI PIU Nashik, Maharashtra
56
TECHNICAL PAPERS
any other habitation or developmental activities. The
terrain was also highly inaccessible and the crossing
posed a challenging task. All these led to a modified
mode of crossing, which may diminish the challenges
to at least some reasonable degree.
The main Concessionaire on the Project was Gammon

India supported by Sadbhav Engineering. It was
thought that this problem can be resolved beneficially
by adopting Rockfill Technology.
The Concessionaire therefore proposed a Rock fill

solution for this Kasara Bye pass.
This Paper highlights the salient design and
constructional features of this unique solution for a
NH bye pass.
1.2
Instances of Rock Fill
From Time immemorial man was used to employing

rock as a medium for blocking water or crossing the
same. Rama Setu also called Adams Bridge dating
back to the BC era is in fact a Rock construction
between tip of Peninsular India and Srilanka. Several
Rock fills dams have been built around the globe for
reservoir, irrigation purposes and the like. Hence Rocks
fill technology is nothing new. However, employing
rock fills for purposes of bridges etc has been few and
far in between in India. This may probably be due to
the stringent restrictions of the IRC or also may be
due to space constraints. While concrete and steel
are versatile materials for constructions of Bridges it
would not be proper to ignore the rock fills as a whole
where rock is available in plenty and handy.
2
Rock Fill Technology
The Rock fill structure has to be designed conforming

to compliance or requirements of mechanics or static
equilibrium.
57
TECHNICAL PAPERS

i)
This means that the strata on which

the rock fill is going to be erected will
have to bear the superimposed load with
sufficient margin of safety
ii)
The Rock fill itself should be stable i.e.

the internal stresses developed shall be
within a allowable limits. The overall
stability is achieved in terms of sliding as
well as overturning.
iii)
Proper drainage should be ensured

through rock fill media by provision of
cross drainage works
Typical Rock Fill Cross Sections:
Construction Methodology
Embankment:
1.
58
for
Rock
fixed and should be easily recognized during

construction by construction team, so that no
appreciable material should fall beyond the toe
line, encroaching unnecessary forest land, and
creates environmental hazards.
2.
Any thick plantation, bushes, shrubs shall be
cleared of to their root, within toe lines, by
machines or manually.
3.
Toe of all batters should be benched into the
natural surface by about 0.5 m over 2-3 m
width.
4.
Construction of Toe walls /retaining walls,
and down steam, upstream cutoff walls (if
necessary) shall be taken up first.

Toe Wall UCR/ stone masonry

Cutoff Wall Concrete
5.
Layer thickness of rock dumped shall be
restricted to 900 mm Max.
6.
Rock dumped shall be free from soil and silt.
Mix finer material 75 mm down to 4.75 mm
should not be more than 15%. And material
Finer than 4.75 mm should not be more than
5%. (Cares hould be taken while loading from
rock cutting sides)
7.
Boulder size in layer shall be restricted to 2/3
of layer thickness. Any incidental oversize rock
boulder shall be laid in layer such that it does
not protrude beyond the thickness of layer.
Layers will be leveled by dozers.
Fills
Toe lines as per the cross sections, at a location

shall be marked and will be ensured to be
TECHNICAL PAPERS
8.
Each layer shall be watered just before laying

successive layer, for good bonding.
9.
Compaction of each layer will be done by D-9

dozer. If D-9 is not possible to be used in any
particular location, then layer thickness should
be restricted to 600 mm max, and shall be
compacted by dozer and excavators first and
finally by 10- T Vibro roller.
12.
Concrete crash barriers (new jercy type, as

designed with friction slab) shall be constructed
on both sides for the length of rock fill
embankment.
13.
The batter slopes for sub grade material above

geotextile, should match that of the rock fill,
and shall be protected for stability and possible
rain cuts, by using grouting or stone pitching.
14.
Preferably larger size boulders should be used

selectively for the outer edges of batter.
15.
The slope of batter should be 1:1 or flatter with

2-3 m berms on every 6 m fill.
16.
Any large voids and loose boulders are

required to be hand packed, on batters and
berms, to provide neat and uniform good finish
appearance.
17.
On the locations where water ponds are created,

batters should be made impermeable by
shotcreting or any other acceptable method.
18.
Proper cascades shall be provided on D/S.
Rock Fill as applied to Kasara Ghat

10.
Corrugated steel pipes will be laid at desired level

with the methodology finalized separately.
11.
Geotextile, with standard specifications shall

be placed over the rock fill, before doing
subsequent pavement layers.
As outlined in the Paper - rock-fill embankments

(dams) were constructed in the United States well
over 100 years ago. These were un-compacted
(simply manually placed rock) and placed at batter
slopes steeper than 1:1 for heights up to 30 m. Their
performance as water retaining structures (with timber
facing) up to this height was generally good.
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
With the high quality basalt rock available from
the major cuttings within the Kasara Ghat, and the
high compaction density expected to be achieved
through use of the latest internationally recognized
specification, and rock-fill of good gradation (through
controlled blasting techniques), the voids should also
be relatively low. This will ensure very high strength
material and ability to use a relatively steep batter
slope (and thus retain the structure within the ROW
for all but the highest proposed structures).
Since that period up to the present day, the height

of rock-fill embankments and in particular dams
has increased dramatically. This has required an
evolution in compaction and placement methodology
to minimize post-construction settlement. Many rockfill structures now in service exceed 100 m in height.
The proposed application for the Kasara Ghat involves
embankment heights that have magnitude less than
these structures and in fact comparable to the structures
built more than a century ago. The difference in the
case of Kasara Ghat is that they will not be water
retaining structures, and they will be compacted using
the latest internationally recognized procedures.
Rock-Fill Embankment Design
This is also supported by inspection of a previous

rock-fill embankment constructed by Indian Railways
close to the proposed alignment at the lower end of
the ghat section. This embankment was built for a
spur line more than 30 years ago and later abandoned
before the line was commissioned. The embankment
was built along a ridge top (with no confinement), and
without vibratory compaction. The batter slopes are
approximately 1:1.
Because of the difficulty in laboratory strength testing

of coarse rock-fill, design of batters for rock-fill
structures is generally based on empirical methods
according to successful performance of existing
structures, with consideration of the character, size
and gradation of the rock used, the compaction
and voids reduction able to be achieved, the degree
of confinement of the structure, and the structural
capacity of the foundation strata.
For the new highway embankments, the Concessionaire

has proposed to use maximum batter slopes of 1:1.
This will cover more than 70% of the proposed
rock-fill embankments and allow the structure to be
confined within the ROW (with use of toe/culvert
headwalls to about 4 m in height). For significantly
lower embankment heights, the batter slope can be
flattened and/or berms included whilst still staying
within the ROW.
Rock-fill embankments have not previously been

widely used in India, and are not fully covered by a
MOSTH specification. The Project DPR, however,
mentioned use of rock-fill in embankments.
60
TECHNICAL PAPERS
For the sections within some of the higher
embankments where the height exceeds 18 m, the
Concessionaire proposed to use 1:1 batter slopes
however, with one or more 2 m to 3 m berms depending
upon the height. Based on the preliminary geometric
design to date, the maximum height of rock-fill
proposed would be approximately 35 m.
Considering the high quality nature of the rock, the
high standard of compaction proposed, the excellent
structural performance of the old railway rock-fill
embankment, the typically good confinement (in
relatively steep sided nullas), and the very good
foundation strata (either rock or coarse residual
soils/weathered basalt), the above batter slopes are
considered to be suitable.
Road Formation
To provide a suitable foundation for the road formation
in the embankment sections, the upper 1m should
use selected subgrade material over the rock-fill. To
prevent intrusion of this material into the rock-fill, an
approved geo-textile should be used.
The batter slope of this material should match that of

the rock-fill, however, this will require (grouted) stone
pitching both for stability and to prevent possible rain
cuts.
Toe Walls/Culvert Head-End Walls, Aprons

