AP2212 Lecture 9

AC analysis 2

Course organization
TSANG, Stephen
E-mail:
Tel:
Office:

saitsang@cityu.edu.hk
3442-4618
P6706

Lecture 08 - Review

Managed several examples of circuits with Resistive

(R), Capacitive (C) and inductive elements (L).
v Ri

v R IP R sin(wt )

V L dI
dt

v L wLIP cos(wt )

vC -

Q
V

Ip

wC

i C dV
dt
cos(wt )

Reactance (denoted X, units of ohms) is the ratio (magnitude only)

voltage to current: measures how a component opposes the flow of
electricity
XR= R
XL = wL
XC = 1/wC

Impedance, Z (magnitude and phase) of the current

ZR = R
ZL = jwL
ZC = -jXC1 = 1/jwC

Lecture 08 - Review

Graphical
representation of
complex impedance

Impedances combine in the

same way as resistors
complex impedances can be

Impedance are added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

in the same way as other complex quantities
They can also be expressed in a range of forms such as
the rectangular, polar and exponential forms

Power, voltage, and current gains

Power gain is defined as:

Pout
Gain =10 log
dB
Pin

Voltage gain is defined as: (why?)

Vout
Gain = 20 log
dB
Vin

Current gain is defined as: (why?)

I out
Gain = 20 log dB
Iin

Power, voltage, and current gains

Pin, Vin

Rin

Pout, Vout
Rout

Proof that power gain = voltage gain if Rin equal to Rout

Lecture 09 - Outline

Application and engineering manipulation of RCL circuit

High-pass RC filter

Filter representation

Bode diagram, phasor diagram

Transfer function

Low-pass RL filter

Resonance RLC circuit

Charging and discharging in RCL circuit

Application of RCL circuit

Still remember how does a radio works?

1. Convert sound to electrical signal

4. Received by an antenna

2. Modulate with carrier frequency

3. Transmit in air
AM

FM
How to extract the sound?
Source: National Radio and Astronomy Observatory

Application of RCL circuit

FM receiver
In human, the audible range of frequency: 20Hz
to 20kHz
FM carrier frequency: 88-108MHz

There are multiple channels in air: e.g. 88.1MHz, 99.7MHz

We have to find a way to select the frequency
We concern:
The frequency response
The resonance(center) frequency
The width of the spectrum (Bandwidth)
The amplification (Gain)

A resonance circuit

Frequency response

A High-Pass RC Filter

Consider the following circuit

We want to know what is its function?

find
If we know : v input Vp sinwt
v output ?

This circuit is commonly

drawn in the following way:

10

RC Filter 1/2
1) Use complex numbers:

vi = Vp sin wt vi = Vpe jwt

~
Z R - j / wC R 2 (1/ wC )2 e - j

2) Find impendence:

where : tan -1

~ ~ ~
i vi / Z

3) Calculate current:

1
wRC

(w )

Vpe j (wt )
R 2 (1/ w 2C 2 )

i I p sin(wt )

(w I p )

11

RC Filter 2/2
v i Vp sinwt v~i Vpe jwt

Find
output:

v o iR

VpR
R (1/ w C )
2

Define: = RC , then:

vo

sin(wt )
Vpw

w 1

vo
vo
w 2 2

(w
)
2 2
vi
1 w
vi

2 2

VpRCw

w R C 1
2

sin(wt )

sin(wt )

This is a high pass

filter!

High-pass Filter (as function of w)

For High-pass RC filter, output is taken from resistor
vo
w 2 2
Since :

vi
1 w 2 2
If : w 1

vo
1, Then high f signals can pass
vi

vo
If : w 1
0, Then low f signals can' t pass
vi
vo
If : w 1

vi

1
0.707
2

The frequency times the time constant is equal to 1

12

High-pass Filter (as function of f)

= RC has units of (1/angular
frequency)
(Remember definition of w : w = 2pf)
then we can write: =1/( 2p fC), and

w = (2p f)/(2p fC) = f/fC)

the gain response has two

asymptotes that meet at the cutoff frequency

figures of this form are called

Bode diagrams(plots)

13

High-pass Filter (as phasor diagrams)

The behaviour in these three regions can be

illustrated using phasor diagrams

14

15

Differentiating Circuit
v i Vp sinwt
As we saw before : v R iR

Vp sin(wt )
1 (wRC )-2

Therefore it w 1/RC tan 1/wCR p/2

vR

Vp sin(wt )
1 (wRC)-2

wRCVp cos wt

dv i
v o v R RC
dt

This is a
differentiating
circuit!

