FLUID MECHANICS - Module I (5 Files Merged)

Module 1
FLUID MECHANICS
Unit 1 Properties of fluids
Learning goals for this unit

After completing this unit you will be able to,
1. Define the various properties of fluids.
2. State Newtons law of Viscosity.
3. Compare Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids.
4. Explain how temperature and pressure
influence the various properties.
5. Explain the consequences of these properties
on fluid flow.
Definition and classification.

Science that deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest (Fluid statics) or in motion (Fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries .
Classical hydrodynamics deals with an imaginary
ideal fluid (frictionless).
theoretical
Hydraulics deals with liquid flows in pipes and
open channels.
empirical
Modern fluid mechanics combines the basic
principles of hydrodynamics with experimental
techniques of hydraulics.
Definition of stress
The force, F acting on a small area A
can be resolved into two components,
namely, Fn along the normal to the area
Ft
A and Ft along the plane of A.
Fn
Fn
Normal stress, lim
A0 A
Shear stress,
Ft
lim
A0 A
Fn
- Normal force
Ft - Tangential force
What is a fluid?
How does it compare with solids?
A fluid is a substance which deforms

continuously under the action of shearing forces,
however small they may be.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in
fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate.
In solids, the deformation disappears when
force is removed (if elastic limit is not exceeded) ,
whereas, fluids will not recover its original form
when the force is removed.
Continuum hypothesis
In this approach we assume that a fluid may be

treated as a continuous substance or
continuum, rather than as a group of discrete
molecules.
How do we know if a continuum model is valid for a specific
application?
A dimensionless parameter, Knudsen number, K n

describes the degree of departure from
continuum.
Kn
mean free path

L characteristic length
Continuum hypothesis continued
Mean free path is the statistical average distance

the molecules travel between two successive
collisions.
K n 0.01
Continuum approach valid
0.01 K n 0.1 Slip flow

0.1 K n 10
K n 10
Transition flow
Free molecular flow
Properties of fluids
Mass Density ()
Defined as mass per unit volume.

m
kg / m
V
v
m
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume, v

(volume per unit mass)
3
/ kg
Density of a liquid depends on temperature and

pressure (more strongly on temperature than
on pressure).
Usually neglected in many engineering analysis.
Equation of state
The density of most gases is proportional to
pressure and inversely proportional to
temperature.
An equation that relates the pressure, temperature
and density of ideal gases (closely approximated by gases
at low pressures and high temperatures) is called the idealgas equation of state.
PV nRu T
PV mRT
P RT
P Pressure
T Temperature
Density
V Volume
Ru Universal gas constant
R Characteristic gas constant
Case study 1
A payload specialist at NASA needs to estimate the total

weight of the experimental equipment that will be on
board the space shuttle for an upcoming mission. Part of
the experimental equipment includes fifteen compressed
tanks filled with different gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon dioxide).
The volume of the tank is 0.25 m3 and the mass of an
empty tank is 5 kg. The conditions of the gases are
summarized in the following table:
Estimate the total
weight of all the
compressed tanks
Number
Temperature
of
(K)
Tanks
Absolute
Pressure
(MPa)
Oxygen
290
1.00
Nitrogen
290
0.85
Carbon
Dioxide
290
1.25
Compressibility chart
TR reduced temperature
(T/Tc)
PR reduced pressure
(P/Pc)
Tc and Pc critical
temp and
pressure
Z compressibility factor
= PV/mRT
From the compressibility chart, it is observed that Z

approaches unity when PR < 0.1 or TR > 2. Hence, these
are the conditions when the behavior of real gases can
best be approximated using the ideal gas law.
Table: Critical Pressure and

Temperature for Various Gases
Critical
Temp.
Tc (K)
Critical
Pressure
pc (MPa)
Air
133.0
3.77
Ammonia
405.5
11.3
Carbon
Dioxide
304.1
7.38
Helium
5.19
0.227
Hydrogen
33.2
1.30
Nitrogen
126.2
3.39
Oxygen
154.6
5.04
R-12
385.0
4.14
R-134a
374.2
4.06
Specific gravity (Relative density) is defined as the

ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of some standard substance at a specified
temperature.
For liquids, water at 4 C is usually the standard
substance.
For gases, hydrogen or air may be taken as the
standard substance.
The weight of a unit volume of substance is
called specific weight (weight density) N/m3
Viscosity
Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to

shear or angular deformation
Velocity profile
u( y)
y
V
l
The shear stress acting on the fluid layer in contact

with the upper plate is,
F
Let u(y) be the velocity of a layer of fluid at a

vertical distance of y from the lower plate.
y
V
and
l
Velocity profile
u( y)
du V
dy l
Velocity gradient
Shear strain can be expressed as,

NN ' Vdt
d tan d
l
l
d V
du
dt
l
dy
It can be concluded that rate of deformation

(strain rate) is equivalent to the velocity gradient.
It can be verified experimentally that for most

fluids the rate of deformation (strain rate) is
directly proportional to shear stress, .
d
dt
or
du
dy
Introducing a constant of proportionality,
du

dy
Newtons law
of Viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity
or dynamic viscosity
Fluids that obey Newtons law of Viscosity are

called Newtonian fluids. Water, air, gasoline, oils etc
are examples of Newtonian fluids.
Unit of dynamic viscosity Ns/m2 (Pa.s)

Another common unit of dynamic viscosity is
Poise (P), after Poiseuille
1 Poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 0.1 Ns/m2

1 centipoise (cP) = 1/100th of a Poise.
In many problems involving viscosity there

frequently appears the value of viscosity divided
by density. This is defined as kinematic viscosity,
Unit of kinematic viscosity m2/s
The unit cm2/s, also called the stoke (St), after
G. G. Stokes.
1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s
The centistoke (cSt) (0.01 St) is also used quite

often.
Shear stress,
Rate of deformation, du/dy
Case Study 2 - Viscometer

Imagine you are given a simple device called a
rotational cylindrical viscometer, as shown in
the figure, and asked to determine the viscosity
of an unknown liquid. The outer cylinder is fixed
while the inner cylinder is rotating at a constant
angular speed of by applying a torque T.
Rotational Cylindrical
Viscometer
Case Study 2
Derive an equation for the viscosity in terms of
angular velocity, , torque, T, submerged inner
cylinder height, L, inner cylinder radius, Ri, and
outer cylinder radius, Ro.
Calculate the viscosity value when = 55
rev/min, T = 0.9 N-m, L = 0.3 m, Ri = 0.12 m and
Ro = 0.13 m.
Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids exhibiting a non-linear behavior between
shear stress and strain rate are called NonNewtonian fluids.
Blood, paint, polymer solution etc are examples of
Non-Newtonian fluids.
Mathematical model describing the behavior of
Non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law model
or Ostwald-de Waele model.
du
m
dy
n 1
du
dy
m - flow consistency index

n - flow behavior index
Causes of viscosity
Intermolecular force of cohesion (dominant
mechanism in liquids)
Molecular momentum exchange (dominant

mechanism in gases)
Viscosity (dynamic and kinematic) is a strong

function of temperature. Viscosity of liquids
decrease with temperature and that of gases
increase with temperature.
The dependence of dynamic viscosity on
pressure is rather weak. But kinematic viscosity
is a function of pressure.
Surface tension
At the interface between a liquid and gas (or
another liquid or solid), the upward and
downward attraction on the liquid molecule is
unbalanced.
This effect causes the liquid surface to behave
as if it were an elastic membrane under tension.
The magnitude of this tensile force per unit
length is called surface tension, x [unit N/m]
This effect is also called surface energy per unit
area and is expressed in J/m2
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to

two kinds of intermolecular forces cohesion and
adhesion.
Work is done on each molecule entering the
surface against the action of a net inward force.
This work done will be stored as mechanical energy
at the surface, called the free surface energy.
A system of liquid will adjust its shape until its
surface area (consequently free surface energy) is a
minimum. [thats why liquid drops are spherical]
Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature.
(Surface tension of water at 200C is 0.073N/m)
Due to surface tension a liquid interface in

equilibrium will be subjected to a higher pressure
at the concave side than that at its convex side.
Excess pressure inside a spherical liquid drop,
2
p
r
Excess pressure inside a spherical bubble,

For a spherical bubble
4
p
Surface tension
r radius of drop/bubble
two interfaces exist.
Excess pressure inside a cylindrical jet,
Capillarity
Is the rise or fall of liquid in a

small-diameter tube inserted
into a liquid.
Capillarity is due to cohesion
and adhesion.
If adhesion dominates, liquid
wets the tube surface and
rises in the tube (capillary rise)
If cohesion dominates, liquid
surface will be depressed
(capillary dip)
Capillary rise,
2 cos
h
gr
2r
r radius of the tube

contact angle
Capillary rise contact angle, <90

o
Capillary dip - contact angle, >90
o
water
0
o
mercury
130
o
kerosene
26
It is important to use tubes of larger diameter to
minimize the capillary effect.
Lighter fluids experience greater capillary rises.
A person conceives the idea that power can be generated

by drilling a hole in a capillary tube just below the water
level and feeding the water from the hole to a turbine. He
suggests that a series of tube banks can be used to obtain
practically feasible flow rates. Will his idea work???
Compressibility
Compressibility of a substance is the measure of
its change in volume under the action of normal
compressive forces (Fn).
The degree of compressibility of a fluid is
characterized by the property called the bulk
modulus of elasticity (E), which is defined as,
p
p
E lim
lim
V 0 ( V / V )
0 ( / )
p
p
E V

V

E represents the change in pressure corresponding to

a fractional change in volume or density.
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is

called compressibility, K.
1
1 v
K
v specific volume
v p
p
K is usually defined for gases.

