Laminar Flow Control Research at TsAGI Past and Present

Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences

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Laminar ow control research at TsAGI: Past and present

S.L. Chernyshev, A.Ph. Kiselev n, A.P. Kuryachii
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute n.a. prof. N.E. Zhukovsky (TsAGI) 1, Zhukovsky str., Zhukovsky, 140180 Moscow region, Russia
a r t i c l e in f o
abstract
Available online 26 January 2011
This paper presents a brief review of activities in laminar ow control being performed at the Central
Aerohydrodynamic Institute named after Prof. N.E. Zhukovsky (TsAGI). These efforts are focused on the
improvement of the existing laminar ow control methods and on the development of new ones. The
investigations have demonstrated the effectiveness of aircraft surface laminarization applications with
the aim of friction drag reduction. The opportunity of considerable delaying of laminarturbulent
transition due to special wing prole geometry and using boundary layer suction and surface cooling has
been veried at sub- and supersonic speeds through various wind tunnel testing at TsAGI and during
ying laboratory experiments at the Flight Research Institute (LII). The investigations on using hybrid
laminar ow control systems for friction drag reduction were also carried out. New techniques of laminar
ow control were proposed, in particular, the method of local heating of the wing leading edge, boundary
layer laminarization by means of receptivity control, and electrohydrodynamic methods of boundary
layer stability control.
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Laminarturbulent transition
Laminar ow control
Friction drag reduction
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural laminar ow concept investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Investigations of boundary layer suction systems use for laminar ow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminarturbulent transition delay by local surface heating in the nose part of the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary layer development control by excitation of articial turbulent spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminar ow control (LFC) in 3D boundary layer by receptivity control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminar ow control (LFC) in high-speed boundary layer with the help of passive porous coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrogasdynamic methods of LFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.
Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to streamwise impact of direct current corona discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.
Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to transverse volumetric force impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.
Attenuation of cross-ow-type instability in 3D compressible boundary layer by electrogasdynamic impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Investigations on the development of energy-saving and environmentally appropriate technologies in aviation are being actively
performed in many countries. Friction drag reduction is one of the
main pursuits to achieve fuel economy, decrease in harmful
emission of airplane engines, and, if possible, in sonic boom levels
(for supersonic aircraft). Numerous previous investigations have
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 7 495 556 4172; fax: + 7 495 777 6332.
E-mail address: a-ph-kiselev@ya.ru (A.Ph. Kiselev).
0376-0421/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2010.11.001
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demonstrated the effectiveness of various methods of aircraft

surface laminarization with the aim of friction drag reduction.
Now, interest in laminar ow control problems has accelerated [1].
Inspiring results of laminar ow control at supersonic speeds have
been obtained [2]. The detailed investigations on the development
of passenger sub- and supersonic planes with the use of various
laminar ow concepts were carried out under the projects
TELFONA, SUPERTRAC and HISAC of Sixth Framework Program [3].
According to current understanding, the initial stage of
laminarturbulent transition in a boundary layer consists in
transformation of free-stream disturbances in unstable modes
growing downstream inside a boundary layer (this phenomenon
170
S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185
is known as boundary layer receptivity). After amplication of

