Shell Special Intensive Training Programme

1 BASIC INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

1.1

INTRODUCTION

This section provides a summary introduction to the formation of reservoir

rocks and their basic structure as well as the formation and the requirements
for the accumulation of petroleum. It is meant to highlight the reasons why
petroleum occur in some specific areas of the world. It introduces the types of
rock which the earth's crust and the manner of creation. This is followed by a
definition of the nature of source rock for the petroleum and how it migrates
into the reservoir rock and trapped.

1.2

CRUSTAL ROCKS

There are three basic genetic classifications of crustal rocks

1. Igneous rock
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Metamorphic rock

1. Igneous Rocks
These are rocks formed from molten magma which when cooling formed into
an agglomerate of crystals. It is made up:
Intrusive rock - Rock is below the outer surface of the earth
Extrusive - Molten rock flowed to earth surface

2. Sedimentary rocks
Rocks formed in aqueous environment and comprise of an accumulation of
sediments. There are three major categories:
(a) Clastic
Sediments formed by physical and chemical weathering processes acting on
the rock at the earth's surface. The weathering generates sediments, which
are transported by wind or river and deposited at different locations.

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Examples include clays, silt and sands. Chemical constituents include alumina
and silicates.
(b) Organic Sediments
Classes include carbonates and coal formed from shells of sea creatures and
non-shell remains of the animal sources of hydrocarbon
(c) Evaporites
These are produced by the accumulation/concentration of minerals acted
upon by heat and pressure. Originally in liquid which are finally turned into a
solid phase as organic sediments.

3. Metamorphic Rocks
These are of little significance to the occurrence of petroleum. They are
formed as a result of high temperature and pressure acting on either igneous
or sedimentary rock.

The Sedimentary Rock

These types of rock form the vast majority of reservoir rocks where the
petroleum accumulates. They are principally made up of:
(a) Sandstones (10 20%)
(b) Shale(70-80%)
(c) Carbonates(5-20%)
The sequential processes involved in the formation of these sedimentary
reservoir rocks include

(1) Weathering
Rocks are subjected to a number of physical and chemical weathering
processes leading to the attrition of rocks into smaller transportable particles.
The weathering is due mainly to the action of wind, water currents, frosts,
glacial movements, etc. The weathering products vary in sizes and can be
classified as:
Rock fragments (Imm+)
Mineral chips(0.05mm-2mm) Fines/Colloidal size particles(<0.05mm)
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Chemical changes (Chemical weathering) due to exposure to the atmosphere

can also occur resulting in changes in the rock composition.

(2) Transportation/Sedimentation
The products of physical weathering are transported by a variety of
mechanisms including wind and river transportation Physical and chemical
weathering can still continue during transportation especially with the collision
of particles. The particles will show progressive deposition with the smaller
particles being transported further.

Since the particle transport is velocity dependent, changes in climatic

conditions can cause changes in the transport characteristics resulting in
deposition of layers of different sized particles.

(3) Burial
With migration of particles into the area of deposition, there will be continuous
build-up of sediments into layers. The transport, deposition and burial
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processes are dynamic. The formation of marine sedimentary deposit
normally gives rise to a sedimentary basin confined to an area close to land.
Beyond this, there is a steep slope generated by continued deposition- The
continental slope down to greater ocean depths

(4) Deformation
With continued burial, the sedimentary layers become compressed and are
subject to increased temperature. There will be compaction and increase in
compressive strength. Differential compaction can take place that can be
severe. This together with earth's movement can lead to stress changes
resulting in slippage of the sediments especially in the vertical plane causing
faults to be generated (Fig. 1.2)

1.3

THE RESERVOIR ROCK

There are two essential components for the creation of a reservoir rock.
(a) The petroleum must be formed and possibly migrate into a sedimentary
structure.

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(b) The petroleum must be effectively trapped within the structure for it to
accumulate

1.4

TYPES OF TRAPS

There are two types of sedimentary traps. These are Structural and
Stratigraphic traps

1. Structural Traps
These are caused by the deformation of sediments as they are buried.
Examples include
Faults due to differential stress
Unconformties - Created by uplifting and subsequent burial
Piercement - Caused by movement of a plastic salt zone upwards into
overlying sediments. E.g. Salt domes
Examples include: Anticlines/Synclines, Reefs, unconformities, different types
of faults, etc
The characteristics of the traps are:
Trapped oil has higher API gravity due to deep burial. Petroleum may
be more of gas.
Reservoir fluid likely to have a separate gas zone in association with
oil-gas cap
Reservoir normally pressurised
Reservoir likely to show much higher percentage or recovered oil with
low viscosity and high API gravity because of better-defined and
smaller area extent.
Likelihood of sharp interface between the oil and underlying aquifer.

2. Stratigraphic Traps
These are created as a direct result of their depositional environment and
could be located by changes in the depositional conditions resulting in a
lateral change in the physical and chemical properties of the sediments in
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terms of lithology. They can also be formed as a result of differing degrees of
sediment transport and compaction.
Key features of reservoirs in this trap are
Reservoir fluid is usually oil with low API gravity since fluid has been
relatively unaffected by pressure and temperature during the formation of
the trap
Reservoir fluid usually contains gas in solution
Reservoir usually has large areal extent.
Non-distinct oil-water contact.

1.5

FORMATION AND MIGRATION OF PETROLEUM

The exact mechanisms by which petroleum is formed are not yet fully
understood. However, they are believed to be formed from the decomposition
and conversion of organic material under high pressure and high temperature
over a prolonged time scale. The source of the organic matter is believed to
be remains of animal and plant life which have been transported, accumulated
and buried beneath layers of sediments. The remains of aquatic life such as
molluscs and shells are common sources of the basic organic material from
which the petroleum is formed. Sometimes, the source rock and the reservoir
rock are one and the same system. In most cases though, the petroleum is
generated in the source rock and then migrate or gravitate upwards into an
overlying

sediment.

The

migration

is

usually

accompanied

by

the

displacement of the fluid originally within the pores. The displacement is

usually not 100% with some connate water remaining.

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