For an ideal gas undergoing an isothermal
process, E p
For an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic
process, E p - ratio of s pecific heats
0
Bulk modulus of elasticity, E of water @ 20 C is
2
about 2100 MN/m
E is dependent on temperature and pressure.
Coefficient of volume expansion

The density of a fluid has a strong dependence on
temperature.
This dependence is responsible for the numerous
natural phenomenon such as winds, ocean currents,
rise of hot air etc
The property that characterizes this dependence
is called the coefficient of volume expansion, and is
defined as,
1 v
1

v T P
T P
For an ideal gas,
ideal gas
1
T
represents the variation of density of the fluid

with temperature at constant pressure.
Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure of a pure substance is defined

as the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
Vapour pressure of the pure substance is
identical to the saturation pressure of the liquid.
Saturation pressure is the pressure at which a
pure substance changes phase, at a given
temperature.
If the liquid pressure in any liquid-flow system
happens to fall below the vapour pressure of the
liquid at the given temperature, cavitation occurs
0
Vapour pressure of water at 20 C is 2.34 kPa.
Case Study 3 - Cavitation

A university physical plant recently added a
pump to transfer water between tanks. The
technician hears some noise as the water flows
through the pump inlet and wonders if
cavitation is occurring inside the pump. The
operating pressure of the pump at the inlet is
6 kPa. The water temperature is 50 oC.
Determine if cavitation occurs in the pump

(cavitation occurs at the pump impellers on the
inlet side) for a water temperature of 50 oC.
Will cavitation occur if the water temperature
is 20 oC?
(oC)
pv
(kPa)
Temp
(oF)
pv
(psi)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.611
1.228
2.338
4.243
7.376
12.33
19.92
31.16
47.34
70.10
101.3
32
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
180
212
0.0885
0.1217
0.1781
0.2563
0.3631
0.5069
0.9493
1.692
2.888
7.507
14.69
Water Vapor Pressure (absolute)
Module 1
FLUID MECHANICS
Unit 2 Forces on submerged surfaces
Fluid Statics
Forces on fluid elements
A fluid element isolated from its surroundings is

acted upon by two types of forces,
Body forces
Surface forces
Body forces act throughout the body of the fluid

element and are distributed over the entire
volume (or mass) of the element. (weight,
electromagnetic force etc)
Surface forces are exerted on the fluid element

by its surroundings through direct contact.
(normal force, shear force )
Pascals law
Since the fluid is at rest, no
shear forces can exist, and the
only forces between surfaces
are pressure forces normal to
the surfaces.
Considering gravity as the only
source of body force, the
equations of equilibrium are,
A stationary fluid element

of a tetragonal shape
z
A
n
yz
x x 2 n A cos 0 y
xz
Fy y 2 n A cos 0
xy
z z 2 n A cos w 0
x
yO
W
C
z
g
6
(xyz )
cos , cos , cos are the

direction cosines of the normal
to the inclined plane ABC.
It can be concluded that the normal stress at a point has the

x y z p
same magnitude in all directions
Fundamental equation of hydrostatics

Let the pressure at the centre
of the element be p.
A differential
element
z
B
Writing the equations of

equilibrium
p
F
0
0
x
x
p
F y 0 y 0
A
p x
p
yz
x 2
z
p
p x
p
yz
C x
x 2
G x
y
D
p z
p z
F
p
x
y
p
xy W
z z 2
z 2
This results in p
dp
g
g (1)
z
dz
( Since p is independen t of x and y )
W gxyz
p X
General form
Constant density solution
For an incompressible fluid, the

density, is constant, therefore
eq 1 can be integrated between
z1 and z0 (free surface)
p gz C
Applying the boundary condition,
p p0
at
z z0
p p0 g ( z 0 z1 ) gh
Variable density solution (compressible fluid)

Constant temperature solution (isothermal)
p p0 e
0 g
p ( z z0 )
0
(Left for the student to derive)
Non isothermal
Earths mean atmospheric temperature drops
off nearly linearly with altitude, z up to an
altitude of about 11000 m as given by
T T0 z
z
p p0 1
T0
g
R
(Left for the student to derive)
T0 is the absolute temperature at sea level and is known as

lapse rate. For standard atmosphere T0=288K and =6.5K/km
Temperature and pressure distribution in the atmosphere
Gauge pressure and Vacuum pressure

Gauge
pressure
Absolute
pressure
Vacuum
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute
pressure
Absolute zero
(complete vacuum)
p gauge p abs p atm

pvacuum p atm p abs
Barometer
A device that measures the local
atmospheric pressure.
Construction
A tube is filled with mercury and
inverted while submerged in a
reservoir.
The tube diameter is greater than
15mm to negate surface tension
effects (capillary effect).
Reasons for using mercury
High density
shorter column
Low vapour pressure of mercury
Neglecting vapour pressure,
h 0.752 m of Hg
Torricellian
vacuum
p A p B pv
pv h
Manometers
Manometers are devices that use a static
column of one or more fluids to measure
pressure differences between two points.
Types of manometers
Manometers are classified as,
Simple manometers
Piezometer
U-tube manometer
Single column manometer
Differential manometers
Vertical
Inclined
U-tube differential manometer

Inverted U-tube differential manometer
Micrometer
p atm
Simple manometers
Piezometer
Measures the gauge pressure of
the fluid in a pipe. h represents
the gauge pressure head in terms of
the liquid in the pipe.
Pressure measurement in liquids
only.
The absolute pressure at A is,
pabs patm gh
p abs
A
[Refer the hydrostatic equation]
The gauge pressure at A is,
p pabs patm gh
p
g
p
h
g
U-tube manometer
Can be used for measuring
larger gauge pressures of both
liquids and gases.
Density of the manometric fluid
is greater than that of the
working fluid (ref fig)
Can measure both gauge and
vacuum pressures.
Pressure at P = pressure at Q
p A w g (h z) patm m gh
working fluid , w
pA
A
p atm
z
h
p A patm
P
manometric fluid , m
Gauge pressure at A is,
p p A patm ( m w ) gh w gz
working fluid , w
Measuring vacuum pressure

Pressure at P = Pressure at Q
pA
A
p A w gz m gh patm
Vacuum pressure at A
p patm p A w gz m gh
p atm
P
manometric fluid , m
p A patm
Single column manometer - Vertical
Modified version of U-tube manometer in which a

reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area compared
to the area of the tube, is connected to one of the
limbs of the manometer.
A
Due to large
ratio, the change in liquid level in the
a
reservoir is negligible and hence pressure is given by
the level of liquid in the other limb. [refer fig]
Sensitive to low pressures.
h
z
reservoir, A
A a
tube, a
Single column manometer Inclined
Construction similar to the vertical type, except that

one of the limb is kept inclined to the horizontal.
More sensitive to small pressures.
If is small, considerable magnification of the
movement of the meniscus may be achieved.
Usually is kept greater than 50 to avoid difficulties
while noting the readings.
h
s
sin
Differential manometers
Differential U-tube manometer
Used to measure difference in pressure between two
points.
The axis of the connecting tubes at A and B (refer fig)
should be perpendicular to the direction of flow.
Pressure at P = pressure at Q [Principle of hydrostatics]
p1 1 gz1 p2 2 gz 2 m gh
2
1
p1
p2
z1
m 1 , 2
z2
h
Inverted U-tube manometer

Used for measuring small pressure differences in liquids.
The manometric fluid used is lighter than the working fluids.
Air is used quite often as the manometric fluid
From the principle of hydrostatics, pressure at P = pressure at Q
p1 1 gz1 m gh p2 2 gz 2
m
z2
z1
p1
B
A
m 1 , 2
p2
Micro-manometer
With an additional gauge liquid, a large difference in meniscus
levels is obtained for a very small pressure difference.
Pressure at P = pressure at Q
p1 w g (h z )
p 2 w g (h z )
y
2
g g z z
y
2
g g z z m gy
p1 p2 ( m g ) gy
working fluid, w
p1
p2
A z a
h
Initial level of
gauge liquid
z
A
gauge liquid, g
y
2
y
2
z
Initial level of
manometric liquid
y
2
Hydrostatic forces on surfaces.

Plane surface
Let p denotes the gauge

pressure on an elemental
area dA. The resultant
force on the area is
F pdA g hdA
A
F ghc A
Hydrostatic thrust on an inclined plane surface is equal to the

pressure at its centroid times the total area of the surface.
Centre of pressure
The point of action of the resultant force on the plane

surface is called the centre of pressure.
Equating the moment of the resultant about x-axis to the
summation of the moments of the component forces.
y p F ydF g sin y 2 dA
I xx
yp
Ay c
I x'x'
y p yc
Ay c
Similarly the x-coordinate of the centre of pressure can

be obtained by taking moment about y-axis.
x p F xdF g sin xydA

xp
I xy
Ay c
x p xc
I x' y'
Ay c
I x ' x ' Moment of inertia of the surface about the centroidal axis - x'
I x ' y ' Product of inertia of the surface about the centroidal axes x'-y'
xc , yc coordinates of the centroid of the surface about x - y axes
x p , y p coordinates of the centre of pressure of the
surface about x - y axes
The centre of pressure is always at a higher depth than the

centroid of the surface.
If the plane area is symmetrical about

and x p xc
y ' axis, I x ' y ' 0
Curved surface
dFz
dF
dFx
Pressure always act perpendicular

to the solid surface
dF PdA
dFx PdA cos PdAx

dA
dA =dAcos
x
dAz=dAsin
dFz PdA sin PdAz
Horizontal component
The component of hydrostatic

Force in the horizontal direction is
equal to the hydrostatic force on
the projected plane surface
perpendicular to that direction.
Fx dFx PdAx ghdAx
h
dFx
dAx
Equivalent system:
A plane surface perpendicular
to the free surface
Vertical component
The component of hydrostatic force

on a submerged curved surface in the
vertical direction is equal to the weight The vertical component Fz acts
of the liquid volume directly above
through the centre of gravity
the curved surface to the free surface of the liquid in the volume, V
of the liquid.
X
Fz dFz PdAz
gh dAz gV
Z
V is the fluid volume enclosed

between the curved surface
and the free surface.
Buoyancy
Why do some objects float, while other objects sink?
Relative magnitude of buoyant
force
in comparison to weight
The buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the

weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through
the centroid of the displaced volume. Archimedes principle
V1
V2
gV1
buoyant force = net hydrostatic

force in upward
direction
g(V2-V1)
gV2
Stability of submerged bodies
If the centre of gravity of the body is below the centre of

buoyancy stable
If the centre of gravity of the body is above centre of
buoyancy unstable
If centre of gravity and buoyancy coincide neutrally stable
Restoring moment
Overturning moment
FB
FB
FB=W
Stable
FB
FB
Unstable
Stability of floating bodies
M Metacentre
G Centre of gravity
B Centre of buoyancy
Metacentre is the point

at which the line of action
of the buoyancy force FB
cuts the original vertical
through the centre of
gravity of the body.
GM Metacentric height
FB
FB
If M lies above G, the equilibrium is stable and GM is

regarded as positive GM>0
If M lies below G, the equilibrium is unstable and GM is
regarded as negative GM<0
If M coincides with G, the equilibrium is neutral
Determination of metacentric height - experimental

w
M
G
G G
B B
W weight of the vessel including w

The movement of the weight, w
through a distance x causes a parallel
shift of the centre of gravity (centre of
gravity of the vessel including w) from
G to G.
w.x W GG'
GG' GM tan
w.x
GM
cot
W
The true metacentric height is the limiting value of GM as 0
Metacentric height
In terms of shape and dimension of the body
When the body is tilted through a small angle, a small wedge
Obd is submerged and an equal wedge Oca is uncovered.
B is the centroid of the submerged portion aObdea of the body.
then,
_
x VaObdea
xdV xdV xdV
cOdeac
Obd
cOa
dV LdA
Lx tan dx
[Fig from Fluid Mechanics 4e Frank M White]
x VaObdea 0
x( Lx tandx) x( Lx tandx)
Obd
tan
cOa
2
x
dAwaterline
waterline
I O tan
IO - second moment of area of the waterline footprint about tilt axis O
dAwaterline= L dx - element of waterline area
VaObdea= submerged volume, V