To ensure full protection of the batter toe of the rockfill embankments, the Concessionaire proposed to
use toe walls which will also be incorporated into
the pipe culvert head/end walls and outlet cascades
where necessary. The use of toe walls will also limit
the width of construction and enable most sites to
be contained within the current ROW. The proposed
height will vary with the height of the embankment
and the pipe diameter however, will typically be in the
range of 3 m to 5 m.
Design and construction will require careful attention
to ensure both stability (under surcharge loading of
the rock-fill), within and adjacent to the stream-bed,
protection against scour at the worst possible flood
discharge condition (recommended to be partial
blocking of the culvert with approximately 1m of
head at the inlet), as well as good visual appearance
and blending with the natural environment. The
Concessionaire proposed to use grouted masonry
walls with a cut-stone masonry faade. Large size
boulders will be used and fitted as closely as possible
for maximum stability and to reduce voids and grout
quantity. A conservative design should be adopted,
considering the significant effect of surcharge. It may
also be desirable to use grouted dowel bars to connect
each lift. PCC at the base of the walls should be
provided as well as weep holes at approved diameter
and spacing.
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
Depending upon the bed conditions and the derived
inlet and outlet velocities, aprons may be required
together with training walls.
embankments. This type of barrier is considered to be

appropriate for this application.
Surface Drainage and Slope Protection
Besides stability, the main design consideration

of high rock-fill embankments, and in particular
dams, is settlement. Published research advises that
the settlement of rock-fill structures, constructed
to modern specifications with vibrating rollers and
with high quality, graded rock should give maximum
settlements of about 0.15% of the embankment
height. Most of this settlement should occur in the
first 18 months. Added to this is the settlement of the
foundation. From the foundation drilling results to
date, most of the embankments would be founded on
rock which will give negligible settlement.
Surface drainage from the road and valley side verge,

as well as from the valley side drain will result in the
requirement to take water down the rock-fill batters,
and/or the natural slopes at all sites. Although the
rock-fill is not expected to be adversely effected by
rainfall falling on the batters, concentrated discharge
down the slope must be avoided. This will require
use of chute drains from pre-cast concrete segments
or half-round galvanized corrugated metal. Masonry
drains or cascades may also be permissible provided
that there is no chance of any significant settlement.
When the batters are completed, the requirement or
otherwise for special slope protection measures will
be needed. If larger size boulders are selectively used
for the outer edges of the batters, additional slope
protection should not be required. If considered to be
necessary at some locations, as well as to encourage
natural re-growth, plantings of suitable species could
be undertaken. Plantings on the berms of the higher
embankments, in particular will assist in natural
regeneration.
Crash Barriers
To provide maximum protection to traffic, the
Concessionaire proposed to use New Jersey concrete
crash barriers on both sides of all the rock-fill
62
Embankment Settlement
Approximately 3 sites have residual soils/weathered

rock to a depth of up to 9 m to bedrock. This, however,
is not expected to be a problem in that these soils are
of high bearing strength, and are predominantly coarse
grained with a high percentage of boulders.
Maximum settlement (for the higher embankments)
is therefore expected to be about 6 cm a large
proportion of which should occur during the first
monsoon. This will need to be monitored Surface
settlement monitoring of all rock-fill embankment sites
should be commenced immediately after construction
and continue, initially on a monthly basis for at least
18 months. This will require establishment of bench
marks adjacent to each embankment, designating
survey location points (for example on the proposed
crash-barrier), regularly taking survey levels, and
plotting settlement history.
The expected maximum post-construction settlement
and the associated variation in settlement will require
some short-term precautionary measures to allow
the new road to be opened soon after the first postconstruction monsoon. It is recommended that the
pavement over the rock-fill embankments be initially
surfaced only with 50 mm of (PMB modified) BC
instead of the final full thickness DBM and BC layers.
The UK TRL Road Note 31 Pavement Design Guide
indicates that this should have a service life of at least
3 years for the anticipated traffic loading of the new
TECHNICAL PAPERS
carriageway. Subsequent settlement and undulations
should be minor and occur at a slow rate which will
not result in cracking of this thin (and relatively
flexible) surfacing, or be noticeable by traffic. Any
such undulations can then be quickly corrected. When
the measured further settlement has diminished to
negligible levels, the final surfacing can be constructed
over these relatively short sections. This can be done
half-width when traffic volumes are low and there
should be minimum disruption to traffic.
In terms of the performance at the handover stage
to NHAI in approximately 20 years, all settlement
will definitely have occurred and there will not be a
requirement for any additional maintenance at that
time.
Rock-fill Material
For maximum strength and density, rock-fill should be
graded and contain sufficient finer material to fill the
voids, but limited to a maximum of about 15%. Layer
thickness should be limited to a maximum of 1 m, or
preferably less which is internationally recognized
as the limiting thickness over which vibratory rollers
of 10 to 12 tones can achieve significant densification.
In India, with low labor costs it will also be possible
to manually fill any remaining voids before the next
layer is placed. Nominal maximum size of rock should
be limited to 2/3 of the layer thickness.
will provide additional compaction as the loaded

trucks traverse the embankment. Also to be included
is reference to the foundation treatment removal of
all alluvial/soft material and benching where rock-fill
is to be placed against sloping ground where it is not
fully confined.
No significant difficulties are expected in being able to
work to this method statement. Moisture conditioning
will however, require a relatively large volume of
water which will require planning of suitable sources
and transport to the sites. The frequency of compaction
trials as described in the statement should be based on
the variability of the source rock-fill. In general this is
expected to be quite consistent and of the order of five
trials should be sufficient covering typical sites over
the length of the job.
Testing of the density achieved at a number of
representative sites. Because of the very coarse nature
of the rock-fill, conventional laboratory compaction
testing or field density testing is not practical. Density
testing for rock-fills therefore uses large diameter
(36 inch) test excavations, with a plastic liner added.
To achieve such material is not expected to be difficult;

however, it will require design of the cut blasting to
achieve the best possible material in accordance with
the above criteria.
As discussed below, the selection of the most
appropriate layer thickness and maximum size of
rock should be finalized following both blasting trials
and initial embankment compaction trials. Based on
preliminary assessment of blasting currently being
carried out on sections outside the ghat, it is likely that
a maximum rock size of approximately 60 cm, with a
layer thickness of 90 cm will be satisfactory.
Procedure and Testing
Tipper trucks dump directly onto the embankment as
soon as the embankment top can be accessed. This
The volume is then determined by the measured