these modes in the downstream region, secondary instability
quickly destroys laminar ow in a boundary layer.
All known methods of laminarturbulent transition control may
be separated conventionally as passive, semi-active, and active. The
rst two methods are based on the formation of a more stable ow
in a laminar boundary layer, resulting in a suppression of all
disturbances. The best known passive method consists in the
creation of a favorable external pressure gradient by the choice
of an appropriate form of a streamlined surface. Another method of
this type described below consists in using of porous coating. Semiactive methods imply any impact on boundary layer ow turned on
during a ight and switched off after it. The most known semiactive methods consist in boundary layer suction and surface
cooling. Active methods are related with any impact directly on
unstable disturbances inside a boundary layer with the aim of their
suppression. Passive and semi-active methods seem to be simpler
because they do not demand detailed measuring of amplitude and
phase of disturbances and fast response on their variation. But
active methods, as a rule, are less energy expensive because they
imply some action on relatively small disturbances but not on a
whole ow inside a boundary layer. It seems that all three types of
LFC methods deserve consideration, because it is difcult to say
today what kind of methods are the most efcient and robust for
practical applications.
Research on laminar ow control at TsAGI was started by
I.V. Ostoslavsky, G.P. Svishchev, K.K. Fedyaevskii at the beginning
of 1940s. Wind tunnel experiments at TsAGI and ight tests at the
Flight Research Institute (LII) of the Yak-7 aircraft with laminarizing
wing have shown that a choice of the airfoil shape creating a
favorable pressure gradient for maintenance of natural laminar ow
(NLF) allows reduction of drag and increase in lift-to-drag ratio [4].
The calculations based on the linear theory of hydrodynamic
stability have shown that in laminar ow control due to a choice of
the corresponding shape of an airfoil, cooling of its surface or
boundary layer suction signicantly improves ight characteristics
and economic operations. For detailed study of these reserves and
ways to realize them, extensive research programs, including the
creation of two low-turbulence wind tunnels T-124 and T-125,
special experimental installations, tests of models in the big wind
tunnels and on ight laboratories in LII was planned in TsAGI under
the management of V.V. Struminsky [46].
In the middle of 1960s the research on laminar ow control with

the help of air suction from a boundary layer were carried out
in subsonic wind tunnels by V.V. Struminsky, A.S. Ginevsky,
V.A. Barinov, K.K. Fedyaevskii, and A.G. Prozorov. Already, encouraging results have been obtained in the rst tests of airfoils with
different variants of permeable surface. Taking into account
equivalent drag of suction, the drag of the model of a straight
wing has been reduced 45%, and of the model of a swept wing
(the sweep angle w 351) by 4030%, owing to the use of air suction
on most of the chord through narrow slots. Both models have the
same chord of 0.73 m in a streamwise direction. Tests have been
conducted in the range of Mach number from 0.15 up to 0.7.
Reynolds numbers of laminar ow of about 6 millions have been
achieved in research continued by V.A. Barinov and A.S. Mozolkov
on the model of a straight wing with chord of 1.5 m for free-stream
Mach number M 0.7. Thereupon, Reynolds numbers of laminar
ow of about 12 millions have been achieved during tests of this
model at the ight laboratory in LII. These researches evidently
demonstrated an efciency of application of air suction from a
boundary layer as a means of reduction of airplane drag [4].
The vast series of experimental research on laminar ow
control has been carried out in the 1970s by V.V. Struminsky,
M.A. Alekseev, V.A. Kuzminsky, N.F. Ragulin, and Yu.G. Shvalev in
supersonic wind tunnel T-116 in the range of Mach number from
1.8 up to 4.0 on models of wings and a body of revolution with
internal cooling of walls by a mixture of liquid and gaseous nitrogen
[7]. The sharp increase in Reynolds numbers of laminar ow up to
values 22 millions on models of a straight wing and 34 millions on a
body of revolution has been achieved at low values of wall
temperature (see Fig. 1). Thus, we have demonstrated the possibility, in principle, of using surface cooling as an effective method of
drag reduction of prospective ight vehicles.
The investigations devoted to the study of acoustic eld impact
on laminarturbulent transition have been carried out over several
years. In particular, G.P. Svishchev, V.M. Fomin, V.P. Ermolaev,
Yu.V. Kirinov, V.N. Ozerov, A.A. Shurov researched a boundary layer
state and a propagation of TollmienSchlichting waves in laminar
boundary layer on a wing of the glider ight laboratory and in
wind tunnel tests. Researchers have shown the possibility in
principle of suppression of TollmienSchlichting waves by acoustic
impact in opposite phase and a shift of transition region to a trailing
edge [8].
Fig. 1. The results of investigations of the surface cooling inuence on the laminarturbulent transition at the supersonic ow velocities in the TsAGI T-116 wind tunnel:
(a) straight wingtransition onset: 1M 3.0, 2M 3.5, 3M 4.0; end of transition zone: 4M 3.0, 5M 3.5, 6M 4.0; (b) body of revolutionM 4.0
(transition onset).
Latest research on laminar ow control at TsAGI were concentrated on perfecting known passive and semi-active methods and
on the development of novel methods of laminarturbulent
transition delay of all three mentioned types. Particularly, these
researches included:
creation of wing congurations allowing provision of a natural

laminar ow on the large parts of the wing chord (NLF),
problems of application of systems of the hybrid laminar ow