The distance from M to B is,
_
IO
x
BM
tan VaObdea
IO
The metacentric height,
GM BM BG
IO
BG
V
Period of oscillation
The restoring couple caused by the buoyant force and the
weight acting on a floating body displaced from its
equilibrium position is, W .GM . sin
Writing the equation of motion (rotation) of the body,
d 2
W .GM . sin I M 2
dt
Negative sign in the RHS of the equation arises since
the torque is a retarding one. if 0, sin
d 2 W .GM
. 0
2
IM
dt
Metacentric height of oceanTime period, T is
going vessels is of the order
IM
of 0.3m to 1.2m.
T 2
W .GM
Fluids in Rigid Body Motion
There is no relative motion between particles.

With no relative motion, there are no strains involved .
Forces involved are pressure and gravity.
In the general case of combined translation and rotation
of a fluid in rigid body motion the velocity of an
arbitrary point P in the fluid is given by
V Vo ro
Vo velocity of centre of rotation
angular ve locity vector

ro position vector of the point P
Acceleration is given by
dVo
d
a
( ro )
ro
dt
dt
Translational
acceleration
Centripetal
acceleration
Linear acceleration
due to change in
angular velocity
Linear acceleration
The surfaces of constant pressure
will be perpendicular to the direction
of the vector sum of g and a and
are tilted at a downward angle
ax
tan
g az
1
The rate of increase of pressure in the direction of the vector sum of

g and a is greater than in ordinary hydrostatics and is given by
dp
G
ds
G ax2 ( g az )
1
2 2
Rigid body rotation

The angular velocity and position
vectors are
ro r ir
The pressure field can be obtain-ed by solving two ordinary

differential equations
p
r 2
r
p

z
The constant pressure surface, say at

the surface , p=pa
Pressure is linear in z, but parabolic in r
p po z
p po z
r 2 2
2
po pa
r 2 2
2g
Fluid kinematics
Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics which describes

the geometry of fluid motion and its consequences without
considering the forces that cause the motion.
Motion of the fluid is typically described by velocity, V
V=V(x, y, z, t)
Dimensionality
Steady / unsteady
There are two frames of reference for describing this

motion.
Lagrangian description
Eulerian description
Lagrangian description
Fluid motion is described by tracing

the motion of each and every particle
in the flow.
The position of the particle at any
instant is given by,
S S (S 0 , t )
d
S
V
dt
S0
d
S
a 2
dt
S0
Drawback : Solution of the above

equations difficult due to the large
number of particles in the flow.
Eulerian description
It describes the fluid motion

by
specifying the velocity, V and its

variation with time t at each and
every location S in the flow field.

Flow field in Eulerian method is
described as,
dS
V (S , t )
V
dt
Integrating the above equation yields

the lagrangian description.
S S (S 0 , t )
Steady / Unsteady flows
Steady flow is defined as a flow in which the various

hydrodynamic parameters and fluid properties do not
change with time.
V V ( x, y, z ) ; P P( x, y, z )
In unsteady flow the parameters do change with time
V V ( x, y, z, t ) ; P P( x, y, z, t )
Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches of describing fluid

motion become identical under steady flow
Many practical problems can be studied effectively by
assuming that the flow is steady.
The flow may appear steady or unsteady depending
upon the choice of coordinate axes.
Uniform / Non-uniform flow

If the various hydrodynamic parameters and flow
properties do not change from point to point in a flow
field, the flow is said to be uniform.
If changes do occur from point to point, then the flow is
termed non-uniform.
The Eulerian description for a uniform flow is
V V (t )
One-, two- and three-dimensional flows
Hydrodynamic parameters vary

in all the three directions (x,y,z)
V V ( x, y, z, t ) ; P P( x, y, z, t )
along
any two directions (eg x,y)
V V ( x, y, t ) ; P P( x, y, t )
along
any one direction (eg x)
V V ( x, t ) ; P P( x, t )
Rotational / Irrotational flows
If the individual fluid particles in a region of flow rotate,

the flow in that region is rotational.
If there is no rotation - irrotational
Compressible / incompressible flows

Flows in which density changes are negligible are termed
incompressible.
Since liquids are relatively difficult to compress, it is usual
to treat them as incompressible for all cases of steady
flow.
But under unsteady flow conditions the compressibility
of liquids must be considered.
Fluids undergoing substantial changes in density, like gases
are involved in compressible flow.
In compressible flow the changes in internal energy
accompanying changes in density must be taken into
account.
Flow patterns and visualization

Flow visualization is the visual examination of flow field features
There are many types of flow patterns that can be visualized, both
Experimentally and/or computationally.
Streamlines
A streamline is a curve that is everywhere
tangent to the instantaneous local velocity
vector. Streamline is like a snapshot of the flow.
By definition, streamlines defined at a single
instant in a flow do not intersect. This is so
because a fluid particle cannot have two
different velocities at the same point.
Streamtubes consists of a bundle of
streamlines. The diameter of the tube
must decrease with increase in velocity
In order to conserve mass.
Point ( x dx, y dy)
dr
Streamline
dr dx i dy j
dx
V u iv j
dy
Point ( x, y)
From simple geometric arguments

using similar triangles
dr dx dy
V
u
v
y
x
v
dy

dx alonga sreamline u
This equation can be solved analytically only in some simple cases.

Often one has to resort to numerical techniques to solve it.
For three dimensional case,
dr dx dy dz
V
u
v
w
Pathlines
A pathline is the actual path followed by an individual particle
over some period of time. It is a Lagrangian concept.
Pathlines can be calculated numerically for a known velocity
field.
For steady flow both streamlines and pathlines are identical.
Streaklines
A streakline is the locus of fluid
particles that have passed sequentially
through a prescribed point in the
flow.
For steady flow streamlines, pathlines
and streaklines are identical
Acceleration field
The fundamental conservation laws are expressed for a

system of fixed identity (closed system).
In fluid flow, the control volume analysis is more convenient.
So, it is necessary to rewrite the fundamental laws into
forms applicable to a control volume (open system).
In fact there is a direct analogy between systems versus
control volumes in thermodynamics and Lagrangian versus
Eulerian descriptions in fluid dynamics.
dV particle
The acceleration of a fluid particle, a particle
dt
However, the velocity of particle at any instant t is same
as the local value of the velocity field at the location
( x particle (t ), y particle (t ), z particle (t )) , therefore
V particle (t ) V ( x particle (t ), y particle (t ), z particle (t ), t )
Using the chain rule
d V particle d V ( x particle (t ), y particle (t ), z particle (t ), t )

a particle
dt
dt
V
V
V
V
u
v
w
t
x
y
z
Convective
accelerati on
Material / Substantial
local / temporal
accelerati on
accelerati on
Material derivative

D
d
(V . )
Dt dt t
Provides ``transformation'' between Lagrangian and Eulerian frames.
Types of motion/deformation of fluid elements
The four fundamental types of motion or deformation

are,
Translation
Rate of translation is described by
the velocity vector
V u i v j w k
Rotation
The average rotation rate of two initially

perpendicular lines that intersect at that
point. The rate of rotation vector in cartesian
coordinates,
1 w v
1 u w
1 v u
i j k
2 y z
2 z x
2 x y
Linear strain
Linear strain rate is defined as the rate
of increase in length per unit length
xx
u
v
w
, yy , zz
x
y
z
Shear Strain
Shear strain rate at a point is defined
as half of the rate of decrease of the
angle between two mutually perpendicular
lines that intersect at that point.
1 u v
1 w u
1 v w
xy , zx , yz
2 y x
2 x z
2 z y
Strain rate tensor

Combining the linear strain rate and shear strain rate into one
symmetrical second order tensor called the strain rate tensor.
xx xy
ij yx yy

zx zy
xz
1 v u
yz
2 x y
zz
1 w u
2 x z
1 u v 1 u w

2 y x 2 z x
1 v w
v

2 z y
y
1 w v
w
2 y z
z
Vorticity
The vorticity vector is defined as the curl of the velocity

vector
z V
Vorticity is equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid

particle.
z 2
Cartesian coordinates
w v u w
v u
z i j k
y z z x
x y
In regions where z = 0, the flow is called irrotational.

Elsewhere, the flow is called rotational.
The difference between rotational and irrotational flow
Reynolds Transport Theorem(RTT)
A system is a quantity of matter of fixed identity. No

mass can cross a system boundary.
A control volume is a region in space chosen for

study. Mass can cross a control surface.
The fundamental conservation laws (conservation of

mass, energy, and momentum) apply directly to systems.
However, in most fluid mechanics problems, control

volume analysis is preferred over system analysis (for
the same reason that the Eulerian description is usually
preferred over the Lagrangian description).
Therefore, we need to transform the conservation laws

from a system to a control volume. This is accomplished
with the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT).
There is a direct analogy between the transformation from

Lagrangian to Eulerian descriptions (for differential analysis
using infinitesimally small fluid elements) and the
transformation from systems to control volumes (for integral
analysis using large, finite flow fields).

