Course Title

IEQ-05 Earthquake Geology and Geoinformatics

(Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee)
Ground Response to Seismic Waves
When a fault ruptures below the earths surface, body waves travel away from the
source in all directions. As they reach boundaries between different geologic materials,
they are reflected and refracted. Since the wave propagation velocities of shallower
materials are generally lower than the materials beneath them, inclined rays that strike
horizontal layer boundaries are usually reflected to a more vertical direction. By the time
the rays reach the ground surface, multiple refractions have often bent them to nearly
vertical direction.

Figure 1: Refraction process that produces nearly vertical wave propagation near the
ground surface.
Soil Properties those play role in effecting the behavior of seismic waves
Density, Resistivity, Cohesive strength , Porosity, Permeability, Compressibility, Bulk
modulus, Modulus of rigidity, Shear strength, Tensile strength
Terms that are commonly used to describe ground motion are as follows. The
motion at the surface of a soil deposit is the free surface motion. The motion at the base
of the soil deposit (also the top of bedrock) is called a bedrock motion. The motion at a
location where bedrock is exposed at the ground surface is called a rock outcropping
motion. If the soil deposit was not present, the motion at the top of bedrock would be the
bedrock outcropping motion.

Figure 2 Ground response nomenclature: (a) soil overlying bedrock; (b) no soil overlying
bedrock.

Local Site Effect

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The influence of local geologic and soil conditions on the intensity of ground
shaking and earthquake damage has been known for many years. Local site effects play
an important role in earthquake-resistant design and must be accounted for on a case-bycase basis. Local site conditions can profoundly influence all the important
characteristics-amplitude, frequency content, and duration-of strong ground motion. The
extent of their influence depends on the geometry and material properties of the
subsurface materials, on site topography, and on the characteristics of the input motion.
Evidence from Theoretical Ground Response Analyses
There are important theoretical reasons why ground surface motions should be
influenced by local site conditions. At most sites the density and S-wave velocity of
materials near the surface are smaller than at greater depths. If the effects of scattering
and materials damping are neglected, the conservation of elastic wave energy requires
that the flow of energy (energy flux, s2) from depth to the ground surface be constant.
Therefore, since and s decrease as waves approach the ground surface, the particle
velocity, , must increase.
The characteristics of local soil deposits can also influence the extent to which
ground motion amplification will occur when the specific impedance is constant. The
basis for such amplification can be illustrated analytically using simple, theoretical
ground response analyses. Consider, for example, the two soil deposits shown in figure
below, their geometries are identical, but one is considerably stiffer than the other. If each
soil is assumed to be linearly elastic and bedrock to be rigid, the amplification functions
of each site are as illustrated in figure 4.

Figure 3 Two hypothetical soil deposits overlying rigid bedrock: (a) site A; (b) site B.
Soils are identical, except the S-wave velocity of the soil at site B is four times greater
than that at site.
Clearly, the softer site (site A) will amplify low-frequency (long period) bedrock
motions more than the stiff site (site B); the reverse would be observed for highfrequency (short-period) motions. Since earthquakes produce bedrock motion over a
range of frequencies, some components of an actual bedrock motion will be amplified
more than others. For the more realistic condition of elastic bedrock, the nature of the
local site amplification will be influenced by the specific impedance of the bedrock.
Consequently, any description of local site conditions should include the density and
stiffness of the bedrock. For example, the harder crystalline bedrock would be expected
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to produce amplification factors about 50% higher than those associated with the softer
rock conditions.

Figure 4: Amplification functions for sites A and B. Note that the softer soil at site A will
amplify low-frequency input motions much more strongly than will the stiffer soils of site
B. At higher frequencies, the opposite behavior would be expected.
Soil Amplification
Impedance (.vs) decreases in soil.
Seismic wave amplitude increases although velocity of wave decreases.
Rock impedance is high velocity is high, wavelength is longer.
In soil wavelength reduces but energy i.e. amplitude increases.

Evidence from Measured Surface Motions

Recordings of ground motion at several locations at a site during a nearby
earthquake indicated variations in ground motion along a section. Ground surface
motions at the rock outcrops were quite similar, but the amplitude and frequency content
of the motions at sites underlain by thick soil deposits were markedly different.
During the Mexico (Michoacan) earthquake of 19 September 1985 (Mag.= 8.0)
significant pattern of local site effects have been observed. This earthquake caused only
moderate damage in the vicinity of its epicenter (near the Pacific coast of Mexico) but
caused extensive damage some 350 km away in Mexico City. Studies of ground motions
recorded at different sites in Mexico City illustrated the significant relationship between
local soil conditions and damaging ground motions. Shallow, compact deposits of mostly
granular soil, basalt, or volcanic tuff are found in the Foothills Zone, located west of
downtown. In the Lake Zone, thick deposits of very soft soils formed from the pluviation
of airborne silt, clay, and ash from nearby volcanoes through the waters of ancient lake
extend to considerable depths, as shown in the figure below. These soft soils generally
consist of two soft clay layers separated by a 0- to 6-m thick compact sandy layer.
Groundwater is generally found at a depth of about 2 m over most of the lake zone.
Between the Foothill and Lake Zones lies the transition zone, where the soft soil deposits
are thin and interspersed erratically with alluvial deposits.
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Figure 5: Strong motion instruments and geotechnical conditions in Mexico City.