volume of water. During these tests, the gradation of
the rock-fill should be checked to ensure compliance
with the design requirements. The density itself is not
used as an acceptance criterion for compaction. This
is based on the number of roller passes per layer as
derived from the compaction trials. The density is
63
TECHNICAL PAPERS
however, necessary to check against the unit-weight
assumptions used in the structural design of the pipe
culverts.
Construction Phase
There were all together 11 rocks fills with heights
varying from 15 to 35 M, While ROW was available
and sufficient, flatter slopes are adopted and where
cross sectional width was a problem at foundation
level, toe walls and retaining structures were erected
and steeper slope allowed. Natural rock was available
while achieving the alignment with reasonable
gradient and this blasted rock pieces were made use
of the rockfill embankment. Layers of rocks were
placed one over the other and dosed over to obtain
design densities. The top layers were curtained off
with geo-grid materials for prevention of infiltration
of water. In some of the rock fills the access was a big
problem and rock particles had had to be dumped from
a height of 35 m using tippers to such a great extent
till formation was achieved through the alignment
profile somewhere around half the height. This was
precarious exercise sometimes leading to spillage of
rocks below the alignment profile level as it could not
be helped otherwise.
Cross drainage works were generally achieved through
Armco pipes of required dimensions at appropriate
levels. Care was taken to see that some animal crossing
was also allowed via this Armco pipes as the terrain
was forest area.
Conclusion
The rock fill construction has started in year 2007 and
completed in year 2009. 11 numbers of rock fills were
erected. A total of about 400,000 cum of Rock fill has
been put into use and the amount of cement and steel
employed was very minimal for a stretch of 7.5 Km
crossing. The Bye pass was opened in year 2009 and
vehicles have been plying ever since. Accidents which
were common in Kasara Ghat have been drastically
reduced because of this bye pass. The time taken for
completion of this project was much less compared to
other options.
The Project in NH-3 of 99.5 KM long could be
completed in Toto because of this exercise within
reasonable time frame.
Settlement history:
It was predicted that on account of the massive
weight some settlement was prone to occur. In
the initial years this would be predominant and in
subsequent years this will dwindle down. As was
expected some longitudinal cracks were observed in
the first year immediately after rains in rock fills no
2 and 10. These were repaired and did not surface or
reoccur in subsequent years. However, the settlement
characteristic of rock fill embankments is constantly
monitored.
64
TECHNICAL PAPERS
References
Acknowledgements
Contribution from following personal, departments,
and institutions is gratefully acknowledged: 1. Mr.
Kim Howard, 2. NHAI, 3. Gammon India Ltd. 4.
Sdbahve Engineering Ltd.
1.
Allan J. Breitenbach Summary of Rockfill Placement

and Compaction Guidelines for Mine Structures.
2.
Jeff His & Patrick Macgregor- Control of Compaction and

Settlement of Highway Embankment.
3.
Morris. D- Centrifuge Modeling of Rock Fills

Embankments on Deep Loose Saturated Sand Deposits.
4.
J.A.Kells- Spatially Varied Flow Over Rock Fills

Embankments.
BOOK REVIEW
Shri S. Sankaralingam has authored the Book Appeal, An Engineers Poetry. A complimentary copy
as sent by the author is available in IRC Library. Being the Member of IRC fraternity, Members may
like to purchase/refer this Book. It will be beneficial to the road sector fraternity. The copies of the
book can be had from Shri S. Sankaralingam, B4, Sathivel Apartments, No.3, Karnam Street, Velachery,
Chennai-600 042, Tamil Nadu, Phone No. 044-22433791 and 09940514792 (M).
OBITUARY
The Indian Roads Congress express their profound sorrow on the sad demise of Late Shri Ram Nath
Sharma, Resident of Mitra Vihar-6, Opposite Vishnuplace, West Boring Canal Road, Patna (Bihar) and
Late Shri P.C. Das, Resident of Nirvikalpa, Williams Tgown, Deoghar (Bihar). They were very active
members of the Indian Roads Congress.
May their souls rest in peace.
65
TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT

SYSTEM FOR CONTROL OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
IN INDIAN CITIES
Jyotirmaya Behera*
ABSTRACT
This paper demonstrates the necessity of ITS infrastructures
in different cities in India for traffic control management and
to tackle the rising menace of road accidents and fatalities. As
the number of vehicles increased everyday on Indian roads,
the average motorists spend hours in traffic jam which leads to
billions of rupees wasted every year. New technology such as
Loop detectors, red light cameras , Electronic display signs, and
parking control system are explained with various beneficial. ITS
maximize the capacity of infrastructure, reducing the need to
build additional highway capacity. For example, applying realtime traffic data to our traffic signal lights can improve traffic flow
significantly, reducing stops by as much as 40 percent, reducing
travel time by 25 percent, cutting fuel consumption by 10 percent
and thereby reducing the carbon emission.
INTRODUCTION
Traffic is a growing problem in almost every city

in the India[16]. The total 4.69 million kilometer
length road network is one of the largest in world,
comprising national highways, state highways, major
district roads, village and other roads[3]. National and
state highways together carry approximately 80% of
the total passenger and goods traffic in the country[21].
As the number of vehicles on roads increased, the
average Indian motorists spend hours in traffic delays
in major cities everyday due to lack of urban planning,
traffic mismanagement, and parking control[2]. The
total vehicles registered during 2011 in the country
comparing with the top five states registrations are
shown in Fig. 1[11, 17].
The literature reviews shows that the cost of traffic
congestion just in the United States is $78 billion,
representing the 4.5 billion hours of travel time and 6.8
billion gallons of fuel wasted sitting in traffic[1]. The
*

66
UITP assesses the annual costs of traffic congestion in

Europe at 120 billion, which equals one percent of
the gross domestic product of the EU-15 countries[7].
But in India, there was no research how much billion
of rupees wasted due to traffic congestion in major
cities[13]. But it is reported that 134,000 road crash
fatalities and 21 million serious injuries, the social
cost attributed to this traffic mismanagement is
approximately around Rs. 1,000 billion[2]. The one
of national news paper also reported India loses $20
billion due to road accidents annually[6]. Today India
leads the world in road traffic accidents and also has
the highest fatality rate due to road traffic accidents in
the world. According to the research data released by
the road ministry, the biggest killers on the road every
year are trucks only[18]. Fig. 2 shows that with over
140,000 deaths annually occurred and the alarming
figures reveals that 14 people die in every hour of
road accidents in India. The same figure reflects
higher exposure to risk due to heterogeneous nature
of traffic, lack of traffic separation and intelligent
transport system.
Fig. 1 Total Number of Vehicles Registered During 2011 in Top

Five States Compared to Total Vehicles Registered in India
Former Highway Consultant, North Mahanadi Vihar, Cuttack-753004, Odisha,

E-mail: jyotirmayabehera@rediffmail.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 2 Showing Increased Numbers of Accident, Numbers Killed, Numbers Injured, and
Numbers of Fatality in Road Accidents in India
The efficiency in movement of traffic is to be

scientifically resolved. While many think improving a
countrys transportation system solely means building
new roads or repairing aging infrastructures, the future
of transportation lies not only in concrete and steel, but
also increasingly in using Information Technology[14].
The Intelligent Transport System (ITS) enables
elements within the transportation system-vehicles,
roads, traffic lights, message signs, etc.- to become
intelligent by embedding them with microchips and
sensors and empowering them to communicate with
each other through wireless technologies[12]. In the
leading nations like Australia, France, Germany,
Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Singapore,
South Korea, the UK and the US, ITS bring significant
improvement in transportation system performance,
including reduced congestion and increased safety and
traveler convenience. Billions more rupees have been
spent on road sector but not on IT systems to alleviate
this logjam in India. Adequate use of centralized
traffic-light management systems and advanced
parking solutions will improve congestion. So the ITS
literature is very widespread with papers appearing in

seemingly unrelated venues[19].
In India, ITS is still new and not even captured in
infrastructure development at the Government level
in many states till date. Government transportation
agencies are seeking out new and cheaper technology.
There are challenges for scientists, engineers and
traffic managers for maintaining the flow traffic
on roads, keeping traffic flowing in the cities, and
integrating parked vehicles into normal flowing
traffic with least possible disturbances. In this paper,
the author is attempting to make a comprehensive
list of ITS literature, to give an overview of all
existing techniques and see how ubiquitous digital
devices will aid in easing our traffic woes and
also discusses various technologies available for
implementation.
2
INTELLIGENT
(ITS)
TRANSPORT
SYSTEM
Transportation systems are networks of information

like, whether a traffic signal knows there is traffic
67
TECHNICAL PAPERS
waiting to pass through an intersection; whether a
vehicle is drifting out of its lane; whether two vehicles
are likely to collide at an intersection; whether a
roadway is congested with traffic; what the true cost
of operating a roadway is; etc. The ITS empower
actors in the transportation system-from commuters,
to highway and transit network operators, to the actual
devices, such as traffic lights, actionable information
to make better-informed decisions, choosing to take
route when to travel; whether to take mass transit
instead of driving; how to optimize traffic signals;
where to build new roadways. This information can
be used both to maximize the operational performance
of the transportation network and to move towards
performance based funding for transportation systems.
ITS also represent an emerging new infrastructure
platform, from which a whole host of new products
and services are likely to emerge, many which can
barely be imagined. ITS applications can be grouped
in five different categories:
1.
Advanced Traveler Information Systems: It