Reynolds theorem relates the control volume concept with that of a
system in terms of a general property of the system.
VIV
VI
System
Control
VIII
VII
volume
Let N be the total amount of some property within the system at

time t, and let be the amount of this property per unit mass
throughout the fluid.
The time rate of increase in N for the system is going to be
formulated in terms of the change in N for the control volume.
( N sys ) t t
( N sys ) t dV dV dV
VIII
t t VI
t
VIV
Adding and subtracting
dV
t t
VII
to the right hand side
of the above equation and then dividing throughout by t
dV dV dV
( N sys ) t t ( N sys ) t VII
t
t t VI
VIII
t
t
dV
dV
t t VII
VIV
t t
t
t
As t 0

dN
dV V . dA
dt t CV
CS
RTT
Reynolds Transport Theorem(RTT) states that the time rate of increase of
property N within a system is equal to the time rate of increase of property N

within the control volume plus the net rate of efflux of the property N across the CV.
dV

VIV
t t
lim
V . dA
t 0
t
outflowarea
dV

VII
t t
lim
V . dA
t 0
t
inflow area
dA
V
outflowarea
dA
inflow area
Module 2
FLUID MECHANICS
Conservation Laws
Basic approaches to the analysis of

fluid flow
The three basic approaches to the analysis of

fluid flow are,
Control volume (large scale) analysis Integral
relations
Differential (small scale) analysis Differential
relations
Experimental, or dimensional analysis
Of the three approaches the control volume

analysis is the best and the newest.
11/5/2014
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Basic physical laws
The fundamental equations of fluid dynamics are

based on the following universal laws of
conservation
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Energy
Continuity equation
Euler / Navier-Stokes equation
Energy equation
In addition to the equations developed from

these universal laws, it is necessary to establish
relationships between fluid properties in order
Constitutive laws
to solve the above equations
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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation

The law of conservation of mass states that
mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
For a material volume (system)
Conservation of mass is inherent to the
definition of a material volume and can be
mathematically expressed as
Dm
0
Dt
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For a control volume differential form

w
dz
w
dz dxdy
z
z

v

dy v dy dxdz
y
y
E

u
dx
u
dx dydz
x
x
z
A
udydz
dz
vdzdx
dy
dx
C
wdxdy
Consider an elementary control volume (rectangular parallelopiped in shape)

Fluid enters the control volume through the three faces ABCD, BCGF, CDHG and
Leaves the control volume through the three faces EFGH, ADHE, ABFE.
11/5/2014
The net rate of mass efflux from the control volume in

x-direction is,
( u )d
x
Similarly in y- and z-directions
( w)d
and
respectively.
( v)d
y
z
Net rate of mass efflux from the control volume is,
( u ) ( v) ( w) d
y
z
Rate of accumulation of mass in the control volume is,
Conservation of mass for a control volume :
( d)
t
Rate of accumulation of + Net rate of mass efflux = 0

mass in the CV
from the CV
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According to the statement of conservation of mass for

a control volume

( u ) ( v) ( w) d 0
y
z
t x
( u ) ( v) ( w) 0
t x
y
z
.( V ) 0
t
This is the well known equation of continuity of a

compressible fluid
.( V ) 0
For steady flow
For incompressible flow

.V 0
u v w
0
x y z
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momentum equation Euler equation
The momentum equation relates the sum of the

forces acting on a fluid element to its acceleration
or rate of change of momentum in the direction of
the resultant force [Newtons 2nd law of motion].
For an inviscid fluid, the forces acting on a fluid
element are pressure forces [surface forces] and
body forces.
Body forces are a result of external force fields like
gravity, electromagnetic field etc.
The resulting equation is termed as Euler equation.
11/5/2014
Momentum equation inviscid fluid

Euler equation
Xz
p
p dz
z
p
p dy
y
z
Consider an elementary
parallelopiped of fluid
element as a system.
dz
y
p
Xy
p dx
x
Xx
dy
dx
x
p
11/5/2014
The net force acting on the element in the x, y and zdirections are,
p
F
X
dxdydz
p
dydz
p
dx dydz
x
x
x
.
F
X
dxdydz
p
dxdz
dy dxdz
y
y
F
X
dxdydz
p
.
dxdy
p
dz dxdy
z
z
z
Equating these forces to the rate of change of momentum.

D
p
( dxdydz .u ) X x dxdydz
Dt
x
D
p
( dxdydz .v) X y dxdydz
Dt
y
D
p
( dxdydz .w) X z dxdydz

Dt
z
11/5/2014
10
Euler equation
In cartesian coordinates
1 p
Du
Xx
Dt
x
x direction
Dv
1 p
Xy
Dt
y
y direction
Dw
1 p
Xz
Dt
z
z direction
In vector form
DV
p
X
Dt
11/5/2014
11
Euler equation
X x ,X y and X z
are the body forces acting on the

fluid element per unit mass.
D( )
is the material derivative.

Dt
Du u
u
u
u
u
v
w
Dt t
x
y
z
v
v
Dv v
v
u v w
x
y
Dt t
z
w
w
Dw w
w
u
v
w
t
x
y
Dt
z
11/5/2014
12
Euler equation along a streamline

Applying Newtons second law of
motion to a fluid element moving along
a streamline
The net external force acting on the
fluid along s-direction is,
p
Fs sA sAg cos
s
Ais the cross sectional area
of the fluid element
p s A
s
pA
11/5/2014
gAs
13
Euler equation along a streamline

Fs As
DV
Dt
From the geometry of the fluid element along the streamline

z dz
s 0 s
ds
cos lim
Hence, the final expression becomes
p
DV
dz
g
s
Dt
ds
V
V
dz This is the Eulers equation
1 p
V
g
t
s
s
ds along a streamline
11/5/2014
14
Momentum correction factor,

The momentum equation is derived on the assumption that velocity
is constant across any given cross-section. But for a real fluid flowing
past a solid boundary the velocity is non-uniform across the
cross-section, owing to shear forces. In other words there will be a
velocity distribution across the cross-section.
To take this velocity distribution into account a, momentum
correction factor, is introduced.
2
u
dA
udA
depends on the type of cross-section and the velocity distribution

For laminar flow, =1.33, and for turbulent flow, =1.005 1.05
11/5/2014
15
energy equation
The general energy equation is developed from the first law of
thermodynamics.
Q W E
In the time rate basis the equation can be written as,
Q W dE
t
t
dt
Applying the Reynolds transport theorem for the property E (energy).

Q W
e d CS e V dA
t CV
t
t
where e is the total

energy per unit mass,d is the elementary
volume of fluid, V is the velocity vector and dA is the area vector.
11/5/2014
16
Forms of energy
associated with an element of moving fluid.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Intermolecular energy
Flow work
Pressure energy ?
When a fluid element moves through a distance s from a region
where the pressure is p to a region where the pressure is p p ,
the work done (flow work) per unit mass of the fluid is
p
Aps
As
Flow work should not be considered as an intrinsic form of the

energy of fluid (ie this energy is not stored in the fluid, rather it is
transmitted).
11/5/2014
17
general energy equation.
p

V2
V2
Q Ws
u d gz
u V dA
gz
t CV
t
t
2
2
CS
gz is the potential energy per unit mass
V2
2
is the kinetic energy per unit mass
u is the internal energy per unit mass

p is the flow work per unit mass
WS is the shaft work
11/5/2014
18
Kinetic energy correction factor,

In a real fluid there will be a velocity distribution in the
flow domain. The kinetic energy of flow at particular
cross-section can be obtained by making use of a
correction factor, .
3
1
V
3
dA
. AVavg
2
2
A
V3
A 2 dA
1
2 VdA
A A
For laminar fully developed flow, =2

For turbulent flow, =1.01 1.15
11/5/2014
19
Bernoullis equation
developed from Eulers equation
The equation is named after the Swiss

mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-82)
who published one of the first books on
fluid flow in 1738.
The Eulers equation along a streamline for a steady flow with

gravity as the only body force is as given below.
V
1 p
V
dz
g
s
s
ds
Equation of conservation of energy (energy equation) along a

streamline can be obtained by integrating the above equation
with respect to s.
dz
V
1 p
ds
ds g ds
ds
s
s
V2
dp
gz C
2
In case of an incompressible flow

V2
gz C
2
p
This equation is popularly referred

to as Bernoullis equation
11/5/2014
20
Conditions to which
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bernoullis equation applies
The fluid must be frictionless (inviscid)

The fluid must be of constant density (incompressible) Mach No, M <0.3
The flow must be steady.
The relation holds for a single streamline in the case of rotational
flow and for the entire flow field in irrotational flow.
No shaft work between two points on a streamline.
Thermodynamic
No heat transfer between the two points on a streamline. limitation
The Bernoullis equation for a real fluid (viscous fluid) can be

obtained by introducing a term hL , head loss along a streamline due
to fluid friction or viscosity. The modified Bernoullis equation can be
written as follows
p1 V12
p 2 V22
z1
z 2 hL
g 2 g
g 2 g
11/5/2014
21
Module 2
FLUID MECHANICS
Applications of equations of motion
and mechanical energy
The principle of venturimeter was demonstrated by

the Italian Giovanni Battista Venturi (17461822) but it was not until 1887 that the principle
was applied, by the American Clement Herschel
(1842-1930).
Venturimeter
A Venturimeter is used to measure
flow through pipes.
2
1
h
z1
z2
h0
Assume steady, inviscid,

incompressible and
one-dimensional flow of
fluid
Venturimeter
Applying Bernoullis theorem between section 1 and 2.
p2
V22
p1
V12
z1
z2
g 2 g
g 2 g
Rearranging the above equation,

V2
1
A22
1 2
A1
2 g (h1* h2* )
p1
z1
g
p
h2* 2 z 2
g
where h1*
(by applying continuity equation)

A1V1 A2V2
Venturimeter
Volume flow rate, Q A2V2
A2
A22
1 2
A1
2 g (h1* h2* )
If the pressure difference between points 1 and 2 as measured by a

manometer is h metres of the manometric liquid, then
m
h h
h
1
*
1
Therefore,
*
2
A1 A2
A12 A22
2 g
1h

Venturimeter
The previous equation always overestimates the flow rate, since the
measured value of h for a real fluid will always be greater than that
assumed in case of an ideal fluid because of frictional losses in
addition to the change in momentum.
In order to take this into account, a multiplying factor C d , coefficient
of discharge is incorporated into the equation as
Qactual C d
Cd
A1 A2
A12 A22
2 g m 1h

for a venturimeter usually lies between 0.95 to 0.98.
An orificemeter provides a
simpler and cheaper arrangement
for the measurement of flow
through a pipe
Orificemeter
1
c
D1 pipe dia
D2 dia at vena contracta
D orifice dia
When flow encounters a

sudden contraction, flow
separation in the downstream
side causes the main stream
to contract through a
minimum diameter called
vena contracta
Orificemeter
Applying Bernoullis theorem between sections 1-1 and c-c
p c*
Vc2
p1*
V12
2g
2g
g
g
*
Where p1 and p c* are the piezometric pressures at 1-1 and c-c.