(a) locations of strong motion instruments relative to Foothills, Transition, and Lake
zones; (b) contours of soft soil thickness.
The Mexico earthquake produced acceleration at the UNAM (rock) site of only
0.03g to 0.04g. In the Transition Zone, peak accelerations at the VIV site were slightly
greater than those at UNAM but still quite low. In the Lake Zone, however, peak
accelerations at the CDA and SCT sites were up to five times greater than those at
UNAM. The frequency contents of the SCT and CDA motions were also much different
than that of the UNAM motion; the predominant period was about 2 sec at SCT and
slightly longer at CDA. Strong levels of shaking persisted over a very long duration at the
SCT and CDA sites. The SCT site was underlain by 35 to 40m of soft clay with an
average s-wave velocity of about 75 m/sec. Structural damage in Mexico City was highly
selective; large parts of the city experienced no damage while other areas suffered
pronounced damage. Damage was negligible in the Foothill Zone and minimal in the
Transition Zone. The greatest damage occurred in those portions of the Lake Zone
underlain by 38 to 50 m of soft soil, where characteristic site periods were estimated at
1.9 to 2.8 sec. Even within this area, damage to buildings of less than five stories and
modern buildings greater than 30 stories was slight. Most buildings in the five-to-20sotry range, however, either collapsed or were badly damaged. Using the crude rule of
thumb that the fundamental period of an N-story building is approximately N/10 sec,
most of the damaged building had fundamental periods equal to or somewhat less than
the characteristic site period. According for the period-lengthening effect of soil-structure
interaction and the tendency for the fundamental period of a structure to increase during a
strong earthquake (due to the reduction in stiffness caused by cumulative architectural
and structural damage), it seems likely that the damaged structures were subjected to
many cycles of large dynamic forces at periods near their fundamental periods. This
double-resonance condition (amplification of bedrock motion by the soil deposit and
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amplification of the soil motion by the structure) combined with structural design and
construction deficiencies to cause locally devastating damage.
Evidence from Observed Surface Effects
Shillong Plateau earthquake of 12 June 1897 (M > 8) in northeast India is the
largest intraplate event in the last two centuries to have occurred in the Indian
subcontinent. This earthquake holds a prominent place among the great earthquakes of
the world, not only because of its large magnitude but also because of the large area over
which it caused damage, liquefaction, and landslides. Destruction was widespread on the
Shillong Plateau and in surrounding areas. The epicentral area of the Assam earthquake
consists of large areas with different geologic site conditions: from predominantly soft
rock on the Shillong plateau to loose saturated sands and silts in the Brahmaputra valley,
and even morass in the Sylhet Plains areas which under normal conditions are covered by
extensive and very shallow bodies of water.
Short-period ground motions on the plateau and vicinity were violent and of large
amplitude. Long-period ground motions were reported from large distances and were
apparently responsible for damage sustained in isolated cases by flexible structures such
as timber-frame houses, minarets, and dwellings build on thick alluvial saturated
deposits. Slow oscillatory movements persisted long enough to cause water to splash
from ponds, suspended objects to sway, and people to experience nausea.
Many free-standing monoliths on the hills were overthrown and the shock broke
down most of the piers of the ancient bridge. Report of projected stone from the ground
on the Shillong Plateau indicates high accelerations, exceeding gravity in vertical
direction, in the epicentral region.
Bhuj (Gujarat) earthquake of 26 Jan 2001 (Mw 7.6, Ms 7.6; Depth 24 km).
The quake has caused total destruction of many small villages close to epicenter and has
caused extensive damages to many dams, embankments, ports, bridges and buildings.
This earthquake was characterized by wide spread liquefaction that caused sand
volcanoes, ground cracking, lateral spreading of ground and embankments and water
spouts. Eastward-trending faults and folds characterize Mesozoic, Tertiary, and
Quaternary geologic units, the most significant of this study being the Kachchh Mainland
fault. Anticlines and salt domes from the folding of Quaternary fluvial structures form the
northern portion of the region, and folded and thrusted Quaternary units make up the
southern Kachchh geology.
The Rann of Kutch is of completely marshy land with soils at 100% saturation. In
Bhuj, Gandhidam and Anjar area, loose deposits extending to greater depths resulted in
liquefaction thereby causing full or partial subsidence of the structures. Soils containing a
large percentage of medium and fine sand with appreciable amounts of non-plastic fines
that are more prone to liquefaction during ground shaking. There are many cases reported
in the literature where soils containing 1050% non-plastic fines liquefied under
undrained cyclic loading conditions as the liquefaction potential is to a large extent a
function of its plasticity. In south Gujarat, earthquake tremors have triggered heaving of
expansive clay in to vibro-viscous mass, which has helped the seismic waves to shake
strip-foundations of load bearing walls.
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Liquefaction
Liquefaction is one of the most important, interesting, complex, and controversial.
The liquefaction involves soil deformations caused by disturbance of saturated
cohesionless soils under undrained conditions. The generation of excess pore-pressure
under undrained loading conditions is a hall mark of all liquefaction phenomena.
Liquefaction phenomena that result from this process can be divided into two main
groups: flow liquefaction and cyclic mobility.
Flow Liquefaction : Flow liquefaction can occur when the shear stress required
for static equilibrium of a soil mass (the static shear stress) is greater than the shear
strength of the soil in its liquefied state. Once triggered the large deformations produced
by flow liquefaction are actually driven by static shear stresses. Flow liquefaction failures
are characterized by the sudden nature of their origin, the speed with which they develop,
and the large distance over which the liquefied materials often move.
Cyclic Mobility : Cyclic mobility can also produce unacceptably large permanent
deformations during earthquake shaking. Cyclic mobility occurs when the static shear
stress is less than the shear strength of the liquefied soil. The deformations produced by
cyclic mobility failures develop incrementally during earthquake shaking.
Geologic Criteria
Soil deposits that are susceptible to liquefaction are formed within a relatively
narrow range of geological environments. The depositional environment, hydrological
environment, and age of a soil deposit all contribute to its liquefaction susceptibility.
Geologic processes that sort soils into uniform grain size distributions and deposit them
in loose states produce soil deposits with high liquefaction susceptibility. Consequently,
fluvial deposits, and colluvial and aeolian deposits when saturated, are likely to be
susceptible to liquefaction. Liquefaction has also been observed in alluvial-fan, alluvial
plain, beach, terrace, playa, and estuarine deposits, but not as consistently as in those
listed previously. The susceptibility of older soil deposits to liquefaction is generally
lower than that of newer deposits. Soils of Holocene age are more susceptible than soils
of Pleistocene age, although susceptibility decreases with age within the Holocene.
Liquefaction occurs only in saturated soils, so the depth to groundwater influences
liquefaction susceptibility. Liquefaction susceptibility decreases with increasing
groundwater depth; the effects of liquefaction are most commonly observed at sites
where groundwater is within a few meters of the ground surface. At sites where
groundwater levels fluctuate significantly, liquefaction hazards may also fluctuate.
The fact that a soil deposit is susceptible to liquefaction does not mean that
liquefaction will necessarily occur in a given earthquakes. Its occurrence requires a
disturbance that is strong enough to initiate, or trigger, liquefaction.