control with boundary layer suction (HLFC),
application of local heating of a wing surface in the vicinity of

the leading edge,
control of development of a boundary layer by excitation of

articial turbulent spots,
control of boundary layer receptivity,

application of porous coatings for stabilization of hypersonic
boundary layer,
application of near-surface electric discharges for laminar

turbulent transition delay.
2. Natural laminar ow concept investigations

In the middle of 1990s the research directed toward the creation of
a swept wing conguration allowing to provide a natural laminar ow
on the large part of a chord was carried out at TsAGI (L.M. Shkadov,
A.A. Bolsunovsky, N.P. Buzoverja, V.M. Galkin, V.A. Kuparev,
V.M. Fomin) together with LII and ANTK named after A.N. Tupolev
on the ight laboratory Tu-22M Backre on the gloves. The initial
airfoil has been kept on the left glove, and on the right glove the new
airfoil designed specially with the purpose of cross-ow instability
attenuation was created with the help of foam plastic deposition. The
basic means of measurement of laminarturbulent transition in
boundary layer were lm gauges of the hot-wire anemometer.
Research was carried out at various sweep angles and revealed
extended (up to 25% of a chord) sites of laminar ow [9]. Reynolds
numbers of transition Retr (7.58) 106 were achieved at sweep
angles w 15201 and Retr 2.5 106 at w 251.
Recent TsAGI research concerned with some aspects of NLF
concept were carried out under the projects HISAC and TELFONA of
the Sixth Framework Program.
The objective of the work of TsAGI investigators (V.G. Yudin, A.Ph.
Kiselev, V.V. Kovalenko, V.A. Kuzminsky and V.I. Shalaev) under
HISAC project was to obtain evaluations of the laminarity extent on
the laminar shape conguration designed by Alenia Aeronautica
(see Fig. 2) for supersonic cruise ight regimes, focusing on skin
friction coefcient Cf distribution at typical span locations.
The computation of inviscid ow was carried out by means of
numerical integration of 3D Euler differential equations using
Fig. 2. Laminar shape conguration designed by Alenia Aeronautica.
171
computer code developed by V.V. Kovalenko. This code is based on

the well known MacCormack nite-difference scheme. The procedure
[10] based on application of asymptotic theory for three-dimensional
ow over slender wings was used for boundary layer computations.
This approach permits one to take into account the three-dimensional
effects in the main term and it is valid for the wings at low angles of
attack. As a result of integration of boundary layer equations, streamline and cross-ow (along the external streamline and normally to it)
velocity proles and temperature proles were found. These functions
were used for analyzing the boundary layer stability and determining
the onset of laminarturbulent transition as well as for computing the
integral boundary layer characteristics.
The approximate approach based on simple empirical stability
criteria was used for evaluations of the laminarity extent of a
boundary layer on a wing in supersonic ight conditions. The
possibilities of transition caused by both streamline and cross-ow
instabilities were analyzed. The streamline instability is evaluated
by criterion [11] and transition associated with this phenomenon is
estimated by SchlichtingGranville method; three various criteria
were used for analyzing the cross-ow instability and transition,
namely, Brown [12], BarinovLutovinov [13,14] and Arnal C1 [15]
criteria.
In parallel with computation of laminarturbulent transition using
simple approximate criteria, the approach based on the linear theory of
hydrodynamic stability was used. For computing the characteristics of
boundary-layer instability in this context, the numerical matrix
method [16] for the solution of linear stability problems for compressible three-dimensional boundary layer in a locally parallel approximation was used. The eight-order system of linear differential
equations was used for solving the stability problem. A nite-difference
counterpart of this system of equations along with boundary conditions
yields a nonlinear eigenvalue problem for a matrix. For solving
the nonlinear problem, a method of inverse iterations is employed.
The laminarturbulent transition location is determined through the
eN-method. The integral amplication factor N is computed by the
envelope method with integration along group velocity direction.
The variations of the laminar zone size and the skin friction drag
coefcient at supersonic cruise conditions have been determined
versus Reynolds number for upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
Results of evaluations of the laminarity extent and skin friction at
typical Z5.9 m section on the upper surface of the wing obtained
by various methods listed above are in reasonable agreement
(Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3. The computed N-factor (1) versus Reynolds number Rex and the correlation
between N-factor and the estimations of transition location calculated with the use
of simple empirical criteriaSchlichtingGranville (SG) and Brown (2), SG and
BarinovLutovinov (3), SG and Arnal C1 (4) at typical Z 5.9 m section on the upper
surface of the wing.
172
Fig. 4. Integral skin friction drag coefcient CF versus unit Reynolds number Re1 in
X-direction at typical Z 5.9 m section on the upper surface of the wing at transition
location estimated by various criteriaSchlichtingGranville (SG) and Brown (1),
SG and BarinovLutovinov (2), SG and Arnal C1 (3); (4)fully laminar ow,
(5)fully turbulent ow.
Fig. 6. The correlation of N-factor distribution calculated at the middle-span section
on the upper surface of the LV6 swept wing model with the measured transition
locations at various experimental conditions.
Fig. 5. The correlation of N-factor distribution calculated at the middle-span section