Rearranging the above equation (by applying continuity equation)
A1V1
2( p1* p c* )
Vc
Ac2
1 2
A1
where Ac is the area of vena contracta
A2V2
Orificemeter
A multiplying factor Cv , coefficient of velocity is introduced into the
previous equation to account for the higher pressure drop in real
fluids due to friction losses. Therefore the actual velocity at vena
contracta,
Vc C v
2 g m 1h

Ac2
1 2
A1
Volumetric flow rate, Q AcVc

The area of the vena contracta is related to the area of the orifice
through the coefficient of contraction, Cc as
Ac Cc Ao
where Ao is the area of orifice
Orificemeter
The flow rate, Q C c Ao C v
C d Ao
2 g m 1h
C c2 Ao2
1
A1
2 g m 1h

C c2 Ao2
1
A
1
Cd values for an orificemeter range between 0.6 0.65
Rotameter
Rotameter has a float that, under the

action of flow, rises in the vertical
tapered (transparent) tube and takes an
equilibrium position for any given flow
rate.
The flow rate is given by the following
relation.
2(W FB )
Q C d Aa
fluid A float
where,
Aa Atube A float
W - Weight of float
FB - Bouyancy force
1
2
Rotameter
Flow through Orifice

An orifice is an opening in the side or
base of a tank or a reservoir, through
which fluid is discharged in the form
of a jet, usually into the atmosphere.
zA
The term small orifice is applied to an

orifice which has a diameter, or vertical
dimension, which is small compared with
the head producing flow (no variation of
head across the orifice).
.B
zB
Since the streamlines that converged at and beyond the orifice becomes
parallel to each other at B (vena contracta), there is no pressure variation
across the jet at the section through B.

Applying Bernoullis equation to A and B (Assuming steady and inviscid flow)
v A2
pA
v B2
p
zB
B
zA
2 g g
2 g g
putting
z A z B h, v A 0, v B v, p A p B p atm
v
2 gh
This is a statement of Torricellis theorem.

Actual velocity at B , vact Cv 2 gh
where Cv coefficien t of velocity

Discharge through the orifice A2 v act
C c AC v 2 gh
C d A 2 gh
C c - coefficient of contraction
C d Cc Cv
Cd , Cv and Cc are called hydraulic coefficients.
Hydraulic coefficients
experimental determination
If the orifice is not in the bottom of the tank, one method of
measuring the actual velocity of the jet is to measure its profile.
Vena contracta
x
jet
Where t is the time taken for a particle to travel from
vena contracta A to the point B
x vt
y
1 2
gt
2
x
t
(1)
2y
g
(2)
combining equations 1 and 2
Velocity at the vena contracta,v
gx 2
2y
From the definition of coefficient of velocity, C v
Vact
Vth
x2
4 yh
gx 2
2y
2 gh
Coefficient of discharge, C d
Coefficient of velocity, C v
Qaxt
A 2 gh
x2
4 yh
Cd
Coefficient of contraction, C c
Cc
Time of emptying tank
Consider a tank of uniform

cross-sectional area A, containing
liquid up to a height H1. Let the
liquid be discharged through an
orifice of area a at the bottom of
the tank.
At a particular instant, let h be
the level of liquid in the tank and
that level falls through dh during
an infinitesimal time interval dt.
Then from continuity
Adh cd a 2 gh dt
dh
H1
h
H2
a
v
dt
Adh
c d a 2 gh
If T is the time taken for the liquid level to fall from H1

to H2, then
H2
cd a 2 g
H1
T dt
0
1
2
dh
1
1
2A
2
2
H1 H 2
c d a 2 g
If the tank is completely emptied, [H2=0]
2A
cd a 2 g
1
2
1
Pitot tube
A pitot tube is used to measure the velocity
of a stream.
Applying Bernoullis theorem between A and B,
p0
ps
V2
g
g
2g
h=
( p0 p s )
V
h
g
2g
2
Velocity at A,
V 2 gh
True velocity, V C 2 gh
. .
A
Pitot-static tube
When the Pitot tube is used in a channel, the value of h can be
determined directly
When used in a pipe, the difference in stagnation and static
pressures must be measured with a differential manometer, using a
static pressure tapping in the pipe wall. A combined Pitot-static
tube (inner tube is used to measure the stagnation pressure while
the outer tube measure the static pressure) can also be used.
Pitot tube
Pitot tube
Notches / Weirs
crest
Notch/weir is a standard device for the measurement of

flow of water in open channels.
The rate of flow is determined by measuring the height
H, relative to the crest, at a distance upstream from the
crest.
To derive the flow equation for a weir of arbitrary
shape, consider a horizontal strip of width b at a depth
h below the free surface and height h.
Area of the strip = bh
Velocity of flow through the strip, v 2 gh

Discharge through the strip, Q bh 2 gh
Therefore, discharge through the weir,
H
1
2
Q 2 g bh dh.
0
For a rectangular notch ,

3
2
Q B 2g H 2
3
For a triangular notch,
8

Q tan 2 g H 2
15 2
5
Module 2
FLUID MECHANICS
Steady incompressible viscous flow in pipes
Laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar flow is smooth and steady.
Turbulent flow is fluctuating and agitated.
The change over is called transition to turbulence
Transition depends upon wall roughness, fluctuations in
the inlet stream, velocity of flow, density and viscosity of
the fluid and the linear dimension significant to the flow
pattern.
11/5/2014
47
Critical Reynolds Number

Velocity is not the only factor that determines whether the flow
is laminar or turbulent.
The criterion is Reynolds number, which is defined as the ratio of
inertia force to viscous force. - density of the fluid
VL
R
- dynamic viscosity of the fluid

V - velocity of flow
L - significan t linear dimension
for circular pipe, L D [diameter]
For non-circular pipes L=Dh [hydraulic diameter]

Dh
4 Area of cross - section 4 Ac
wetted perimeter
P
The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is

called the critical Reynolds number. There is an upper critical
Reynolds number and a lower critical Reynolds number.
Usually the lower value is defined as the true critical Reynolds
number [ for circular pipes 2000]
11/5/2014
48
General equation for conduit friction.

Consider steady flow in a pipe of uniform cross-section A. Let the
pressures at section 1 and 2 be p1 and p2 respectively. The distance
between the sections is L. For equilibrium in steady flow, F 0
_
ie
p1 A p2 A AL sin 0 ( PL) 0
Avg shear stress, 0
dP
p2 A
0 ( PL )
AL sin
W AL
p1 A
11/5/2014
49
sin
( z 2 z1 )
L
Substituting in equation 1
_ PL
p1
p2
hL z1
z 2 0
A
hL 0
L
Rh
Hydraulic radius, Rh
Area of cross - section Ac
P
Wetted perimeter
This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross-section

regardless of whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
For a smooth walled pipe, where wall roughness may be neglected,

_
0 f ( Rh , , , V )
KRha b cV n
Substituting the dimensional values of M, L and T for mass, length and time in (3)
11/5/2014
50
ML1T 2 KLa (ML3 ) b (ML1T 1 ) c ( LT 1 ) n
ML1T 2 K M bc La3bcnT cn
b c 1
Solving the three simultaneous expressions
a 3b c n 1
in terms of n : a n 2, b n 1, c 2 n
c n 2
Rearranging equation 3
RhV
0 2 K

_
V2
0 Cf
2
_
n2
V2
Grouping the dimensionless terms into

n-2
a single term Cf =2KR
Substituting the value of
0 in equation 2
L V2
hL C f
Rh 2 g
11/5/2014
4
51
Darcy-Weisbach equation
D
For a circular pipe flowing full, Rh
4
Substituting for Rh in equation (4)
L V2
hL 4C f
D 2g
L V2
hL f
D 2g
This equation is commonly referred to

as the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Cf is the skin friction coefficient (also called the

Fannings friction factor)
f is called the Darcy (or Moody) friction factor.
From the above equations, it appears f 4C f
11/5/2014
52
Fully developed laminar flow
The region of flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused
by fluid viscosity are felt is called the boundary layer.
The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the flow direction until
the boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe and
the velocity becomes fully developed a little farther downstream.
The region from the inlet to the point at which the velocity profile becomes
fully developed is called hydrodynamic entry length.
11/5/2014
53
Fully developed laminar flow in pipes

Hagen-Poiseuille formula
x
(2 .r )x
Flow
x
dp
x .( .r 2 )
p
dx
p.( .r 2 )
Consider a cylindrical shaped differential control volume of radius r, and

length x oriented coaxially with a pipe of radius, R. The flow through
the pipe is steady and fully developed. Therefore the pressure forces and
viscous forces must balance each other. A force balance on the fluid element
in the direction of flow gives
dp
.( .r 2 )x .(2 .r )x 0
dx
11/5/2014
54
shear stress distribution
Simplifying
dp r
.
dx 2
(a)
velocity distribution
From the above equation it is clear that shear stress varies linearly across
the cross-section.
du
From Newtons viscosity law,
dr
Substituting for shear stress in equation (a)
r dp
du
. .dr
2 dx
Integrating with respect to r and applying the boundary condition
u 0 at r R
1 dp 2
u (r )
(R r 2 )
4 dx
11/5/2014
This shows that the velocity

profile for fully developed
laminar flow is parabolic
55
Velocity is maximum at the centre of the pipe, r=0

u max
R 2 dp

4 dx
The average velocity is defined as,

R
2
2
V 2 u (r )r.dr 2
R 0
R
R 2 dp
V

8 dx
1 dp 2
2
(
R
r
).r.dr
0 4 dx
R
(b)
The average velocity is fully developed laminar pipe flow

is one-half of the maximum velocity, u max 2.V
Pressure drop and head loss
The quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is

the pressure drop, p since it is directly related to the
pumping power requirements.
56
dp
constant
From earlier discussion,
dx
Integrating from x=x1 where pressure is p1 to x=x2+L where pressure is p2
dp p 2 p1
dx
L
dp
Substituting for
in equation (b)
dx
p1 p2
Head loss, hL
8.L.V 32.L.V
2
R
D2
p1 p 2 32.L.V
g
gD 2
This equation is called