Effects of Liquefaction
Liquefaction phenomena can affect buildings, bridges, buried pipelines, and other
constructed facilities in many different ways. Liquefaction can also influence the nature
of ground surface motions. Flow liquefaction can produce massive flow slides and
contribute to the sinking or tilting of heavy structures, the floating of light buried
structures, and to the failure of retaining structures. Cyclic mobility can cause slumping
of slopes, settlement of buildings, lateral spreading, and retaining wall failure. Substantial
ground oscillation, ground oscillation ground surface settlement, sand boils, and postearthquake stability failures can develop at level-ground sites.

Liquefaction due to the Assam earthquake of 12 June 1897 was severe and
widespread throughout the Brahmaputra valley and the Sylhet Plains. In the plains the
groundwater gradually rose to the surface and flooded large areas. In many cases, houses
of all types, levees, embankments, and bridge piers sank bodily, their tops alone
remaining above grounds, and liquefied sands filled river channels, water tanks, and
wells. Ground failures caused by lateral spreading, loss of bearing capacity and excessive
ground settlement, eruption of san boils and mud volcanoes, and flows on sloping
ground, where the earthquake shaking apparently acted as a trigger for the initiation of
retrogressive failures.
With a magnitude of 7.5, the Niigata Earthquake in Japan on June 16, 1964
caused considerable damage to Niigata City and the surrounding area because of the
liquefaction phenomenon. About 310 of the 1500 reinforced concrete buildings in Niigata
City were damaged, but of those, 200 settled without significant structural damage as this
photograph illustrates. The building in the center of the picture is at a 70 degree angle to
its upright position. These apartment buildings were built on shallow foundations or on
friction piles in loose soil, whereas many of the same type of buildings that were built on
firm strata at 20 meters deep did not suffer damage.

Widespread liquefaction was observed during Bhuj earthquake. Liquefaction was

sufficient in some cases to activate desert rivers that have been dry for more than a
century. Many mud-volcanoes in the Rann of Kachchh have dimensions of hundreds of
meters: one covers a 5 km diameter stretch of the southern Rann with dark sand and mud.
Numerous ancient river channels have been illuminated by a pock mark pattern of sand
vents, and some have clearly flowed, and breached their old channels.