on upper surface of the LV6 airfoil model with the measured transition locations at
various experimental conditions (semi-bold symbolstransition onset; bold symbolsend of transition).
The main objective of the work of TsAGI group of investigators

(A.I. Ivanov, A.Ph. Kiselev, S.V. Zhigulev, V.A. Kuzminsky, D.S. Sboev,
V.A. Vlasov, M.V. Ustinov and S.V. Manuilovich) under TELFONA project
was to generate data that could be used to quantitatively evaluate
how transition location is inuenced by turbulence levels and noise.
A series of measurements were performed in the TsAGI T-124 low
turbulence wind tunnel to investigate the effects of free-stream
turbulence and acoustic perturbations [17]. The ows over LV6
laminarized airfoil with chord c1 m at zero (2D) and 351 of sweep
(2.5D) were measured in these experiments. This airfoil was designed
by DLR as part of the TELFONA Pathnder Wing design activity. The
experiments were carried out at the free-stream velocity of about
80 m/s. To increase initial ow turbulence level, the turbulizing grids
were used. All measurements were accomplished using the hot-wire
anemometer. The tests show that for natural low-turbulence conditions (eu 0.064%) the laminarturbulent transition is realized near the
x/c 0.62 through the instability of the local separation zone with
respect to wave packet in the frequency range 1.52.5 kHz which
appears as a result of transformation of the disturbances in the external
ow into TollmienSchlichting waves. Under the acoustic inuence on
the boundary layer in the range 2.02.8 kHz and with the level of the
noise pressure of 91108 dB, the laminarturbulent transition is
shifted upstream to x/c 0.550.57. At the higher level of turbulence,
the laminarturbulent transition line shifts towards the model leading
edge even more quickly (e.g. to x/c0.220.24 at eu 0.7%). In the case

of 2.5D model at low turbulence, the cross-ow instability mechanism
dominates and turbulence generation is associated with the development of high-frequency disturbances in the boundary layer with the
central frequency of 1.7 kHz resulting from the secondary instability of
the cross-ow stationary vortices. The transition line also shifts to the
model leading edge with the turbulence rise, but acoustic receptivity of
the boundary layer in this case was found to be very weak.
The stability characteristics of laminar boundary layers on LV6
airfoil and swept wing models for T-124 wind tunnel experimental
conditions were calculated on the basis of linear stability transition
prediction method [16]. The values of N-factor corresponding to
experimental transition location (Ntr) at various free-stream turbulence levels and acoustic disturbances for both models were
obtained. These data are presented in Figs. 5 and 6.
3. Investigations of boundary layer suction systems use for