Hagen Poiseuille formula
The Hagen-Poiseuille formula is applicable only for laminar flow in tubes
11/5/2014
57
Friction factor
Laminar flow
Comparing the Darcy-Weisbach equation to the HagenPoiseuille formula

L V 2 32.L.V
f
D 2g
gD 2
Solving for f ,
16
64
R Reynolds number
f
C f R
R
The above equation can be used to estimate the friction
factor, f in laminar flow.
The momentum correction factor, and kinetic energy
correction factor, in laminar flow are 4/3 and 2
respectively.
11/5/2014
58
Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow friction factor depends on both the

Reynolds number and the roughness of the pipe.
f f ( R,
relative roughness
The functional form of this dependence cannot be obtained

from a theoretical analysis, and all the available results are
from experiments. ( J. Nikuradse is credited with conducting
most of these experiments)
The available data for transition and turbulent flow in
smooth as well as rough pipe were combined by Cyril F
Colebrook (1910-1997) into the following implicit relation
known as the Colebrook equation.
/ D 2.51
2.0 log 10
3.7
f
R
f
11/5/2014
59
Lewis F Moody, used the Colebrook equation and

plotted the results into what is now called the Moodys
chart for pipe friction.
The chart shows the variation of friction factor, f with
the pertinent governing parameters, namely R and /D.
The chart shows that there are four zones : laminar
flow; a critical zone where values are uncertain because
the flow might be laminar or turbulent; a transition
zone where f f ( R, / D) ; and a zone of complete
turbulence where f f ( / D)
There is no sharp line of demarcation between the
transition zone and the zone of complete turbulence.
The dashed line that separates the two zones in the
Moodys hart was suggested y R.J.S. Pigott.
The equation of this line is R 3500
( / D)
11/5/2014
60
Moodys chart
11/5/2014
61
Minor losses in pipes
In addition to the friction losses in pipes, additional losses,

termed minor losses, may occur due to,
Pipe entrance or exit.

Sudden area change.
Bends, elbows, tees and other fittings.
Valves, open or partially closed.
V2
hL K
2g
Loss of head at entrance to a pipe

As fluid from the reservoir enters the pipe, the streamlines
tend to converge, so that a region referred to as the vena
contracta is formed where the velocity is maximum and the
pressure minimum.
At the vena contracta the central stream is surrounded by
fluid which is in a state of turbulence but has very little
forward motion.
11/5/2014
62
The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as

V2
hL K
2g
where V is the mean velocity

K is the loss coefficient
Entrance loss is very much effected by the conditions at the

entrance to the pipe [ ie whether entrance is rounded or
sharp edged ].
Loss of head at submerged discharge (exit loss)
When a fluid with velocity V is discharged from the pipe into

a large reservoir which is so large that velocity within it is
negligible, the entire kinetic energy is dissipated.
hL
V 2
2g
or
1 - turbulent flow
2 - laminar flow
Therefore the only way to reduce exit loss is to reduce the
velocity in the pipe by means of a diverging tube.
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63
Losses due to sudden expansion

The fluid emerging from the smaller pipe will not be able to
follow the abrupt enlargement of cross-sectional area and this
leads to separation (flow against an adverse pressure gradient) of flow.
Flow separation results in pockets of turbulent eddies in the
corners causing dissipation of mechanical energy.
p mean pressure of the
eddying fluid over the

annular face
Consider a control volume
marked in the figure below.
Writing the momentum equation

for the control volume
p1 A1 p' ( A2 A1 ) p 2 A2 Q(V2 V1 )
p1 A1 p' ( A2 A1 ) p 2 A2 ( A2V22 A1V12 )
11/5/2014
64
Assuming that the pressure at section 2 in the ideal case be

2
2
p0, then p
p
V
V
0
1 1 2
g g 2 g 2 g
Equation 1 can be written as
p2
A1 p1 A2 A1 p' A1 V12 V22
g A2 g
A2 g A2 g
g
Loss of head is given by,

p
p
hL 0 2
g g
2
A
V
A
V
A
V
From continuity, 1 1
2 2
1 1 A2V2V1
A1 p1
(V1 V2 ) 2
p'
hL
1
A2 g g
2g
It is usually assumed that p' p1 , in which case,

(V1 V2 )
V
A1
1
hL
2g
2g
A2
2
2
1
11/5/2014
A1
K 1
A2
65
Loss due to sudden contraction
There is a marked drop in pressure due to the increase in velocity

and to the loss of energy in turbulence.
The streamlines converge from an upstream section of the larger
tube and continue converging up to a section c-c downstream,
where the area of cross-section is minimum.
This section of the stream tube is called vena contracta.
Losses due to separation occurs in the decelerating flow between c-c
and 2-2. This section is similar to a sudden expansion.
Head loss can be expressed

as follows.
2
V A2
V22 1
1
hL
1
2 g Ac
2 g Cc
2
2
Cc coefficien t of contraction
Comparing with the general

expression for head loss,
1
K
1
Cc
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66
Losses in pipe bends

In flow around a bend or elbow, because of centrifugal effects there is
an increase in pressure along the outer wall and a decrease in
pressure along the inner wall.
The centrifugal and the axial components of velocity combine
together to form a double spiral flow (secondary flow) develops
which persists for some distance (100 pipe diameters).
More than half the friction loss produced by a bend or elbow takes
place in the straight pipe following it.
In addition to secondary flow there will be separation losses due to
adverse pressure gradients along the outer (A-B) and inner walls (C-D).
The head loss produced by a bend is,
V2
hL K
2g
D
B
Loss coefficient, K is dependent on the

ratio, R/d.
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67
Losses in fittings and valves

Losses occur when fluid flows through valves and fittings.
More restricted the passage is, greater is the loss of head.
Head loss is expressed as,
V2
, V - velocity upstreamof the fitting
hL K
2g
K values for common valves and fittings
11/5/2014
68
a gate valve
b globe valve
c angle valve
d swing-check valve
11/5/2014
e disc type gate valve

69
Hydraulic grade line (HGL) and

Energy grade line (EGL)
The line joining the total head, as measured by a pitot tube, at
different locations along a pipe line is called the Energy Grade
Line (EGL) or Total Energy Line (TEL).
The line joining the piezometric head, as measured by a
piezometer, at different locations along a pipe line is called the
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL).
p
z
HGL
g
p
V2
z
EGL
g
2g
For frictionless flow EGL is a straight line. In real flow EGL will
drop slowly due to frictional losses. EGL drops sharply in flow
through valves or turbines and rises sharply in flow through a
pump.
In open channel flow, HGL coincides with the free surface.
The HGL generally follows the behavior of the EGL with respect
to losses and work transfer. 11/5/2014 Dept of Mechanical Engineering
70
11/5/2014
71
Module 3
FLUID MECHANICS
Potential flows
Irrotational flow What does it mean?
A region of flow in which fluid particles have no net rotation

is called an irrotational region of flow.
Ideal irrotational flow
High Reynolds number flow
In general, regions of flow far away from solid walls and

wakes of bodies (inviscid regions) are irrotational.
But there are situations in which an inviscid region of flow
may not be irrotational (eg. Forced vortex)
Mathematically, irrotational flow approximation is equivalent
to stating that vorticity is negligibly small.
V 0
Circulation and Vorticity

u
Consider a fluid element ABCD in

B
rotational motion.
Circulation is defined as the line
v
integral of Velocity around the element.
It is denoted by
A
vs velocity tangential to
v s ds
u
dx
y
C
direction of
rotation
dx
dy
v
dx
x
the element at a point
For the element shown in the figure
v
u
dx dx v.dy
ABCD u.dx v dx dy u
x
y
v u
Vorticity
ABCD dx.dy .dA
x y
Circulation around a contour is equal to the sum of vorticities within

the area of the contour.
Stream function,
Consider the simple case of incompressible, 2-D flow in the x-y

plane. The continuity equation in cartesian coordinates is
u v
0
x y
If a function ( x, y, t ) is defined in the manner
and
so that it satisfies the equation of continuity, then the function

( x, y, t ) is known as stream function.
In case of irrotational flow,
v u
0
x y
2 2
2 0
2
x
y
Thus, for an irrotational flow, the stream function satisfies the

Laplaces equation, 2 0
Recall from Module I that along a streamline,
dy v
dx u
v.dx u.dy 0
For any smooth function (x,y), by the chain rule of mathematics
dx
dy
x
y
Comparing equations 1 and 2, d
are streamlines of the flow.
d
0 ie curves of constant
In cylindrical coordinates,
1
ur
r
and
u
r
Physical significance of stream function,
The difference in the value of from one streamline to

another is equal to the volume flow rate per unit width between
the two streamlines.
Velocity potential,
In vector algebra there is a vector identity concerning the curl

of the gradient of any scalar function,
Thus if V 0, as in the case of irrotational flow, then V

If the curl of a vector field (eg. velocity field) is zero, the
vector can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function,
called the potential function
Potential function is defined as,
2
cartesiancoordinates u
,v
,w
x
y
z
cylindrical coordinates u r
, u
,uz
r
z
r

For incompressible flow V 0 0

for irrotational, incompressible flow ,
Stream function is based on the principle of continuity. If a

exists then it describes a possible case of flow which can be
either rotational or irrotational.
If satisfies the Laplace equation then the flow is irrotational.
If a velocity potential, exists, the flow must be irrotational
and if satisfies the Laplace equation then the flow is
incompressible.
dy v
v
.
dx
u
.
dy
Along a streamline
dx
Along a equipotential line
dy
dy
1
dx c dx c
u.dx v.dy 0
dy
u
dx
v
Streamlines and equipotential lines

are orthogonal, or everywhere
perpendicular to each other.
Comparing equations 1 and 2

y
x
and

-
x y
These equations are known as

Cauchy-Riemann equations
Elementary planar irrotational flows
Superposition (process of adding two or more solutions to

create a third more complicated solution) enables us to add
two or more elementary flows to create a more complex
flow patterns. The elementary flows commonly encountered
are,
Uniform flow
Source / Sink flow
Vortex flow
Doublet
Uniform flow
It is the simplest of the elementary flows.
U
x
y
0
y
x
Integrating and setting the constants of integration to zero.
U.y
and
U .x
For a uniform stream inclined at an angle,
U . cos
x
y
U . sin
y
x
Integrating and setting the constants of integration to zero.
U ( x. cos y. sin )
U ( y. cos x. sin )
Source and Sink flow
When a fluid flows radially outward (source flow) from a

point source, the velocity components (polar coordinates) are
1
q
ur
r r 2 .r
q source strength (flow rate

per unit length, m 2 / s)
0
u
r r
Integrating and setting the constants of
integration to zero.
and
ln r
2
When the fluid flows radially inward (sink flow strength of

sink is -q) to a point source, the velocity components are
ur
1
q
r r
2 .r
1
u
0
r r
Integrating and setting the constants of
integration to zero.
q

