Geophyiscs - To quantify subsurface geology, storage, flow properties and fluids.

4 Types of Geophysical techniques used in petroleum exploration

PASSIVE Reconnaissance techniques measure natural potential fields of the Earth
Gravity Surveys Density variations
- Magnetic Surveys intrusions, faults
- Gamma Rays natural radiation
Locates sedimentary basins, provide depth information and controlling features.

ACTIVE - Energy input into Earth, response measured.

-

Seismic (Reflection) Surveys- primary tool for delineating subsurface structure, detecting hydrocarbon
presence prior to drilling.
Electromagnetic Direct hydrocarbon detection.

Industry is mainly interested in Upper Crustal scale hydrocarbon exploration for Geophysical applications
< 10km Depth

Scale of Seismic Investigation

Shallow Penetration - High Resolution, m-scale, 10s of m
Deep Penetration - Low Resolution - 100s of m scale, 10s of km
Conventional Seismic date is between few 10s several km penetration

A play is a favourable combination of the petroleum systems components likely to lead to hydrocarbon
accumulations being discovered.
Source rocks present in sufficient extensiveness, at a mature stage
Ideal Reservoir rocks present with sufficient porosity and permeability to enable storage and
production.
Primary and secondary migration must have occurred
Seal and Overburden rock present to prevent tertiary migration
Trap Structure in place to accumulate system

The principle of seismic reflection surveying

A form of echo- sounding. A sound pulse (compressional or P-wave) generated by a powerful source at surface
such as an explosion penetrates the rocks to depths of several kilometres and is reflected back as an echo from
the interfaces between different rock types (with different sound velocities). The echoes are recorded at the
surface on an array of sensitive receivers geophones, hydrophones. The raypath is at right angles to the
interface, and is called a normal-incidence reflection.
The echoes are recorded at the surface as separate pulses of sound, with successive pulses overlapping, so
that the final recording from a single receiver takes the form of an extended wave train several seconds in
length, displayed as an Oscillographic trace. The time is that taken for the sound to travel down to the reflector
and back to the surface the two-way time (TWT) or reflection time. The reflected sound pulses build up an
image of the strata scaled vertically in TWT. The TWT is generally shown to increase downwards with depth.
The zero of the time is at the time of firing the explosive shot. The whole bears a striking resemblance to a
geological cross-section through the strata, as if it were a giant cliff face. Since the display so strongly
resembles a geological cross section, but has a vertical dimension scaled in TWT, it is called a time-section.

Reflection Seismic data (exploration) 5Hz < frequency < 120HZ

Human hearing 20Hz 20,000Hz
In general, a seismic wave does not have a single frequency, but may be considered the sum of many simple
sine waves of slightly different frequencies and amplitudes. Seismographs cannot perceive the whole range of
seismic wave frequencies ranging from 0-100Hz, so we use instruments which are specialized to record high,
intermediate or low signal frequencies because broad band seismographs are expensive.
Seismic Waves

Body Waves P-Waves are compressional and propagate through solids and fluids.
The particle motion is parallel to wave front propagation.

S-Waves, shear waves, only propagate through solids

The particle motion is transverse to wave front propagation; vertical and horizontal polarization

Surface Waves Noise Considerable source of interference.

Wave Propagation

P-Wave velocity and densities of natural rocks -

Air Sound ~ 344ms-1

Water ~ 1500 ms-1
~ 1.5 kms-1
Mud ~ 1.5 1.7 kms-1
Most rocks ~ 2-7 kms-1

Gardeners Equation Relates seismic P-Wave velocity to the bulk density of the lithology in which the wave
travels. This relation is very popular in petroleum exploration as it can provide information about the lithology
from interval velocities obtained from seismic data.

Rock Velocity Measurement Method

Controlling Factors

Downhole sonic log

Lithology mineralogy, diagenesis

Velocity survey in borehole

OWT and known depth used to calculate
average velocities and interval velocities.
-

Porosity
Pore Fluid A 5-10% gas content ~ 20% velocity drop
Pore Fluid pressure
Burial Depth
Age of rock

Acoustic Impedance
The product of density and seismic velocity which varies among different rock layers, symbolized by Z. The
difference in acoustic impedance between rock layers affects the reflection coefficient, R.
R is the % reflected

Ai

Ar

Seismic Interpretation
Major changes in stratigraphic dip.
Major structural discontinuities
Major Hiati stratigraphic unconformities

Use of Geophysics in the Petroleum Industry

Exploration
Gravity, Magnetics reconnaissance surveys to identify and locate sedimentary basins, and depth.
2D Seismic -10km grid Locate main structural features
- Finer grid licence allocation
Discovery 2D + 3D Seismic identify drilling prospects, plan well, define discovery
Appraisal Development3D + AVO locate reservoir, assess fluids
Optimisation of development plan, well planning
Production
4C Improve locating production wells
4D Repeated 3D monitoring of production
Reservoir management, infill drilling targets

Seismic Data Acquisition and ProcessingSteps

Positioning
Source
Data Recording
Data Processing
Data Interpretation

Positioning Receiver

Energy Source

Land

Sea

Geophones detect ground velocity produced

by seismic waves and transform the motion
into electrical impulses. Geophones detect
motion in only one direction. Convention
seismic surveys on land use one geophone per
receiver location to detect motion in the
vertical direction.

Hydrophones, combined with

streamers towed by seismic vessels ore
deployed in a borehole

Seismometers
VibroSeis Trucks
Dynamite
Air Gun
Shot Gun

- Detects seismic energy in form of

pressure changes under water during
marine seismic acquisition.

Air Guns
Array of which tuned to cancel
bubble pulse
nd
Generator injector 2 pulse
eliminates bubbles
Activated periodically, i.e. every 25m

Water Guns
Dynamite obsolete
Ship propeller

Seismic acquisition is the generation and recording of seismic data. Acquisition involves many different
receiver configurations, including laying geophones or seismometers on the Earth surface or hydrophones on
the seafloor and towing receiver streamers behind marine seismic vessels. These devices record the seismic
signal. A source such as a vibrator unit (vibroseis trucks, dynamite shot or an air gun) generates acoustic or
elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through strata with different seismic responses and filtering
effects, and return to the surface to be recorded as seismic data. Optimal acquisition varies according to local
conditions and involves employing appropriate source (both type, and intensity), optimal configuration and
orientation of receivers with respect to geological features. This is to ensure that the highest signal-to-noise
ratio can be recorded, resolution is appropriate and extraneous effects such as air waves, ground roll,
multiples and diffractions can be minimized or distinguished and removed through processing.

Sonic Logging is a well logging tool that provides a formations interval transit time, which is a measure of a
formations capacity to transmit seismic waves. Geologically, this capacity varies with lithology and rock
texture, most notably decreasing with effective porosity.
-

Determine porosity of reservoir rock

Improve correlation and interpretation of seismic records
Identify zones of abnormally high pressure
Assist in identifying lithology
Estimate secondary pore space
Estimate rock permeability

Zero- Offset Acquisition no horizontal distance between the source and receiver

In reflection seismology, the Normal Move Out (NMO) describes the effect that the distance between a
seismic source and a received (the offset) has on the arrival time of a reflection in the form of an increase of
time with offset. The relationship between arrival time and offset is hyperbolic and it is a principle criterion
that a geophysicist uses to decide whether an even is a reflection or not.