laminar ow control
With a view to studying opportunities of cross-ow instability
suppression by means of air suction in the vicinity of the leading
edge, a set of experiments were carried out in wind tunnel T-124 in
the 1990s by G.P. Svishhchev, G.A. Pavlovets, V.M. Filippov et al.
[18]. These experiments were carried out at free-stream velocity
UN from 60 m/s up to 90 m/s on a model of half-wing at sweep
angle w from 351 up to 471. At that some decrease in suction
efciency was observed at increase in sweep angle w. The initial
level of free-stream turbulence at this range of velocities was
0.040.075%. Results of visualization of transition position on
models by the China-clay method at UN 60 m/s, w 401 without
and with air suction through two strips of perforation, each of
which consisted of ve lines with 5000 orices in diameter of
0.2 mm, are shown in Fig. 7.
This research was continued by V.G. Mikeladze, V.D. Bokser,
A.Ph. Kiselev, V.Ph. Babuev and G.K. Shapovalov in the T-107 wind
tunnel at Mach numbers M 0.20.74 and Reynolds numbers from
3.3 106 up to 9.4 106 [19]. The initial level of free-stream
turbulence present on the model was 0.20.25%. For denition of
position of laminarturbulent transition the China-clay method
and various pneumometric methods were used. The drag of middle
cross-section of a swept wing was dened by the momentum
173
Fig. 7. The results of the transition visualization on the model using the China-clay method at UN 60 m/s, w 401, initial turbulence level of ow is 0.030.04%. awithout
suction, Reynolds number of transition Retr 1.8 106; bwith air suction through two perforated strips; total coefcient of the suction mass ow rate Cq 7 10 5;
Retr 3 106.
Fig. 8. Inuence of suction ow rate on the variation of the relative drag coefcient
of the swept wing middle section for various free stream Mach and Reynolds
numbers.
method with the help of total pressure rake which was mounted in
the wing wake.
During the experiment air suction was carried out under various
laws through 2, 3 and 5 strips of perforation near the leading edge
on a small region (less than 10% of a chord). The maximum drag
reduction of a cross-section of a swept wing achieving 14% at
M0.3 was reached at suction of small intensity (total coefcient of
the suction mass ow rate Cq Cq opt r11 10 5) (see Fig. 8).
The main purpose of these tests was to nd the optimum
parameters of the suction system. It is evident from the diagrams in
Fig. 8 that minimum drag is obtained at the optimal suction
intensity and then begins to increase as the mass ow rate
continues to rise. The reason for decrease in efciency of suction
with increased Cq is an excess of the allowable level of the
disturbances brought in a ow by orices of perforation that
results in ow turbulization.
Thus, to achieve maximum effect from the application of a
suction system we must dene optimum or critical parameters
of ow in strips of perforation orices, providing the maximal
laminarization effect. Critical values of the perforation orices
Reynolds numbers Red as well as critical values of the EllisePoll
parameter [20] were obtained in these experiments (see Fig. 9).
These parameters are introduced as Red rhVhd/mh and EllisePoll
parameter is generalized here as PV rhVhd2/(reVedn2), where d is
the orice diameter, r, m, V are the density, dynamic viscosity
and velocity, dn is the integral boundary layer thickness, indexes
h and e refer to the parameters in the hole and in the
external ow.
Comparison of results of calculations of characteristics of
hydrodynamic stability with the data of the experimental research
of laminarturbulent transition described above without and
with boundary layer suction in the vicinity of the leading