2
and
q
ln r
2
Clearly, the radial component of velocity , u r increases with

decreasing r and reaches infinity at r=0. This is called a singular
point or a singularity
Vortex flow
Velocity components in vortex flow is given as,

1
ur
0
Vortex strength
r r
or Circulation
1
r r 2 .r
Integrating and setting the constants of integration to zero,
ln r

2
and
Examples of Vortex flows :

Tornado
Whirlpool
Source Sink pair
Consider a source and sink of equal strength, q at equal

distance a from the origin along the x-axis.
P
+q
-q
The potential function of the two flows may be superimposed

to obtain the potential at P.
q
q
q r1
ln r1
ln r2
ln
2
2
2 r2
The stream function at P can be similarly obtained.

q
q
q
1 2
(1 2 )
2
2
2
q

where ( 2 1 )
2
From the figure

y
tan 1
xa
y
tan 2
xa
tan 2 tan 1
tan tan( 2 1 )
1 tan 2 tan 1
Substituting the values of tan1 and tan2 in equation 1
2 ya
tan 2
x y2 a2
Again from the figure

r1 r 2 a 2 2ra cos
Therefore,
and r2 r 2 a 2 2ra cos
q
2 ya
1
tan 2

2
2
2
x y a
q r 2 a 2 2ra cos
ln 2
2
4 r a 2ra cos
Doublet
Doublet is a special case when a source and sink are brought
together in such a way that a0 and at the same time the
strength (q/2) is increased to an infinite value.
These are accomplished in a manner which makes the
product : a.q/ =
Therefore, stream function
2 ya
q

2 x 2 y 2 a 2
. y
x y a
2
[in the limiting case tan 1 ]
. sin
r
and velocity potential
q
ln( r 2 a 2 2ra cos ) ln( r 2 a 2 2ra cos )
4
2
2
2ra cos
2ra cos
2
2
ln (r a )1 2
ln (r a )1 2
2
2
r a
r a
Expanding and applying the limiting condition
. cos
r
The streamlines associated with the

doublet are
. sin
C sin y / r
r
. y
2 C x2 y2 y 0
C
r
x y

2.C
2.C
The above equation represents a family of

circles. The centres of the circles fall on y- axis.
The individual circles have radius equal to / 2C .
The equipotential lines associated with the doublet are
. cos
r
.x
'
C
r2
C'
cos x / r
x y
2
'
'
'
2.C
2.C
x0
2
The above equation represents a family of circles. The centres

of the circles fall on x- axis. The individual circles have radius
'
equal to / 2C .
The doublet flow can be equivalently defined by superposing a
clockwise vortex of strength on y-axis at y=a and a
counterclockwise vortex of strength at y=-a
Superposition of elementary flows

Rankine half body
This flow pattern can be obtained by superposing a uniform
flow and a source (source placed at the origin).
The stream function of the superposed flow is
q
Uo y
2
U o r. sin
The velocity potential is
y=q/4UO
Uo
q
Uo x
ln r
2
q
U o r. cos
ln r
2
Stagnation point
At a point lying on the x-axis to the left of the source, the
net velocity of the combined flow field is zero. That point is
called the stagnation point.
The radial component of velocity
1 1
q
ur
U O .r. sin
r r
2
u r U O . cos
q
2 .r
At the stagnation point, 180 o : r rS and u r 0
0 U O
q
2 .rS
q
rS
2 .U O
The value of stream function at stagnation point, S is

q
o
S U O .rS . sin 180
2
q
S
2
The half body is described by this dividing streamline.

The equation of this dividing streamline (half body)
q
Uo y
2
q
Substituting
at the stagnation point
2
q
y
2U O
At 0, y max
at
, y
2U O
q
4U O
Velocity components
Radial component, u r
1 1
r r
U
.
r
sin
O
2
q
u r U O . cos
2 .r
Transverse component, u
U
.
r
sin
O
2
u U O . sin
q
, 0
The coordinates of the stagnation point is
2U O
Flow around a cylinder (without circulation)

This flow pattern can be obtained by superposing a uniform flow
and a doublet (doublet placed at the origin).
. sin
U O .y
r
U O .r. sin
r
Similarly the velocity potential of the superposed flow is
U O .r cos
r
Looking for the streamline whose value is zero, [ 0] we obtain
U O .r. r sin 0
The equation is satisfied when, sin 0 or
0 and
This shows that x-axis is a part of the streamline =0
The equation is also satisfied when,
U O .r.
.
r
UO
Since and UO are constants, R is a constant. It means that

the circle of radius r forms a part of the streamline =0.
Stagnation points
r

UO
Point A , r
UO
0 A
Point B - 0, r
UO
Flow around a rotating cylinder

This flow pattern is obtained by superposing a doublet and a
vortex (at the centre of the doublet) to a uniform flow.
The pressure distribution around the cylinder result in a
force, a component of which will generate lift force.
The phenomenon of generation of lift by a rotating body
placed in a stream is known as Magnus effect.
U O .y
. sin
r
ln r [Assume clockwise rotation]

2
The velocity potential of the superposed flow is
U O .x
. cos
r
[Assume clockwise rotation]
Velocity components
1
ur
U O 2 cos
r
r
u
U O 2 sin
2 .r
r
r
Stagnation points
At stagnation points, u r 0 and u 0
u r U O 2 cos 0
r
u U O 2 sin
0
2 .r
r
So the stagnation point occurs at
and along the circle, r
1 / 2 .r
sin
UO
/ 2
sin
1/ 2
2( U O )
1
UO
The streamline passing through these points is

determined by evaluating at these points.

S
ln
2 U O
1/ 2
At the stagnation points

/ 2
1 / 2
sin
sin
1/ 2
2
U
r
2
(
)
U
/ 2
2 , where =-90o
The limiting case arises for
2U O .r
and two stagnation points meet at the bottom.
a)
/2
0
U O .r
b)
c)
/2
2
U O .r
/2
2
U O .r
d)
/2
2
U O .r
Magnus effect
The pressure distribution around a rotating body result in a
force, a component of which will generate lift force.
Lift is that component of force exerted by a fluid on a body,
which acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and in
the plane of rotation.
This phenomenon of generation of lift by a rotating body
placed in a stream is known as Magnus effect.
For a given value of circulation, lift is independent of the
shape of the body. ie
Lift, L U
Kutta-Joukowski law
It is clear from the above equation that lift (Magnus effect) is

independent of the viscosity of the fluid.
Example : Curling motion of cricket ball, soccer ball, tennis
ball etc when rotation is imparted on them.
Vortex pair
Two irrotational vortices with strengths equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction constitute a vortex pair.
r2
ln r1
ln r2
ln
2
2
2 r1
The velocity potential is
1 2
( 2 1 )
2
2
2
Both the vortices are affected
by the movement of fluid due to
the other.
Therefore both of them moves
with a velocity of /4b in a
direction perpendicular to the line joining their centres.
However an observer moving with the vortices would

observe the following flow pattern [uniform flow + vortex
pair]
This flow pattern is obtained by superposing
a uniform flow parallel to y-axis to a vortex
pair. The stream function of the combined
flow is
r2
ln U .x

2 r1
Module IV
FLUID MECHANICS
Boundary Layer Theory
What is a boundary layer?

The velocity of fluid relative to a solid surface is zero no
slip condition.
The region of flow close to a surface in which the velocity
increases from zero and approaches the velocity of the main
stream is called boundary layer.
The thickness of the boundary layer depends on the
Reynolds number of flow over the surface. Higher the
Reynolds number, the thinner the boundary layer.
Re
U x
U main stream velocity.
The simplest boundary layer is the one that is formed over a

thin, smooth flat plate.
Fluid comes in contact with the surface at the leading edge
of the plate.
As more and more of the fluid is slowed down, the thickness
of the boundary layer increases.
The flow in the first part of the boundary layer is entirely

laminar.
But with increasing thickness the laminar flow become
unstable and irregularities formed develops into turbulence.
With turbulent boundary layer the boundary layer thickness
increases rapidly.
In the turbulent boundary layer there is a very thin region

close to the boundary where all random fluctuations die out.
This layer is called the viscous sub-layer.
Boundary layer equations
Consider a 2-D steady incompressible flow of a viscous fluid.

The complete equations of motion consist of the continuity
equation and x- and y- momentum relations.
u v
0
x y
2u 2u
u
u
1 p
v
2 2
u
x
y
x
y
x
2v 2v
v
v
1 p
2 2
u v
x
y
y
y
x
Since the boundary layer is very thin for large Reynolds

numbers, the following approximations apply.
v u, u u and v v
x
y
x
y
These approximations result in a simplified set of equations
called Prandtls boundary layer equations.
Prandtls boundary layer equations

u v
0
x y
p
0
y
p p(x)
u
u
1 dp
2u
u
v
2
x
y
dx
y
Boundary conditions
uv0
at y 0
u U ( x) at y
u u( x0 , y) at
x x0
Laminar flow over a flat plate - Blasius Solution

dp
0 . Therefore the prandtls boundary
Over a flat plate,
dx
layer equations reduces to
Boundary conditions :
u
u
2u
u
v
2
x
y
y
uv0
1
u v
0
x y
u U ( x) at y
u u( x0 , y) at
x x0
Blasius showed that the dimensionless velocity profile u / U

is a function of a dimensionless variable, (similarity variable).
u
g ( )
U
at y 0
y
where
( x)
( x) thickness of boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness, (x) is a function of x,U and
( x) ~
.x
U
Since the problem is 2-D, it is easier to work with stream

function
.x
u.dy U g ( ).
U
U .x g ( )d U .x . f ( ) constant
Velocities can now be determined by differentiating the stream
function. Once the velocities are determined, its derivatives can
also be found out.
Substituting the values of velocities and its derivatives into
equation 1.
2 f ''' ( ) f ( ) f '' ( ) 0
Blasius equation
The boundary conditions become
f ( ) 0, f ' ( ) 0 at 0
f ' ( ) 1 at
Solution
Thickness of the boundary layer, (x)
From the solution of the Blasius equation.
u / U 0.99 and y at 4.91

