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Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and

Psychotherapy
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Counselling, psychotherapy and

creativity
Rainer Matthias Holm-Hadulla
a

a b

& Frank Hofmann

Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago de Chile , Chile

University of Heidelberg , Gartenstrasse 2, Heidelberg , 69115 ,

Germany
Published online: 07 Aug 2012.

To cite this article: Rainer Matthias Holm-Hadulla & Frank Hofmann (2012) Counselling,
psychotherapy and creativity, Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 3:2, 130-136,
DOI: 10.1080/21507686.2012.711761
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Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy

Vol. 3, No. 2, September 2012, 130136

Counselling, psychotherapy and creativity

Rainer Matthias Holm-Hadullaa,b* and Frank Hofmannb
a

Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago de Chile, Chile; b University of Heidelberg, Gartenstrasse 2,

Heidelberg 69115, Germany

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(Received 5 April 2012; final version received 10 July 2012)

Creativity, the activity to construct something new and useful, is an elementary aspect of
life. This article advocates the position that creative elements are also present in counselling and psychotherapy. Creativity can be found in relational, behavioural, cognitive,
psychodynamic, systemic and existential approaches to counselling and psychotherapy. It is shown that the shaping of the therapeutic relationship as the basis of every
successful counselling or psychotherapeutic process is a creative challenge. On the
cognitivebehavioural level, creativity also plays an important role in developing and
implementing new perspectives and behaviours. Psychodynamically, the verbalization
of emotions and unconscious wishes and conflicts can also be considered as a creative
task. Finally, on an existential level, counselling and psychotherapy appear as a means
to form novel and useful constructions of reality. Recognizing and utilizing creative
resources of counselling and psychotherapy correspond to a creative attitude, which
is an effective factor in counselling and psychotherapy.
Keywords: psychotherapy; therapeutic relationship; cognitivebehavioural therapy;
psychodynamic; existential psychotherapy; integrative psychotherapy; creative attitude;
creativity

Introduction
The term creativity stems from the Latin word creare that contains the meaning of to
make, to construct and to shape. Creativity also has another etymological root which
is crescere. It means growing or letting grow. Since Guilfords call for research on
creativity, it became an issue in Western science (see Runco & Richards, 1997). The
fundamentals of creativity talent, knowledge, skills, motivation, personality traits and
environment were identified and described (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Simonton, 2000).
Different phases of the creative process preparation, incubation, illumination, realization and verification were investigated (Dijksterhuis & Meurs, 2006; Sio & Ormerod,
2009). The concept of creativity has become very popular, and in education, employment and lifestyle, creative activities are encouraged. However, when reflecting on the
connections between counselling, psychotherapy and creativity, we need to consider that
there are many different concepts of creativity. Thus, we should give a short interdisciplinary synthesis of current research, including findings from neurobiology, general
psychology and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Second, we shall give an outline of the

*Corresponding author. Email: rainer.holm-hadulla@stw.uni-heidelberg.de

ISSN 2150-7686 print/ISSN 2150-7708 online
2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21507686.2012.711761
http://www.tandfonline.com

Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy

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practical implications of creativity research using an integrative model of counselling and

psychotherapy. Pragmatically, we differentiate counselling and psychotherapy, and clients
and patients, respectively, by the following criteria: clients are people seeking psychological assistance (counselling) without being clinically impaired, for example, measured by
the SCL90-R (Derogatis, 1992).
Current concepts of creativity
At the most elementary level, creativity can be understood as the (re-)combination of stored
information in a novel way. Based on this definition, almost every cognition is creative,
and additional criteria are needed to specify the meaning of creativity. The usefulness of the
product or idea is often mentioned as another central feature of creativity (Amabile, 1996).
As a comprehensive systemic definition of creativity, and according to Csikszentmihalyi
(1997), we would suggest that a talented, knowledgeable, motivated and resilient person
can be creative if he/she can work in a promising area and receive a wider recognition for
what he/she is doing.
Considering the role of creativity in counselling and psychotherapy, novelty and usefulness are also important: when information is combined in new ways, and new perspectives
and attitudes are developed, the question arises as to whether this is beneficial for the individual and the counselling or therapeutic process in the sense that it facilitates positive
change.
When discussing creativity in the context of counselling and psychotherapy, the difference between everyday and extraordinary creativity should also be briefly mentioned.
Extraordinary creativity leads to products that are recognized as major contributions to
a specific field, whereas the results of everyday creativity are only of importance to the
creative person himself/herself and to his/her immediate social environment (Beghetto &
Kaufman, 2007). Therefore, in counselling and psychotherapy, we most certainly encounter
creativity only in the form of everyday creativity.
In successful counselling and psychotherapy, two or more people come together and
construct a new reality which in itself is a creative act. A developmental process is initiated
in which experiences, behavioural patterns, meanings and beliefs and psychodynamic and
existential conflicts are combined in novel and hopefully useful ways. They may at
first seem to be of no importance for someone other than the individual himself/herself.
However, the individual change is closely related to relationships and the social system, so
that changes also have effects beyond the single client or patient.
(Neuro-)biological aspects of creativity
For the understanding of creativity, it is highly interesting that the brain as the physiological
basis of creativity forms coherent structures out of the chaos of disordered emotions and
perceptions and then dissolves them again (Toomey & Ecker, 2007). There is a constant
interplay between synchronization and de-synchronization of neural activity that is likely
to be subject to a principle of coherence (Singer, 1990). Intellectual results and new mental
representations are formed when a variety of information receives a new and coherent
form. The brain seems to be able to distinguish between inconsistent (chaotic) and consistent (ordered) states. New insights correspond to an enhanced coherence and activate the
reward systems in the brain (Andreasen, 2005). It is puzzling, however, that the cognitive
states of coherence and emotional satisfaction are often very short and unstable and tend to
get replaced by new problems that are connected with aversive feelings. These unpleasant