edge was carried out by A.Ph. Kiselev and V.A. Kuzminsky.
Calculations were based both on the linear stability theory (within
the framework of a eN-method [21]) and on the use of simple
stability criteria approximating results of the solution of the
OrrSommerfeld equation for various classes of velocity proles
in a boundary layer with the subsequent denition of coordinate
of transition on the basis of empirical relations [13,14]. Comparison
of results obtained on the basis of the hydrodynamic stability
theory with experimental data has revealed that at considered
regimes, namely the cross-ow-type, instability prevails. Without
suction in a boundary layer the integrated factor of the maximal
amplication of disturbances at which there was a transition
for different regimes of a ow over model lays in the range
N 913, and with suctionin the range N 910. As a result
of the executed analysis of the approximate criteria of stability
and transition, it is possible to draw the conclusion that the
considered criteria provide satisfactory agreement of calculated
and experimental data on the transition location observed in the
tests [22].
The effectiveness of discrete boundary layer suction trough
transverse slots on a wing of small sweep (w 151) was demonstrated by S.L. Chernyshev, L.L. Chernyshev, P.P. Vorotnikov,
A.Ph. Kiselev and O.V. Babich in tests conducted in the T-124 wind
tunnel in the range of Reynolds number Re (1.34.9) 106 and
the free-stream turbulence level of 0.030.06%. The extension of
the laminar part of a boundary layer was increased from 40% to 70%
of the wing chord up to the region of laminar ow separation owing
to controlled suction through three slots, position of which was
chosen on the basis of estimations of boundary layer stability
[23,24]. Specic characteristics of these experiments consisted in
non-compliance with the requirements that the slot Reynolds
numbers Ret do not exceed the value 100150. These requirements
are stated usually to avoid ow nonstationarity near a slot.
However, hot-wire probe measurements did not indicate a presence of nonstationarity for selected ow rates through the slots,
i.e., the proles of uctuating part of the longitudinal velocity in a
boundary layer were almost independent on Ret in the range of Ret
variation from 140 up to 330.
To design the suction unit on the airplane it is necessary to know
the hydraulic resistance of the suction system. With this purpose in
mind experimental research of the characteristics of resistance of
slots and orices through which a suction is carried out in a wide
range of Reynolds number Ret 152000 for slots and Red
2520,000 for orices have been performed by M.A. Alekseev,
V.Ph. Babuev and V.A. Kuzminsky [22]. Fig. 10 shows the dependences of factors of hydraulic resistance z on the parameter f.
For slots this parameter is determined as f d/(Rett), and for
orices f d/(Redd). Here d is the depth of a slot or of an orice,
t is the width of a slot, d is the hydraulic diameter of an orice.
The experimental data correlate well with linear dependencies
z 1.62 +24f (1) for slots and z 2.16 + 64f (2) for orices in a
range of the parameter f used in practice.
174
Fig. 9. Critical values of the perforation orices Reynolds numbers Red and generalized EllisePoll parameter PV (Cqisuction mass ow rate through ith perforated band).
Fig. 10. Dependences of the hydraulic resistance coefcient z from f parameter: 1for slots f d/(Rett), z 1.62 + 24f; 2for orices f d/(Redd), z 2.16+ 64f; dslot or
orice depth, tslot width; dorice hydraulic diameter.
Fig. 11. Turbulent boundary layer relaminarization as result of heating power

increase W: Dintermittence coefcient g, relative constant component of
hot-wire probe signal Z, ~relative output ripple of hot-wire probe signal S; ow
velocity16.4 m/s; x0.67 m.
4. Laminarturbulent transition delay by local surface heating

in the nose part of the body
The results of research of laminar boundary layer stability on
non-uniformly heated surfaces executed in the middle of the 1980s
under the leadership of M.N. Kogan [25] and V.V. Struminsky [26]
revealed that the main physical mechanism resulting in a delay of
laminarturbulent transition at local heating of a streamlined
surface is the heat ux directed from a gas to a wall. These results
gave grounds to rely on signicant increases in Reynolds number of
transition owing to the application of the method of local surface
heating. Further, these forecasts were conrmed in numerous tests
carried out in the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of

the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science [27] and in
TsAGI [28].
Research on the method of transition delay by local heating of
the nose part of a model, started in the middle of the 1980s, has
recently continued.
Under the initiative of M.N. Kogan experimental research on
laminarturbulent transition delay by model nose heating have
been continued by Filippov [29]. Experiments were carried out in
the T-36I wind tunnel on a thermo-insulated at plate with metal
nose and on an all-metal plate. Experiments have shown that local
heating provides the ow without separation near the leading edge
of the model due to displacement of a stagnation line and thus
supports development of laminar ow from the leading edge. In the
case when transition is caused by a roughness of the nose,
application of heating allows to decrease considerably turbulizing
effect of a roughness and consequently to signicantly increase the
Reynolds number of transition. Fig. 11 shows the measured values
of characteristics S, g, Z, changes of which indicate relaminarization
of a turbulent boundary layer with increase in power of heating W.
Here g is the intermittency factor, Z is the relative constant
component, and S is the output ripple of the hot-wire anemometer.
Experiments with an all-metal plate have shown continuous
increase in extent of laminar ow with growth of temperature of
heating of the leading edge. For example, at temperature overheating of surface Dtmax E2501 the Reynolds number of transition
onset Rex increases from 2.6 106 up to 6.5 106, that results in
reduction of friction drag of a plate approximately by a factor of 3.5.
Research on the inuence of local heating on the ow and
drag on a body of revolution has been recently executed by
V.M. Litvinov, A.A. Uspenskii, and V.G. Shumilkin in the T-36I wind
tunnel [30]. It was shown that local heating of the model surface in
175
Fig.13. Scheme of the model and measuring equipment.
Fig. 12. Relative displacement of transition location by the model nose heating vs.
Reynolds number.
the region with negative pressure gradient leads to laminar