Therefore
4.91 x
4.91
.x
Re x
Local Skin friction coefficient, Cfx
C fx
w
1
U 2
2
0.664
(Re x )1 / 2
Re x
U x
Once Cfx is known, wall shear can be determined by the

following relation
1
w C fx . U 2
2
Average skin friction coefficient, C f
1.328
C f 2C fx
(Re L )1 / 2
Re L
L length of the plate
Drag force on the plate of area , L b is
1
F C f . U 2 .Lb
2
U L
Different measures of boundary layer thickness

The u=0.99U thickness, 99
This is defined as the distance from the wall where the

longitudinal velocity reaches 99% of the local free stream
velocity.
Displacement thickness, *
It is the distance through which the streamline just outside

the boundary layer is deflected away from the wall due to
the effect of the boundary layer.
Equating the mass flux across the cross-sections A and B

(conservation of mass)
U h
h *
U h u.dy U *
.u.dy
u
1
dy
U
0
*
Changing the upper limit of integration from h to does not

affect the integral because h can take any value. Outside the
boundary layer the value of the integral is zero, no matter
what the value of h is.
Momentum thickness,
It is defined as the loss of momentum flux per unit width

divided by U2 due to the presence of the boundary layer.
U
The momentum flux across section A =
h
The momentum flux across section B is,

h *
2
2
2 *
u
dy
u
dy
U
.
.
The loss of momentum between A and B due to the presence

2
of the boundary layer is equal to U
h
U 2 h .u 2 dy U 2 * U 2
0
Rearranging.
h
u2
u
1 2 .dy 1
.dy
U
U
0
0
h
u

U
0
u
1
.dy
U
momentum thickness
Energy thickness, **
It is defined as the loss of energy per unit width divided by
U3 due to the presence of the boundary layer.
1
3
The energy flux across section A = U h
2
The energy flux across section B is,
h *
1
1
1
3
3
.u dy .u dy U 3 *
2
2
2
0
The loss of energy between A and B due to the presence of

the boundary layer is equal to
h
1
1
1
1
3
3
3 *
U h .u dy U U 3 **
2
2
2
2
0
Rearranging.
**
U
0
u2
1 2 .dy
U
Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation [Flat plate]

Consider a control volume ABCD
of length x along a flat plate. A fluid
flows over the flat plate with free
stream velocity, U.
The rate at which fluid enters the
control volume through side AB is
.u.dy
0

control volume through side CD is

0 .u.dy x 0 .u.dy x
The rate at which fluid enters the control volume through

side BD is [by conservation of mass]

.u.dy x .u.dy x

control volume through side AB

control volume through side CD
.u.dy

.u.dy x
x 0
The rate at which momentum flux enters the control volume

through side AB is
2
.
u
.dy
0

through side CD is
2
2
0 .u .dy x 0 .u .dy x

through side BD is

.u.dy x.U
x 0
The momentum equation in x-direction is
rate of change of momentum in x - direction
The rate at which

Momentum flux
enters the control
Volume through
side CD
The rate at which

Momentum flux
enters the control
Volume through
side AB
2
2
Fx 0 .u .dy x 0 .u .dyx
.u
.dy
The rate at which

Momentum flux
enters the control
Volume through
side BD

.u.dy x.U
x 0
For a flat plate, pressure gradient in x- direction is zero.

Therefore,
F .x.1

2
0 .x .u .dy x .u.dy x.U
x 0
x 0

2
0 .x .u.dy x.U .u .dy x
x 0
x 0

0 u (U u ).dy
x 0
Dividing both sides of the equation with .U and changing the

Upper limit from to .
u
u

1
.dy
0
u

2
.U x 0 U
u
1
dy
U
2
U x
Momentum thickness
Von Karman Momentum Integral

equation for a flat plate
Boundary layer separation
In flows over curved surfaces, as shown in the figure given

below, the flow experiences a favorable pressure gradient in
the first half (A to C) and adverse pressure gradient in the
second half (C to E).
Under the influence of an adverse pressure gradient, the

slow moving particles close to the boundary slow down
further and this leads to separation of flow [point D].
Separation occurs only when an adverse pressure gradient

exists [eg. flow over curved surfaces]
The separated flow tend to curl up in the reversed flow,
forming eddies and this region of disturbed flow is called a
wake.
At the separation point shear stress vanishes. Mathematically,
u
y 0
y 0
u
y 0
y 0
Flow is still in contact with the surface
u
y 0
y 0
Flow has already separated from the surface
The point of separation is independent of Reynolds number

as long as Reynolds number is laminar.
However turbulence in boundary layer delays separation, that

is: a turbulent boundary layer is more capable of withstanding
an adverse pressure gradient.
This is because in turbulent boundary layers, the particles
close to the boundary has more energy.
The formation of wake region

in the downstream side results
in a drag force called form drag.
In addition to the form drag, the
body experiences a drag force
due to shearing action of the fluid
on the surface. This drag is called
skin friction drag.
Methods to control separation

Streamlining the profile of the body.
Providing suction slots on the surface. The low
momentum layers close to the boundary will be sucked
into the slots and will be replaced by high energy fluid.
By utilizing variable geometry. Eg. Nose flaps used in
airfoils helps to alter the pressure field around the air foil
thereby delaying separation.
Separation can also be controlled by directly injecting
(blowing) fluid tangentially into the location where
separation would have taken place otherwise.
A technique to control separation in airfoils is to use
Vortex-generators. This is accomplished by mixing high
momentum fluid from outer flow with low momentum
fluid close to the airfoil.
Flow past a cylinder [Karman Vortex street]
At low Reynolds numbers (~1) the flow smoothly divides

and reunites around the cylinder (fig a).
At a Reynolds number of about 4, the flow separates and a

wake is formed downstream of the cylinder with two
symmetrical eddies.
The eddies remain steady and symmetrical but grow in size
up to a Reynolds number of about 40.
Beyond Re=40, the wake becomes unstable and oscillates.
Up to a Reynolds number of about 90, the eddies grow in
size and beyond Re=90, the oscillating eddies are shed
alternately [at a particular frequency] from the top and
bottom of the cylinder into two staggered rows of vortices
with opposite sense of rotation.
Because of the similarity of the wake with the footprints in a
street, vortices behind a blunt body is called a Von Karman
Vortex Street.
The shedding of vortices alternately from the two sides of
the cylinder produces alternating lateral forces and these
may cause a forced vibration of the cylinder at the vortex
shedding frequency.
The passage of regular vortices causes velocity measurements

in the wake to have a dominant periodicity. The frequency of
this periodicity is expressed by a nondimensional parameter
called Strouhal number, S.
fD
S
U
f vortex shedding frequency

D - diameter of the cylinder
U free stream velocity
Karman concluded that the staggered row of vortices are

stable only if the ratio of the lateral distance between the
vortices to the longitudinal distance is 0.28.
h
0.28
l
Fluids in Rigid Body Motion
There is no relative motion between particles.

With no relative motion, there are no strains involved .
Forces involved are pressure and gravity.
In the general case of combined translation and rotation
of a fluid in rigid body motion the velocity of an
arbitrary point P in the fluid is given by
V Vo ro
Vo velocity of centre of rotation
angular ve locity vector

ro position vector of the point P
Acceleration is given by
dVo
d
a
( ro )
ro
dt
dt
Translational
acceleration
Centripetal
acceleration
Linear acceleration
due to change in
angular velocity
Linear acceleration
The surfaces of constant pressure
will be perpendicular to the direction
of the vector sum of g and a and
are tilted at a downward angle
ax
tan
g az
1
The rate of increase of pressure in the direction of the vector sum of

g and a is greater than in ordinary hydrostatics and is given by
dp
G
ds
G ax2 ( g az )
1
2 2
Rigid body rotation

The angular velocity and position
vectors are
ro r ir
The pressure field can be obtain-ed by solving two ordinary

differential equations
p
r 2
r
p

z
The constant pressure surface, say at

the surface , p=pa
Pressure is linear in z, but parabolic in r
p po z
p po z
r 2 2
2
po pa
r 2 2
2g

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Module 1

Learning goals for this unit

Definition and classification.

A fluid is a substance which deforms

In this approach we assume that a fluid may be

A dimensionless parameter, Knudsen number, K n

mean free path

Continuum hypothesis continued

Mean free path is the statistical average distance

Continuum approach valid

0.01 K n 0.1 Slip flow

Defined as mass per unit volume.

The reciprocal of density is the specific volume, v

Density of a liquid depends on temperature and

A payload specialist at NASA needs to estimate the total

From the compressibility chart, it is observed that Z

Table: Critical Pressure and

Specific gravity (Relative density) is defined as the

Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to

The shear stress acting on the fluid layer in contact

Let u(y) be the velocity of a layer of fluid at a

Shear strain can be expressed as,

It can be concluded that rate of deformation

It can be verified experimentally that for most

Introducing a constant of proportionality,

Fluids that obey Newtons law of Viscosity are

Unit of dynamic viscosity Ns/m2 (Pa.s)

1 Poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 0.1 Ns/m2

In many problems involving viscosity there

1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s

The centistoke (cSt) (0.01 St) is also used quite

Rate of deformation, du/dy

Case Study 2 - Viscometer

m - flow consistency index

Molecular momentum exchange (dominant

Viscosity (dynamic and kinematic) is a strong

The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to

Due to surface tension a liquid interface in

Excess pressure inside a spherical bubble,

two interfaces exist.

Excess pressure inside a cylindrical jet,

Is the rise or fall of liquid in a

r radius of the tube

Capillary rise contact angle, <90

A person conceives the idea that power can be generated

E represents the change in pressure corresponding to

The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is

K is usually defined for gases.

Coefficient of volume expansion

For an ideal gas,

represents the variation of density of the fluid

Vapour pressure of a pure substance is defined

Case Study 3 - Cavitation

Determine if cavitation occurs in the pump

Water Vapor Pressure (absolute)

A fluid element isolated from its surroundings is

Body forces act throughout the body of the fluid

Surface forces are exerted on the fluid element

A stationary fluid element

cos , cos , cos are the

It can be concluded that the normal stress at a point has the

Fundamental equation of hydrostatics