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R.M. Holm-Hadulla and F. Hofmann

phases of the problem-solving process demand activity to restore coherence. A constant

dynamic shift seems to exist in the brain between states of coherence and incoherence, of
construction and deconstruction and of stability and instability (Holm-Hadulla, in press).
As on the cognitive level, the principle of coherence also plays a major role on the emotional level. There is neurobiological evidence that psychological conflicts are associated
with a low degree of coherence (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010), and a high degree of neural connectivity seems to be associated with psychological well-being (Meyer-Lindenberg,
2010). This is consistent with the findings from psychotherapy research showing that
sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987) and mentalization (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, &
Target, 2005) of affects and cognitions are important for mental health. In these theories,
fundamental significance is attributed to the cognitiveemotional structuring of chaotic
anxieties. It can be demonstrated neurobiologically that pathogenic stimuli emanating from
the corpora amygdala and associated with fear are reduced when neuronal connections are
made in the appropriate memory systems. Free-floating anxieties and unorganized affects
lose their pathogenic effects when they are connected with meaningful neural systems
(Meyer-Lindenberg, 2010). However, some degree of incoherence seems to favour cognitive and emotional activity. This corresponds to psychological and phenomenological
studies, showing that some degree of anxiety and depressed mood may enhance creative
performances (Holm-Hadulla, Roussel, & Hofmann, 2010).
The psychology of creativity
A prerequisite of creativity is general intelligence, which can be divided into crystalline
and fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1971). Crystalline intelligence consists of well-learned skills
and knowledge, whereas fluid intelligence is of importance for solving problems for which
already established solutions are not successful. Guilford (1950) made the important distinction between convergent and divergent thinking. While the former is concentrated and
focused, the latter is associative and less focused and includes background properties. The
capacity for divergent thinking may to some extent be regarded as the potential for creativity (Runco, 2008), as divergent thinking can generate different and potentially novel
alternatives. The creative process can be characterized by the interplay of convergent and
divergent thinking and by the interplay of crystalline and fluid intelligence. The generation of new insights, behavioural options or ideas (divergent/fluid component) has to be
complemented by evaluation and selection (convergent/crystalline component) in order to
allow for the development and elaboration of ideas and thoughts as well as their practical
application (Holm-Hadulla, in press). Psychological distress and severe mental disorders
not only impair divergent thinking but also convergent thinking so that the elaboration of
new ideas becomes difficult (Hofmann, 2010). In this case, the counsellor/psychotherapist
can support the clients/patients in choosing between generated ideas and making them
usable. On the other hand, counsellors and psychotherapists may recognize divergent
aspects and possibilities and bring them into play.
The creative spark can ignite only the existing, and even artists can only re-combine
what they have seen, heard or experienced before. In counselling and psychotherapy,
the narrative shaping of present and past experiences is a basic principle regardless of
the specific theoretical background (Holm-Hadulla, 2004). Narratives are creative forms,
which lend coherence to diffuse cognitions and emotions (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010).
There is a connection between creativity and affect control: recent studies confirmed that
counselling and psychotherapy can help, as can other creative activities, to overcome
anxiety and mental disorganization by constructing coherent narratives (Clarkin, Levy,