provide drivers with real-time information,
such as transit routes and schedules; navigation
directions; and information about delays due to
congestion, accidents, weather conditions, or
road repair work.
2.
Advanced
Transportation
Management
Systems include traffic control devices, such as
traffic signals, ramp meters, emergency vehicle
pre-emption system, variable message signs,
and traffic operations centers.
3.
ITS-Enabled Transportation Pricing Systems

include systems such as electronic toll collection,
congestion pricing, fee-based express lanes,
and vehicle miles traveled usage-based fee
systems.
4.
Advanced Public Transportation Systems, for

example, allow trains and buses to report their
position so that passengers can be informed
of their real-time status (arrival and departure
information).
68
5.
Fully integrated intelligent transportation

systems, such as vehicle-to-infrastructure
and vehicle-to-vehicle integration, enable
communication among assets in the
transportation system, for example, from
vehicles to roadside sensors, traffic lights, and
other vehicles.
Fig. 3 shows South Korea is the leading nation in

the world for ITS investment compared to USA till
date[8, 9]. Asian countries like Japan, South Korea and
Singapore stand out as world leaders in ITS[15]. ITS
deliver five key classes of benefits by: 1) increasing
safety, 2) improving operational performance,
particularly by reducing congestion, 3) enhancing
mobility and convenience, 4) delivering environmental
benefits, and 5) boosting productivity and expanding
economic and employment growth.
Fig. 3 Investment in ITS as a Share of GDP

Amongst Selected Countries
TRAFFIC CONTROL MANAGEMENT
For many years now, freedom of movement on our

roads has become increasingly restricted. Our roads
paint a picture of slow moving traffic and congestion
over many kilometres. In most cases, further expansion
of the road network is meeting natural limits. Better use
of the existing road network can be made with traffic
control technology. The traffic control management is
nothing but traffic planning, traffic information, and
traffic management which are essential for interurban
traffic, urban traffic, and for parking of vehicles. The
interurban traffic control includes expressway or
highways control systems, tunnel control, and toll
TECHNICAL PAPERS
collections. Further urban traffic control includes
area traffic control systems, public transport
priority, emergency vehicle preemption systems,
planning tools, monitoring, analysing, controlling and
visualizing. Parking control includes pay and display
machines, car park systems, guidance systems, and
parking management. Fig. 4 depicts user service
logical for managing traffic systems.
Fig. 4 User Service Logical Flows for Managing Traffic
Over the past two decades, different states have

installed billions of rupees worth of electronics like
traffic signs to keep an eye on and manage traffic which
are at present insufficient and obsolete technology.
Here are the three basic devices used in managing
traffic today in leading developed nations:

Loop detectors
Video cameras
Electronic display signs
Loop detectors are wires embedded in the road bitumen

surface that detect small changes in electrical voltage
caused by a passing vehicle and loop detectors also
considers as an integral part of Area Traffic Control
System (ATCS). Traffic speed can be determined by
detecting how quickly cars pass between two sets of
loop detectors (See Fig. 5 (a) & (b)). Volume and
speed data is transmitted to a central server, which
can be monitored by local transportation departments
or traffic police headquarters and of public transport
control centres. If the detectors sense a slowdown or
an increased quantity in traffic, staff can use video
cameras to get a better understanding of whats
causing it. The ATCS is an indigenous solution for
Indian Road Traffic which was developed by CDAC,
Thiruvananthapuram, which optimizes traffic signal,
covering a set of roads for an area in a city. It is an
intelligent traffic signal control system that use
data from loop detectors and optimize traffic signal
settings in an area to reduce vehicle delays and stops.
These control systems are already in use in very few
cities like Chennai, Pune, Jaipur, and Ahmedabad
respectively.
Fig. 5: a) Loop Detectors Placed in the Asphalt Surface to Detect Speed and Movement of Vehicles Pass Over the Loops
b) Inductance Loop Detectors
Meanwhile, messages can be displayed on electronic

signs to warn motorists of congestion ahead and to
advise of alternate routes. The traditional loops in the
road and cameras up on poles and staffs sitting behind
desks looking at monitors are too expensive. Installing
these detectors, cameras and signs is a long process to
complete, and will costing billions of rupees for state
and central governments to implement. Transportation
officials in developed nations are now searching for
cheaper alternatives for managing traffic. In the next

section, one will learn how a new traffic-management
system will utilize communication devices already in
place to ease traffic flow.
4
FUTURE TRAFFIC TRACKING
There are more than 866 million cell-phone users in

the India[10]. Each day, thousands more sign up. The
radio signals emitted from these devices can reveal
69
TECHNICAL PAPERS
our location at anytime. This ability to locate cellphone users will become a vital component of future
traffic-management systems[4]. Listening posts are
placed throughout a city, either next to a cell-phone
base station or in independent locations. Listening
posts are comparable to half a base station: They can
detect but not transmit radio signals. Three listening
posts are needed to get a two-dimensional position of
a cell-phone user. Listening posts detect cell-phone
transmission; decode it and then time-stamp the arrival
of a wave front from the transmission. Fig. 6 shows
how cell phone works for traffic management.
Fig. 6 Typical Demonstration of Cell Phone System

Work in a City
Once three towers have time-stamped a transmission,

the information is quickly sent to a central server to
determine the cell phones position on a highway. A
position is determined by locating the intersection

of the hyperbolas from the radio waves detected by
the listening posts. By analyzing how long it takes
the radio wave to reach the listening post from the
cell phone, a computer can calculate almost precisely
where someone is located on the highway. If the
persons location on the map is shown as off the
highway, the computer corrects for this and snaps the
location to the road. The entire process of detecting
a persons position occurs in seconds. It is not only
supports Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
but also Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) air
interfaces. This technology can be implemented by
collaborating with cell-phone service providers. The
service, which would allow cell-phone users to receive
instant, personalized traffic warnings at cheaper cost
per month.
This system can provide automatically by reliable
information taking account of traffic jams and road
closures. One can receive correct information about
our planned route and even the expected time of arrival
via the internet, the radio or the telephone. Dynamic
display panels recommend alternative routes; and can
warning on fog or traffic jams, and set speed limits.
All of these services amount to a significant victory of
innovative communication technology, as making this
kind of information available involves a large number
of technical systems for collecting, processing and
exchanging data (see Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 Technologies Associated with Real-Time Traffic Information Systems
70
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5
TOLL COLLECTION SYSTEM
To supplement cell-phone tracking systems,

transportation agencies are also installing additional
electronic toll tag readers along major highways in
some of Indian cities. In some cities where toll booths
are common, radio-frequency tags are attached to
vehicles. As vehicles pass the reader, it detects the tag
and subtracts a set amount of money from a prepaid
account. In addition to the conventional pay-at booth
tolling systems, new technology to enable fast-flow
automatic payment through designated lanes and
free-flow automatic payment where space is limited
(on expressways or in urban areas). These electronic
payment methods, already in use in many countries
around the world, improve traffic throughput
dramatically and assist in the reduction of congestion.
Thanks to the innovative technology, the accounting
processes, from issuing a receipt to electronic debiting,
can take place in a completely automated fashion and
increase the security of transferring funds into the
operators account.
These radio tags, or transponders, can be used to time
vehicles between points in an expressway system or
National Highways (see Fig. 8 and 9). Unlike with a
toll booth, drivers would not have to slow down for
the reading device. They would merely drive past it.
By analyzing a particular vehicles time between two
points, a computer can determine the vehicles location
and speed. These tags and the cell-phone tracking
systems will make it almost impossible for someone to
travel undetected, which has raised privacy concerns
about this new technology.
Fig. 8 Illustration of Application of Radio Tags in Toll Booth
Fig. 9 View of Toll Gate System on Expressway
WARNING SIGN
Once information is detected from cell phones, it has