16

Transfer function

Consider the potential divider shown here

From considerations on this circuit:

Z2
vo vi
Z1 Z 2

rearranging, the gain of the

circuit is

vo
Z2

vi
Z1 Z 2

this is also called the transfer

function of the circuit

17

A Low-Pass RL Network

Low-pass networks can also

be produced using RL circuits

they behave similarly to the

corresponding CR circuit

the voltage gain is

vo
ZR
R
1

vi
Z R Z L R jwL 1 jw L
R

the cut-off frequency is wc L rad/s

fc

wc
R

Hz
2p 2pL

18

A High-Pass RL Network

High-pass networks can also

be produced using RL circuits

these behave similarly to the

corresponding CR circuit

the voltage gain is

vo
ZL
jwL
1
1

R
vi
Z R Z L R jwL 1 R
1- j
jwL
wL

the cut-off frequency is

R 1
wc
rad/s
L

fc

wc
R

Hz
2p 2pL

A Comparison of RC and RL Networks

Circuits using RC and

RL techniques have
similar characteristics

19

Make filters to condition a signal

High-pass filter

Low-pass filter

20

Noise spectrum (From L5)

21

Series RLC Circuits and Resonance

the impedance is given by

Z R jwL

1
1
R j(wL )
jwC
wC

if the magnitude of the reactance

of the inductor and capacitor are
equal, the imaginary part is zero,
and the impedance is simply R

this occurs when

1
wL
wC

1
w
LC
2

1
LC

22

Resonance in RLC circuits

The condition w
We define

1
LC

1
LC

23

is known as resonance

as the resonant angular frequency

The resonant frequency is

1
fo
2p LC

in the series resonant circuit,

the impedance is at a minimum
at resonance

the current is at a maximum

at resonance

24

Quality factor
The resonant effect can be quantified by the quality
factor, Q

Q is the ratio of the maximum energy stored to the

energy dissipated in each cycle
Q=

max. energy stored

energy dissipated in one cycle

it can be shown that:

and:

1 L
Q

R C

Quality factor Q

WHY?

X L XC

R
R

What happens
when R 0?

25

RLC Resonance

Current resonance occurs

for RLC series circuit.
wo is called resonance
frequency.
wo

1
LC

fo

1
2p LC

The resonance peak at

w wo is prominent and sharp
for lower resistance values.
Why?

1 L

R C

Key points

26

A combination of resistor (R), capacitor (C), and inductor (L) can

be used to construct filters and resonance for electrical signals.

In such frequency dependent system, we concern about the cutoff frequency, phase changes, quality(Q) factor.

Bode plot and phasor diagram are effectively ways to represent

the frequency response of the circuit.

In a resonance circuit, the Q fact is maximum when the

reactance of C and L are equal.

Transient response

27

We have looked at the behavior of systems in response to:

Fixed DC signals (L06)
Constant AC signals (L07-L09)
What happens before these circuits reach steady-state?
this is referred to as the transient response
What happens to the circuit on the right
when at t=0 the switch is closed?
1. Was the capacitor charged or discharged
at t=0-?
2. What is the value (phase) of V at t=0?