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Lenzenweger, & Kernberg, 2007). Similarly, Fonagy et al. (2005) showed that incoherent emotions, cognitions and representations of relationships lose their pathogenic nature
if they can be coherently mentalized.
The realization of the creative potential in the form of new ideas, insights or perspectives is facilitated by the desire to shape ones inner and outer reality in a creative way.
This desire is so important that Sternberg (2002) named the decision to be creative as
the starting point and central component for all creative endeavours. Intrinsic interest, the
motivation to immerse oneself into an activity and playful curiosity are other key factors to
kindle creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
A supportive socio-cultural context also plays an important role in the development
of creative potentials. An outstanding scientific talent, for example, cannot unfold without proper training structures and subsequent inclusion in a productive research institution.
The environmental conditions that favour or hamper creativity deserve special attention
because they can be actively designed. Sternberg (2003) points out that the ability to seek
out supportive environments and to change less conducive environments is an essential
aspect of practical intelligence. In addition, benevolent support from third parties is essential. Counselling and psychotherapy can establish such a supportive, stable but also flexible
context in which creative resources can be stimulated and used.
Creative processes in integrative counselling and psychotherapy
Regarding individual development and the construction of a social world as creative challenges, psychological problems or disorders can be understood as inhibited creativity. From
this perspective, counselling and psychotherapy should help to re-enable the client or the
patient to use his/her creative potential to overcome obstacles hindering a productive shaping of life. In this sense, the restoration of creativity is a working mechanism and a goal of
counselling and psychotherapy. Creativity plays an important role in counselling and psychotherapy in at least three ways: it takes place within the client or the patient, within the
counsellor or the therapist and in the process itself. Counselling and psychotherapy involve
the constructive shaping of experiences, motives and conflicts in both participants and the
process. Coherent narratives are inspired, transforming seemingly insignificant events into
significant experiences and integrating them into the personal biography. Through this integration, the creative formation of narratives in counselling and psychotherapy contributes
to the human need for a certain degree of coherence. Rothenberg (2006) shows that this
process is an act of self-creation, improving the clients and patients well-being. A creative attitude of the counsellors or therapists allows for the construction of novel and useful
meaning of cognitions, emotions and experiences. Understanding and interpretation result
from a joint shaping process between the client and the therapist (Holm-Hadulla, 2004).
In this respect, authors with very different theoretical backgrounds like Bollas (1992) or
Carson and Becker (2004) suggested that creativity should be an integral part of counselling and psychotherapy to facilitate new emotional and cognitive experiences. Every
session should be regarded as a safe space in which the clients and patients creativity
can be given free rein. Hidden capacities for creative self-actualization can be specifically
addressed, stimulated and utilized for effective interventions. Creative self-actualization is
not opposed to social relatedness and commitment: becoming more aware of oneself and
ones creative skills makes it easier to shape interpersonal relationships and to create social
commitment.
Counselling and psychotherapy act on different levels and take place in complex systems (Orlinsky & Howard, 1987). Holm-Hadulla, Hofmann, and Sperth (2011) proposed

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an integrative model that starts with the helping alliance between clients/patients and
counsellors/therapists as the key factor of process and outcome of counselling and psychotherapy. Behaviour refers to behavioural strategies and interventions. Cognitions
include dysfunctional meanings and beliefs as well as their testing and subsequent modification. The psychodynamic dimension refers to unconscious intrapsychic and systemic
conflicts. Existential elements include basic themes of human existence such as individual growth and social commitment. In line with the purpose of this article, creative aspects
of each component of the integrative model of counselling and psychotherapy are outlined
as follows:
Alliance. Within a confident and supportive relationship, the playful exploration of
problems and conflicts can be reinforced. This often leads to new and useful insights
and emotional awareness.
Behaviour. On a behavioural level, clients and patients can be encouraged to practice
creativity-promoting behaviours. This may happen by providing instructions for the
creative behavioural transformation of dysfunctional habits as well as for the initiation of creative activities. It is essential to establish in counselling and psychotherapy
an open space in which creativity can unfold. To promote creative resources on a
behavioural level also means to encourage clients to try new and useful activities.
Cognitions. On the cognitive level, creativity can be understood as a result of the interplay of convergent and divergent thinking. Developing new attitudes, questioning
beliefs and generating alternatives include a respectful understanding of traditional
knowledge.
Dynamics. The confrontation with unconscious conflicts and the dissolution of internal resistances can release energy that can be used to draw on creative resources in
everyday life. Creativity is also required where dreams, fantasies and experiences are
put into words and for example, through the use of metaphors receive additional
meaning. Also, the experience and interpretation of the transference situation which
is the main focus of psychodynamic approaches to counselling and psychotherapy
may be seen as a creative challenge.
Existential. A frequent issue of counselling and psychotherapy is the clients or
patients desire to make his/her existence more meaningful and productive. The reinforcement of creative potentials can help to fill the existential vacuum (Keshen,
2006) and help to make life more authentic. This creative process is reinforced
by the acceptance that life is a neverending developmental process. As the western
statesman, scientist and poet J.W. Goethe, deeply influenced by eastern poetry and
philosophy, resumes: And as long as you dont have it,/ this die and become!/
you are only a gloomy guest/ on the dark earth (Holm-Hadulla et al., 2010).
Conclusion
Confidence, respect and empathy are basic elements of counselling and psychotherapy
which enable clients and patients to achieve a creative transformation of their problems
and disorders. The positive alliance with the counsellor or psychotherapist can lead to the
creative verbalization of problems and conflicts, which is often the first step to improve
cognitive and emotional coherence. Reinforced by the counsellors or therapists personal
support and understanding, a creative space can be established in which a confrontation with personal difficulties is made possible without risking immediate consequences
in private and professional life. Accompanied by the competent and creative attitude

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135

of counsellors and therapists, clients and patients may develop new experiences, using
their creative resources to bring about change. The existential challenge to create ones
own life can be promoted through supportive relationships and behavioural, cognitive
and psychodynamic interventions, as well as by means of existential understanding and
communication. Finally, the construction and deconstruction of individual and social
coherence is a dynamic and systemic process that has to be creatively designed in any
counselling and psychotherapy.

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