to be disseminated to motorists. In order for drivers
to be routed around traffic, they must be informed of
how fast the traffic is flowing, if its congestion or if
there is an incident blocking traffic altogether. This
is where the cell-phone service provider comes into
the picture. The provider would send this information
out to customers. There are three different ways to
transmit information to motorists namely web site,
cell phones, and electronic road signs.
Collected information is fed into a large repository that
can be accessed via a web site. A map on the screen
would show various roadways in green, yellow and
red colour to indicate free-flowing traffic; slow traffic
and congestion respectively (see Fig. 10). Registered
users, whose locations are known, are sent customized
traffic reports based on the road and direction in which
they are traveling. Systems will also advise users of
alternate routes around congested areas. Information
is displayed on conventional electronic road signs.
Fig. 10 Traffic Information Site on the Dash Board of a Car
71
TECHNICAL PAPERS
By getting information to the customers more quickly,
developers believe that commuters will have enough
time to react to these warnings and find alternative
around the congested areas. This would be an advance
compared to how information is released today, which
is primarily through radio or television news reports.
By the time the radio and TV report an incident, its
typically too late for most commuters to act on the
information. In the next few years, we will learn for
ourselves whether these new technologies will make
our commute to work easier or if our only hope is to
find a way to stay home.
7
RED-LIGHT CAMERAS FOR TRAFFIC

CONTROL
According to the accident survey report, every year

road accidents kill hundreds of people in India (i.e.,
total road accident deaths in 2011 was 142,485),
injured thousands and rack up several hundred
millions of rupees in property damage, medical bills,
lost productivity and insurance hikes[3, 5]. In many
areas, red-light violations have increased day by day.
To curb this trend, more and more cities are requiring
installation of red-light cameras. Very few cities like
New Delhi, Hyderabad and Bangalore have red-light
cameras on some busy junctions.
These fully automated devices collect all of the
evidence; details of violations are entered in the
computer at traffic police stations and sent to central
server in traffic control centre. If a camera catches
speeding vehicle through the intersection, driver of the
vehicle can expect an e-challan. An e-challan is issued
to the cars owner, no matter whos actually driving. In
some developed countries, the red-light camera only
needs to photograph the car from behind, since the
authorities only need a clear view of the rear license
plate. In other developed nations, the actual driver is
responsible for paying the challan. In this case, the
system needs a second camera in front of the car, in
order to get a shot of the drivers face. The e-challan
is still sent to the cars owner, but the authorities have
the information available if there is any disagreement
down the line. An e-challan system prints the challans
and forward to the postal department in two days
72
and postal department delivers the challan to the

respondent in three or four days. Every e-challan is
booked with photo evidence and notices are generated
in the form of Inland letter. The violators can pay the
fine at any e-seva and online payment centres.
In this paper, one will look at the basic elements in
these systems to find out how they catch drivers redhanded. The system includes only three essential
elements such as one or more cameras, one or more
triggers, and a computer. In a typical system, cameras
are positioned at the corners of an intersection on
poles a few meters high (see Fig. 11). The cameras
point inward, so they can photograph vehicles driving
through the intersection. Generally, a red-light system
has cameras at all four corners of an intersection,
to photograph vehicles going in different directions
and get pictures from different angles. Some systems
use film cameras, but most new systems use digital
cameras (see Fig. 12).
Fig. 11 Multiple Cameras are Mounted High Above the

Intersection to get a Full View of any Traffic Violators
Fig. 12 Most Modern Red-Light-Camera

Systems use Digital Cameras
TECHNICAL PAPERS
7.1
Role of Triggers
There are a number of trigger technologies, but

they all serve the same purpose: They detect when a
vehicle has moved past a particular point in the road.
Red-light systems typically have two induction-loop
triggers positioned under the road near the stop line.
The computer is the brain behind the operation. It is
wired to the cameras, the triggers and the traffic-light
circuit itself. The computer constantly monitors the
traffic signal and the triggers. If a vehicle sets off a
trigger when the light is red, the computer takes two
pictures to document the violation. The first picture
shows the vehicle just on the edge of the intersection
and the second picture shows the vehicle in the
middle of the intersection in city roads of Hyderabad
(see Fig. 13).
inductance. The change of the inductance is possible

by introducing additional conductive materials into
the loops magnetic field. This is what happens when
a car pulls up to the intersection. The huge mass of
vehicle over an induction loop alters the magnetic
field around the loop, changing its inductance.
Fig. 14 Change of the Loops Electromagnetic Field when a Car

Drives over an Induction Loop
Fig. 13 Red-Light Camera Captures the First Picture of a Bus

Just on the Edge of the Intersection while Red Traffic Light is on
The main trigger technology used in red-light systems

is the induction loop. An induction-loop trigger is a
length of electrical wire buried just under the asphalt.
Usually, the wire is laid out in a couple of rectangular
loops resting on top of each other (see Fig. 14).
Positioning the wire in concentric loops as in any
electromagnet, amplifies this field. This sort of field
affects not only objects around the loop, but also the
loop itself. The magnetic field induces an electrical
voltage in the wire that is counter to the voltage of the
circuit as a whole. This significantly alters the flow
of current through the circuit. The intensity of this
induction depends on the structure and composition
of the loop; changing the layout of the wires or using
a different conductive material will change the loops
The meter in the system constantly monitors the total

inductance level of the circuit. When the inductance
changes significantly, the computer recognizes this
shift and knows that a car has passed over the loop.
This is the most common trigger mechanism, but its
not the only one in use. Some areas have had success
with radar, laser or air-tube sensors. One emerging
trigger mechanism is the video loop. In this system, a
computer analyzes a video feed from the intersection.
As the computer receives each new video frame, it
checks for substantial changes at specific points in the
image. The computer is programmed to recognize the
particular changes that indicate a car moving through
the intersection. If the light is red and the computer
recognizes this sort of change, it activates the still
cameras. The main advantage of this system is no dig
up the road is required to install, and the trigger can
adjust at any time. Essentially, it is a virtual inductiveloop trigger. The trigger mechanism is not worth
much if it is not connected to a computer. In the next
section, well see how a red-light systems computer
puts everything together to construct a case against
any traffic violators.
73
TECHNICAL PAPERS
7.2
Functions of Red-Lights
As we saw in the previous section, a red-light-camera

system is controlled by a computer (See Fig. 15). The
computer doesnt turn on until it receives a signal
that the light is red. If one is already in the middle of
the intersection when the light turns red, the system
will not activate the cameras. Some systems wait a
fraction of a second after the light turns red, to give
drivers a grace period.
of the delay based on the measured speed of the car.