turbulent transition delay and, therefore, to reduction of model
drag. As shown in Fig. 12 the maximum value of relative displacement of transition location xef ( 32%) is achieved with model nose
heating at ReL 2.3 106, where ReL is the Reynolds number based
on model length and free stream parameters.
5. Boundary layer development control by excitation of

articial turbulent spots
The method of control of boundary layer development by
excitation of articial turbulent spots (Fig. 13) in the pretransition (pre-separation) zone of a laminar boundary layer was
developed by V.M. Filippov [31]. It was experimentally shown that
by stimulating an origin of turbulent spots in the pre-separation
region of a laminar boundary layer it is possible to prevent its
subsequent separation from a streamlined surface, and that formation of turbulent spots before a zone of laminarturbulent
transition results in a signicant downstream shift of the end of the
transitional region and, thus, essentially reduces skin friction.
Fig. 14 shows the output signals of a hot-wire anemometer received
in different points on the wing surface in wind tunnel T-124.
Turbulent spots were formed by pulses of disturbances of a
given intensity and frequency which were supplied with the help of
blowing/suction created by a loudspeaker through a slot in the
surface of a model located at x/c0.375. The oscilloscope patterns
shown in Fig. 14 are measured at natural (a) and controlled (b)
development of a boundary layer. As shown in the gure, the onset
of laminar separation in section x/c0.69 results in making the
boundary layer fully turbulent at x/c0.8. However, by excitation
of a turbulent spot the unseparated laminar zone behind a spot was
kept also in the region of a turbulent boundary layer. Prevention
of separation and preservation of long-duration laminar zones
behind spots in turbulent boundary layer took place in all ranges of
Reynolds numbers in which tests were carried out thus resulting in
appreciable reduction of time-averaged skin friction. An essential
Fig. 14. Output ripple of the hot-wire anemometer at the natural (a) and controlled
(b) boundary layer development, frequency f 21 Hz.
advantage of this method of boundary layer control is that its

application practically does not demand power expenses.
6. Laminar ow control (LFC) in 3D boundary layer by

receptivity control
Now, methods of active suppression of disturbances in laminar
boundary layer with the purpose of laminarturbulent transition
delay have an opportunity to be used due to the development of the
technology of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). These
systems represent the active surfaces consisting of sensors recording some parameters of ow disturbances and actuators generating
the managing inuence explicitly set by indications of sensors.
Serviceability of such systems is achieved by both their technological perfection and efciency of the algorithm specifying the law of
transformation of indications of sensors in the response of
actuators.
New methods of active suppression of TollmienSchlichting
waves in compressible boundary layer on a at plate was studied at
TsAGI by S.V. Manuilovich [32,33]. The method is based on the use
of an active site of the streamlined wall reacting to instant local
change of pressure by proportional local vertical shift of a wall with
a constant delay in time adjusted on optimum suppression of
176
unstable disturbances. Concrete type of MEMS and the simple law

of management resulting in fast suppression of unstable disturbances in a wide range of their frequencies were offered; and the
key role of the response delay during suppression of unstable
disturbances was obtained.
Fig. 15 represents the results of numerical analysis of process of
suppression of TollmienSchlichting wave having dimensionless
frequency o 0.036 (most quickly growing disturbance in absence
of any control) by the system of active control located in the
interval 0 ox o60 (in Blasius variable for locally parallel approximation) and consisting of six active elements. Calculations were
executed at free-stream Mach number MN 0.8 and Reynolds
number determined on boundary layer thickness in the beginning
of an active site ReN 1000. The solid curve corresponds to
longitudinal distribution of pressure during the initial moment
of time, and the dashed curve after a quarter of the period of
oscillations. The control system is adjusted on a mode close to
optimum with time of delay equal approximately to a quarter of the
period of oscillations. Calculation of factors of attenuation of
amplitude of the TollmienSchlichting wave shows that the active
site weakens incoming disturbance more than 500 times.
Fig. 16 illustrates the effectiveness of the offered control system
concerning its inuence on TollmienSchlichting waves having
other frequencies. On the top plot the increments of growing waves
in the absence of active control are shown, on the bottom plot the
factors of attenuation of the amplitude of disturbances at active
control are given. The offered control system suppresses Tollmien
Schlichting waves over the whole unstable range, moreover in its
Fig. 15. Passage of TollmienSchlichting wave above the site of a surface containing
system of active control.
Fig. 16. Effectiveness of the active control system vs. disturbance frequency.
main part the amplitude of disturbances decreases more than 10