28

Charging Capacitors (1/2)

Kirchhoffs voltage law:

iR v V

In a capacitor we have:

i C

dv
dt

dv
Therefore : CR
v V
dt

(First-order differential equation with constant coefficients)

Assuming VC = 0 at t = 0,
t
t
v V (1 - e CR ) V (1 - e )
this can be solved to give:
Also since i = C(dv/dt)
(still assuming VC = 0 at t = 0), then

i Ie

t
CR

Ie

(I=V/R)

29

Charging Capacitors(2/2)

Thus both the voltage and current have an

exponential form

v V (1 - e

t
CR

) V (1 - e )

i Ie

t
CR

Ie

30

Energizing Inductors

A similar analysis of an RL circuit gives

v Ve

Rt
L

Ve

where I = V/R

i I (1 - e

Rt
t
L )I (1 - e )

31

Discharging Capacitors

Consider this circuit for discharging

a capacitor (At t = 0, VC = V)

Kirchhoffs voltage law: iR v 0

Then:

Solving this equation as before gives:

v Ve
i -Ie

dv
CR
v 0
dt

t
CR

t
CR

Ve

-Ie

(I = V/R)

De-energizing Inductors

A similar analysis of this

circuit gives
v -Ve

Rt
L

(I = V/R)

-Ve

i Ie

Rt
L

Ie

32

A comparison of the four circuits

33

Response of First-Order Systems

Initial and final value formulae

Increasing or decreasing exponential waveforms (for

either voltage or current) are given by:
v Vf (Vi - Vf )e- t /

i If (Ii - If )e- t /

Vi and Ii are the initial values of the voltage and current

Vf and If are the final values of the voltage and current

1. The first term in each case is the steady-state response

2. The second term represents the transient response

3. The combination gives the total response of the arrangement

34

Tutorial
The input voltage of this CR circuit
changes from 5 V to 10 V at t = 0.
What is the output voltage?

35

About exponential curves

36

Output of first-order systems to a square

waves [for different time response (T)]
see

37

Output of first-order systems to a square

waves [for different frequencies (f)]
See

38

Second-Order Systems

39

Circuits with capacitance and inductance result in

second-order differential equations.

for example, the circuit:

is described by the equation:

d2v C
dv C
LC

RC
vC V
2
dt
dt

Second order systems also have transients.

They will be more complex than first order systems

Transient solutions depend on the equations

coefficients useful to find an equations general form

Second order differential equation

40

When a step input is applied to a second-order system,

the form of the resultant transient depends on the
relative magnitudes of the coefficients of its differential
equation. The general form of the response is
1 d2 y

w n 2 dt 2

2 dy

y x
w n dt

wn is the undamped natural frequency (rad/s)

(Greek Zeta) is the damping factor

Response of second-order systems

=0 undamped
<1 under damped
=1 critically damped
>1 over damped

Will all responses reach steady-state?

Which one reaches steady-state faster?
Which one oscillates?

41

Key Points

42

The charging or discharging of a capacitor are each associated

with exponential voltage and current waveforms
(Same for the energizing and de-energizing of an inductor)

Circuits that contain resistance, and either capacitance or

inductance, are termed first-order systems

The increasing or decreasing exponential waveforms of firstorder systems can be described by the initial and final value
formulae

Circuits that contain both capacitance and inductance are

usually second-order systems. These are characterized by their
undamped natural frequency and their damping factor

43

Tutorial
As we increase R, the frequency range over which the dissipative characteristics
dominate the behavior of the circuit increases. In order to quantify this behavior we
define a parameter called the Quality Factor Q which is related to the sharpness
of the peak and it is given by
Q = 2p

max. energy stored

E
= 2p S
total energy lost per cycle at resonance
ED

which represents the ratio of the energy stored to the energy

dissipated in a circuit. The energy stored in the circuit is

1
1
ES = LI 2 + CV 2
2
2
For Vc = Asin(t) the current flowing in the circuit is I = C dVc/dt =
CAcos(t) . The total energy stored in the reactive elements is

44

1
1
ES = Lw 2C 2 A 2 cos2 (wt ) + CA 2 sin 2 (wt )
2
2

1
At the resonance frequency where = 0 the
w
=
0
energy stored in the circuit becomes
LC

1
ES = CA 2
2
The energy dissipated per period is equal to the average
resistive power dissipated times the oscillation period.
ED = R I

1 RC 2
w 02C 2 A 2 2p
= R
= 2p
A

2
w
2
w
L

And so the ratio Q becomes

Q=

w0 L
R

1
1 L
=
w 0 RC R C

45

Tutorial

Find the total impedance, resonance frequency, and

the Q factor of the circuit below:

Z=

1
1+ jR wC

wL

w0 =

1
LC

Q = w0CR