Its important to get two pictures of the car to show
that it entered the intersection when the light was
red and then proceeded through the intersection (see
Fig. 16). To fully document the violation, the computer
superimposes some extra information on these two
photos which includes date, time, intersection location,
speed, and the total time between when the light
turned red and the car entered the intersection. With
all of the information superimposed on the picture, the
police have everything they need to charge the driver
by sending the e-challans. Additionally, they are a
good source of government revenue. It doesnt cost
much to maintain the system once its installed, and it
works round the year, systematically catching traffic
violators and sending out e-challans that are really
hard to contest.
Fig. 15 The Central Control Box Houses the Computer which

Activates the Cameras Based on Information it Receives from
the Traffic Lights and Triggers
In most systems, the computer will not activate the

cameras if a car is just sitting over the induction
loops. To trigger the cameras, one has to move over
the loops at a particular speed. In most systems, there
are two loop triggers for each lane of traffic. When
the triggers are both activated in quick succession,
the computer knows a car has moved into the
intersection at high speed. If there is more of a delay,
the computer knows the car is moving more slowly.
If the car activates only the first trigger, the computer
knows it is stopped at the edge of the intersection.
When a car activates both triggers after the light is
red, the computer automatically captures a picture.
This first shot shows the car just as it is entering the
intersection. The computer then hesitates briefly and
takes another shot. This catches the car in the middle
of the intersection. The computer calculates the length
74
Fig. 16 The User Interface is Well Structured and SelfExplanatory, Featuring a Clear and Unambiguous Image Display
7.3
Vehicle Pre-emption System
The Vehicle Pre-emption System (VPS) in which traffic

signals sense an approaching ambulances, fire engines
and other high priority vehicles and automatically
turn green. Such systems are designed to increase
safety, reduce emergency response times and enhance
public transit operations[20]. The area traffic control
system in Chennai near the new Secretariat complex
is now operational with provision of emergency
VPS. The optical emitter activated system and siren
activated system are most common use of VPS (see
Fig. 17 (a) & (b)).
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 17 a) Showing Optical Emitter Activated b) Siren Activated Vehicle Pre-emption System
PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT
The Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) instrument is a

hand held and portable instrument (see Fig. 18). It can
replace the old challan books already in use by traffic
police in many cities. This hand held instrument has
debit/credit card swiping facility, wireless connectivity
to the e-challan server, instant printout of the pending
challans to the violators and equipped with GPS/
GPRS facility and live connection with server through
GSM modem.
Fig. 18 PDA with Multiple Facilities for Spot Challan Booking
Traffic police can use for spot payment by violators

and can trace pending e-challans on entering the
vehicle registration numbers. With in-built cameras,
violations can be captured and uploaded onto the
server to generate e-challans immediately. Smart card
system facility is used to read driving license. These
days laser gun cameras are installed in the specified
areas in the identified locations where violations

occur. Laser gun cameras mounted on the tripod
is focused towards vehicles movement directions.
Laser gun cameras capture the snap shots along with
speed details of vehicles violating the speed limits.
E-challans will generate and sent to concerned vehicle
owners.
9
PARKING MANAGEMENT
In some cities, every third driver is looking for a

parking space. This does not necessarily have anything
to do with a shortage of parking spaces, but with a
lack of information about the location and number of
available spaces. Parking guidance systems provide
customized solutions because every city is different
(see Fig. 19). Every city has its own traffic structures,
own topography and own financial possibilities. The
traffic engineering concept, the traffic data and the
comprehensive information network are defined in
such a way as to match each urban traffic situation.
Even on the outskirts, dynamic displays guide the
driver to parking spaces and to multi-storey car parks.
In the multi-storey car park, every space can be
monitored by ultrasound sensors. All information is
monitored online in the management center, which
relieves the driver of the chore of finding a parking
space. This guarantees optimum use of multi-storey car
park capacities, it boosts demand and high customer
satisfaction and further reduces carbon emissions by
minimizing the number of drivers searching for a
parking space.
75
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 19 Parking Guidance System on Road
The pay and display machines particularly, the latest

generation of is held to be exemplary throughout the
world because of their reliability and the fact that they
accommodate both customers and operators needs.
The road side parking machines works in networking
via the mobile radio network and permits electronic
payment e.g. smart cards. This reduces the cost and
security of emptying cash boxes because all data is
transmitted by radio to a clearing center. Stainless
steel housings also offer protection against vandalism
(see Fig. 20). The processing and payment of parking
fees as well as the display of service information via
represent significant innovations and are developing
into fascinating future markets.
transportation funding is often allocated or planned in

different states without consideration of performance,
giving transportation planners little incentive to
preference investments that can have a maximum
impact on optimizing system performance.
Unfortunately, India lags the leading nations
particularly Japan, Singapore, and South Korea in
ITS deployment in Asia. For the most part, this has
been the result of two key factors: a continued lack
of adequate funding for ITS and the lack of the right
organizational system to drive ITS in the various
states of India.
It is no doubt that ITS is contributing to a fundamental
reassessment of vehicle safety. Whereas most
developments in transportation safety over the past
50 years were designed to protect passengers in the
event of a crash, and are designed to help motorists
avoid the accidents altogether. Research data reveals
that 83.50 % of accident cases are caused due to driver
negligence in India[3]. We need to arrest the growth
of road accidents and reverse the trend is possible by
ITS environment only. ITS not only maximizes the
capacity of infrastructure but also reducing the need
to build additional highway capacity. For example,
applying real-time traffic data to our traffic signal
lights can improve traffic flow significantly, reducing
stops by as much as 40 percent, reducing travel time
by 25 percent, cutting fuel consumption by 10 percent
and thereby reducing the carbon emission. ITS also
enable transportation agencies to collect the real-time
data needed to measure and improve the performance
of the transportation system, making ITS the
centerpiece of efforts to reform surface transportation
systems and hold providers accountable for results.
Our transportation system is required to be developed
strategically to help grow and diversify the economy
and enhance our quality of life.
REFERENCES
Fig. 20 Parking Payment Machine
10 CONCLUSIONS
This paper discussed details about the technology
associated with ITS environment. In our country,
76
1.
Ayman S, and Kate M. (2005) Intelligent Transportation

Systems (ITS) State Wide Plan, Final Report, Prepared
for: North Dakota Department of Transportation, Prepared
by: Advanced Traffic Analysis Center, Upper Great Plains
Transportation Institute North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota, USA.
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2.
Baluja, R. (2012), How to Get out of the Traffic Logjam,

The Times of India, 17 Jan 12, BBSR, pp. 8.
17.
3.
Basic Road Statistics of India, Govt. of India, Ministry of

Road Transport & Highways, Transport Research Wing,
New Delhi, August 2012.
Sethi, A. and Rautela, P. (2012), Country on Wheels,

The Times of India, 17 January 2012, Bhubaneswar,
pp. 08.
18.
Sobhana, K. (2012), 80s the Limit: in Built Speed Curb

Plan for Trucks, The Telegraph, Bhubaneswar, pp.4.
4.
Borriello G. Thies W. and Chaudhri, R. (2010), Foneastra:

Making mobile phones smarter. In proceeding of 4th
ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing
Regions, June 15th, 2010 - San Francisco, CA.
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Sen, R. and Raman, B. (2012), Intelligent Transport

Systems for Indian Cities, In proceedings of 6th USENIX/
ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing
Regions, NSDR12, June 12-15, Boston, MA.
5.
Das Gupta, M. (2012) Every 3 minutes, an Indian Dies in

a Road Accident Hindustan Times, New Delhi, July 23.
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6.
Dash D.K. (2012) India Loses $20bn Annually to Road

Accidents Feb 24, Times of India, New Delhi.
7.
Ezell, Stephen (2010), Explaining International IT

Application Leadership: Intelligent Transportation
Systems, January, The Information Technology and
Innovation Foundation, Siemens Industrial Solutions and
Services, Munich.
Traffic Signal Preemption for Emergency Vehicles:

A Cross-Cutting Study Putting the First in First
Response, (2006), National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation,
January , Washington, DC 20590.
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Zamakona, J. (2011), ITS and Sustainable Transport,

Inter Traffic World India, Special Issues, Oct, India.
8.
Global Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Industry

(2012), Global Industry Analysts, Inc., San Jose, USA,
Oct 2012, 627 pages.
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GDPpurchasing power parity 2008 country ranks The

2008 World Factbook, http://www.photius.com/rankings/
economy/gdp_purchasing_power_parity_2008_0.html.
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http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10 20/
telecom/30302162_1_subscriber-base-user-base-newusers.
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http://knowindia.net/auto.html
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Integrated Traffic Solutions for all Requirements,

Intelligent Traffic Systems, Siemens Industrial Solutions
and Services, Munich , www.siemens.com/traffic.
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Jain, V, Sharma, A., and Subramanian, L. (2012), Road

Traffic Congestion in the Developing World, In the
Proceedings of 2nd ACM Symposium on Computing for
Development, Article No.11, New York, ISBN:978-14503-1262-2.
14.
Opruk, P. and Aicher, P. (2006), The Future of Traffic

More Mobility in Population Centers Siemens Industrial
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Road Safety is no Accident, (2011) Synthesis Report

of Four Working Groups on Education, Enforcement,
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National Road Safety Council, MORTH, Government of
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Traffic & Transport Engineering, Vol. 2(4), pp.286-305.
__________
77
Change of Scope in BOT/DBFOT Mode

S.S. Joshi*
The Change of Scope (in relation to Projects on PPP

modes) generally signifies the legitimate variations
required to be executed vis--vis total Scope of Works
and is akin to deviation/variation of BOQ/EPC mode
of agreement. All Contract/Agreements may invariably
requires inclusion or exclusion of certain work/(s) and
to facilitate such changes without vitiating the contract
(with or without reimbursement) appropriate provision
in the name and style of Change of Scope has been
included in the Model Concession Agreement (MCA)
for construction of 2/4 laining of highways on PPP
modes with its all possible variants.
Apart from effective finance/fund management and
specified budget allocations, the basic idea of adopting
BOT/DBFOT (variants of PPP mode) is to avoid,
to the extent possible any inclusion of work at post
agreement stage. Only certain inevitable addition or
for Safer and improved Services, such inclusion
may be considered. The underlying idea is to freeze
the Cost at the Agreement/Contract stage itself for
smooth budget management by the Authority. But of
late, it is noticed that the COS provision as contained
in MCA has not been understood properly.
There has all along been difference of opinion
about the correct interpretation of COS among the
Concessionaire, NHAI and IE across the Country.
The rational view demands for the holistic reading
of the existing Model Concession Agreement (MCA)
precluding any room for diverse opinions about
COS.
At various ongoing Projects, the Concessionaires
have been pinning hopes to get the COS as per their
understanding of the term COS. The views of different
relevant stake holders vary in this regard.
An attempt has been made to put to rest once and for
all such doubt/confusion by bringing out the correct
and simplified construction of the term COS by
taking holistic view of this important issue with
*
78
conjoint reading of all other related Clauses/Articles

of existing MCA in relation to the Change of Scope
(COS).
After arriving at a general agreement on this ticklish
issue, bidder at the time of bidding shall be very clear
about his expressed and implied Scope of Work,
more so when agreement excludes doctrine of contra
proferentem vide Art. 1.2.3 of M.
MCA (Albeit it is debatable whether it shall stand to
judicial scrutiny). So also, the Authority (NHAI) shall
also be sure of its budget allocation.
Nonetheless, the clarity about COS shall lead to a
healthy competition and thus time and other resources
shall not be wasted in labyrinthine procedural
requirements with eventual rejection or substantial
curtailment of the submitted claims of alleged COS.
Needless to mention that such situation causes
adverse impact on the Project progress as a whole to
the detriment of interest of all concerned.
The collateral adverse impact includes all successful
bidders/concessionaires feel cheated and carry an
impression that their legitimate right is trampled upon
while taking recourse to time consuming arbitration
path. Such situation can be easily avoided by correct
understanding of the seemingly cryptic Clauses/
Articles of the MCA. Through this article, exact/
rational meaning of the existing clauses of MCA
related to COS shall be available to all and shall
definitely be of utmost interest to the Concessionaire/
NHAI and IE.
Relevant Articles/Clauses of MCA
1.
Article 2.0
2.
Article 8.0 (Disclaimer)
3.
Schedule A, B, C, & D
4.
Article 16 (Change of Scope)
Team Leader, URS Scott Wilson India Private Limited, E-mail: ssjoshi70@rediffmail.com, Shankar.joshi@urs.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The change of Scope is defined under Article 16.1
of MCA as under:
16.1.1 The Authority may, notwithstanding
anything to the contrary contained in this Agreement,
require the provision of additional works and services
which are not included in the Scope of the Project
as contemplated by this Agreement (the Change of
Scope). Any such change of Scope shall be made
in accordance with the provisions of this Article16 and the costs thereof shall be expended by the
Concessionaire and reimbursed to it by the Authority
in accordance with Clause 16.3.
16.1.2 If the Concessionaire determines at any time
that a Change of Scope is necessary for providing
safer and improved services to the Users, it shall by
notice in writing require the Authority to consider
such Change of Scope. The Authority shall, within 15
(fifteen) days of receipt of such notice, either accept
such Change of Scope with modifications, if any, and
initiate proceeding thereof in accordance with this
Article 16 or inform the Concessionaire in writing of
its reasons for not accepting such Change of Scope.
16.1.3 Any works or services which are provided
under and in accordance with this Article 16 shall
form part of the Project Highway and provisions of
this Agreement shall apply mutatis mutandis to such
work or services.
Careful reading of Article 16.0 provides that COS
occurs in the following two situations:
A.
At the Behest of the Authority
of Construction of Project Highway by getting the

minimum essential works executed, yet this Art 16.1.1
overrides all such limitations/restrictions, if any, to go
beyond mere fulfilling the bare minimum requirement
for construction of Project Highway to be through.
This Article increases the width and amplitude of
Authoritys jurisdiction which may go beyond the
mere construction of Highway/structures essential for
completion of Project Highway with minimum safety
requirements.
For avoidance of doubt, the content of this Article
(The very first sentence of Art 16.1.1) does not in
any way mean to override the provision/exclusion of
COS mentioned elsewhere in the MCA including
as mentioned in Art. 8 of MCA but affords a window
to legally and contractually exercise power to add
works over and above the essential works of Project
Highways by the Authority (NHAI).
Hence, Art. 16.1.1 of MCA, merely increases power
of Authority (NHAI) as mentioned above without
vitiating the contract.
Now, referring to Art.16.1.1 the question arises as
to what it means by additional work which are not
included in the scope of the project as contemplated
by this agreement.
The pertinent words requiring correct interpretation
are Additional Work and Scope of the Project as
contemplated by this Agreement and not as seemingly
implied by Art.2 which covers the aspect of Scope in
inclusive terms.
When Authority wants some Additional works

and services to be provided/executed (which are
not included in the Scope of Project) through the
Concessionaire or any executing Agency, such
provision is available and is contained in Art 16.1.1
of MCA.
If we look at Art. 2.1 read with Art.16.1.1 alone then

on peripheral reading it appears that the work other
than as specified in Schedule B & C to be executed
as per Scheduled D, constitutes Additional works.
But as a matter of fact this is not so as is explained
hereunder:
In Art 16.1.1, this power/authority has been vested on

the Authority (NHAI), notwithstanding anything to the
contrary contained in this agreement. This implies that
even if there is absence of such empowering provisions
elsewhere in the entire MCA or the Authority through
other Articles/Clauses is made restrained in its power
and guided to remain confined within specified ambit
Firstly, let us see and analyze Art. 2 of MCA:
Art. 2 (Scope of the Project) of MCA is mentioned

as under:
The scope of the Project (the Scope of the Project)
shall mean and include, during the Concession
Period:
79
TECHNICAL PAPERS

a)
Construction of the Project Highway

on the Site set forth in Schedule A and
as specified in scheduled-B together
with provision of the project Facilities
as specified in Schedule-C, and in
conformity with the Specifications and
Standards set forth in Schedule-D;
b)
Operation and maintenance of the

Project Highway in accordance with the
provisions of this Agreement; and
c)
Performance and fulfillment of all other

obligation of the Concessionaire in
accordance with the provisions of this
Agreement and matters incidental thereto
or necessary for the performance of any or
all the obligations of the Concessionaire
under this Agreement.
But if we analyze deeply the import of Art. 2 of MCA,

we realize that the Scope of the Project may cover
provisions made elsewhere in the agreement as well,
including incidental activities to fulfill all obligations
of the Concessionaire in accordance with the provision
of this Agreement. Here it is evident that the definition
of Scope of the Project under Art. 2 is inclusive and not
exhaustive in its expressed amplitude. This necessarily
means that the other provisions of MCA are capable
to include/add some of the works/items into the Scope
of the Project. One such relevant Article mentioned in
MCA is Art.8 which is reproduced as under:
Article 8 (Disclaimer)
8.1.1 The Concessionaire acknowledges that prior
to the execution of this Agreement, the Concessionaire
has, after a complete and careful examination,
made an independent evaluation of the Request for
Qualification, Request for Proposals, Scope of the
Project, Specifications and Standards, Site, existing
structures, local conditions, physical qualities of
ground, subsoil and geology, traffic volumes and all
information provided by the Authority or obtained,
procured or gathered otherwise, and has determined to
its satisfaction the accuracy or otherwise thereof and
extent of difficulties, risks and hazards as are likely to
arise or may be faced by it in the course of performance
80
of its obligations hereunder. The Authority makes

no representation whatsoever, express, implicit
or otherwise, regarding the accuracy, adequacy,
correctness, reliability and/or completeness of any
assessment, assumptions, statement or information
provided by it and the Concessionaire confirms that it
shall have no claim whatsoever against the Authority
in this regard.
8.1.2 The Concessionaire acknowledges and hereby
accepts the risk of inadequacy, mistake or error in
or relating to any of the matters set forth in Clause
8.1.1 above and hereby acknowledges and agrees that
the Authority shall not be liable for the same in any
manner whatsoever to the Concessionaire, Associates
or any person claiming through or under any of them.
8.1.3 The Parties agree that any mistake or error
in or relating to any of the matters set forth in
Clause 8.1.1 above shall not vitiate this Agreement, or
render it voidable.
8.1.4 In the event that either Party becomes aware
of any mistake or error relating to any of the matters
set forth in Clause 8.1.1 above, that Party shall
immediately notify the other Party, specifying the
mistake or error, provided, however, that a failure on
part of the Authority to give any notice pursuant to
this Clause 8.1.4 shall not prejudice the disclaimer of
the Authority contained in Clause 8.1.1 and shall not
in any manner shift to the Authority any risks assumed
by the Concessionaire pursuant to this Agreement.
8.1.5 Except as otherwise provided in this
Agreement, all risks relating to the Project shall be
borne by the Concessionaire and the Authority shall
not be liable in any manner for such risks or the
consequences thereof.
Now, it is amply clear that Additional Work
appearing in Art. 16.1.1 signifies any such work which
is over and above the general Project Completion
requirement. Anything (Any work) which is required
to complete the Project Highway with at least bare
minimum safety requirements shall not come under
additional works unless expressly specified so. Here
regard may be had to Art 14.3.1of MCA which
unambiguously states that the IE may at the request
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of the Concessionaire , issue a Provisional Certificate
of completion substantially in the form set forth in
Schedule J (The Provisional Certificate) if the tests
are successful and the Project Highway can be safely
and reliably placed in commercial operation..
Thus, even for Provisional Completion certificate the
Project Highway is required to be such that it can be
safely and reliably placed in commercial operation.
Now questions arise as to when and how such
additional work may be required to be undertaken.
The short answer is, when due to external reasons
some structures and/or highway works is required
to be added to the Project Highway (Here, it may
be understood that without such additional works as
well, the Project Highway may be taken as completed
and may be opened for traffic within normal safe
environment) viz- if due to local demands/public
demands some structure like PUP/VUP/ROB etc.
are additionally included on the given alignment or
alignment undergoes substantial change on public
demand which necessitates additional works of
Highways/structures over and above as required
on existing/specified alignment then such works
may be treated as Additional Works and at the
behest of Authority such work may be ordered for
COS under Art 16.1.1 of MCA to be executed by
the Concessionaire/Other executing agency without
vitiating the contract. Thereafter COS may be
processed further in accordance with Art. 16.3 of
MCA before actual execution.
B.
At the behest of the Concessionaire
Here, the Concessionaire may also initiate the COS

at any time under Art. 16.1.2. The basic requirement
under Art. 16.1.2 of MCA is that it must be for
providing Safer and Improved services to the users.
It is a common knowledge that the attributes safer
and improved services are generally complementary
to each other.
One need to see that any work/structure/activity may
be treated as COS under Art. 16.1.2 if, such provision
goes to provide/develop safer and improved
services to the users. In other words the Project
Highway shall be taken as completed only when
inter-alia, it is safe for users. This also implies that

any work/activity which is under taken or cause to be
undertaken by the Concessionaire which is essential
for bare minimum safety requirement shall not come
within the ambit of even under Art.16.1.2. As a matter
of fact that shall be part of the Scope of the Project
Highway or incidental thereto.
For avoidance of doubt, the example of works, which
may qualify for the COS under Art.16.1.2 at the
behest of Concessionaire may be as under :
If the Concessionaire determines that a Foot over
Bridge/Subway may be constructed at a particular
location, overseeing school on one side of the Project
Highway (LHS/RHS) and/or business hub on either
side of the Project highway at a particular section. By
doing so it shall further make the highway safer for
users (to avoid conflict of traffic with school going
innocent children and other pedestrians crossing
the highway), the Concessionaire may submit such
proposal to have safer and improved services to the
users over and above the regulated Zebra Crossing for
the pedestrians/Students. Such work/works definitely
qualifies for COS as indicated in Art 16.1.2 and not
otherwise.
Conclusion
In BOT/DBFOT Project, there is absolutely no
COS other than two specific situations, namely, for
additional work i.e. at the behest of the Authority and
for providing safer and improved services, which may
be initiated/determined by the Concessionaire.
The forgoing analysis of all existing provisions of
MCA in relation to COS (Change of Scope) makes
it amply clear that the Construction of Safe Project
Highway as a whole is the contractual risk and
responsibility of the Concessionaire. On Project related
to BOT/DBFOT or other variants of PPP mode, unless
a specific contrary provision exists in the agreement.
Such clarity in regard of COS shall be in the interest
of all the relevant stakeholder.
Reference
1.
Model Concession Agreement (MCA)
2.
Manual of Specification & Standards: Two Laning

Highways through Public Private Partnership.
81
82
*****
Note :
*****
*****
*****
Circular with Annexure-1 is available on Ministry's website (www.morth.nic.in) and the same is also available in the library
of Ministry & IRC
Errata to IRC:112-2011
Errata No.2/IRC:112-2011/June, 2014
To
IRC:112-2011 Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges
1.
3.2.2
(Page 13)
2.
Eq. 6.9
(Page 42)
3.
Eq. 6.12
(Page 46)
4.
10.3.5 (2)
(Page 98)
For
Clause No. & Page No.
cc (t)
IR
Sl. No.
= (t, to) =
ci(to)
Read
New Addition below z lever arm of
internal forces
n = Exponent for strain in concrete stress
block.
= (t, to) =
cc ( t )
ci ( t 0 )
ca(t) = as(t).cw
ca(t) = as(t).ca
VEd vfcd sin f cos f
vEd vfcd sin f cos f
83
84
85

June 2014

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More Than Just a Pretty Picture

An intelligent model helps designers

The final construction reflects the value

Intelligent Models from Design to Build

Why not use proven Bentley BIM transportation

New IRC Publications Released During 2013 & 2014

A Laboratory Study on Conventional CBR and DCP Method in the Mould

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Change of Scope in BOT/DBFOT Mode

82-83 Circular Issued by MORT&H

Circular Issued by MORT&H

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014

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IRC Fraternity WelcomesEDITORIAL

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24 cm x 19 cm for full page & Tender Notice

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Release orders may be sent to:

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only it is assumed that crack is going to propagate to

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