times. In this case the extent of an active site equals only one wave
length of the most unstable disturbance. The system effectiveness
can be augmented with an increase in the length of the active site.
The advantage of the above method in [34] consists in the local
character of algorithms of control (actuator is controlled only by a
neighboring sensor). In this case, when the frequency of incoming
disturbance changes, the mismatch of phases of disturbance and
managing inuence is insignicant and does not strongly reduce
the effectiveness of the active control system.
In a three-dimensional boundary layer the most dangerous
modes are stationary modes of cross-ow-type instability. Instability of this type is caused by reason of laminarturbulent transition
on a swept wing at large enough sweep angle. The main reason of
generation of vortices of cross-ow-type instability is the roughness of a wing surface. The initial amplitude of these vortices can be
large even in a case of random (irregular) roughness of small
height since stationary unstable modes are generated by direct
scattering of the main ow on supercial roughness. Thus the
random roughness results in the formation of a system of vortices
of cross-ow-type instability.
The semi-active method of cross-ow instability control is
studied at TsAGI by S.V. Manuilovich. It was shown through
numerical simulation that the system of vortices of a natural
origin can be suppressed with the help of periodicity along the wing
span: (a) roughness of a wing surface, (b) sites of blowing-suction,
(c) heated sites of a surface [35]. The specied inuences generate
an articial system of vortices of instability which can be adjusted
in an antiphase to a system of vortices of a natural origin. The
condition of suppression of natural disturbances can be provided
with an appropriate choice of the form of roughness, intensity of
blowing-suction or heating, and also the period and phase of their
spanwise modulation.
The more preferable method of cross-ow-type instability suppression by localized surface heating is described briey below. It is
supposed that 3D compressible laminar boundary layer ow is
disturbed by the incoming system of steady cross-ow instability
vortices of natural (subscript n) origin qn Real[qn(y)exp(iax+ibz)],
where qn is the complex function, a is the complex wave number in
the direction normal to the wing leading edge, b is the real wave
number in the spanwise direction, q(u, v, w, p, r, y) denotes
disturbances of the velocity vector, the pressure, the density and the
temperature. All ow functions are non-dimensionalized with
respect to transversal velocity WN, free-stream density rN, temperature TN, and the boundary-layer thickness d. The disturbance is
regarded to be normalized by the condition du/dy1 at y0.
In order to cancel this instability mode, local selective heating
of the wall with the same spanwise periodicity is used
y(x,0,z) af(x)cos[b(z b)]. This thermal action generates
articial disturbance, therefore in the downstream region an
articial (subscript a) system of vortices arises in the form
qa Real{aCqn(y)exp[iax +ib(z b)]}. Here C is the complex coupling
coefcient resulting from representing the solution of the stability
eigenvalue problem in the form of Fourier transformation and
evaluation of it using the Cauchys integral theorem. Note that the
amplitude and the phase of the articial system of the vortices can
be controlled by varying the temperature factor a and the span shift
b. The special choice of these parameters, namely, a1/9C9,
b(argC p)/b results in mutual cancellation of the natural and
the articial systems of cross-ow instability vortices downstream
from the heating location qn +qa 0.
The complex amplitude A of the disturbance determined by the
equality qu(x,0,z)/qyReal[A(x)exp(ibz)] is used for illustration of
the cancellation process. The calculations are carried out for the
external streamwise velocity Ue 0.5, free-stream Mach number
MN 0.5, Reynolds number Re rNWNd/mN 500, transversal
177
Fig. 17. Streamwise distribution of surface temperature increase (left) and passage of incoming disturbance over heated site of a wall (right).
Fig. 18. Amplitude of disturbance: 1incoming disturbance without control, 2, 3,

4in the cases of spanwise-periodic roughness, suction-blowing, and heating,
respectively.
Fig. 19. Relative difference between amplitude of disturbances in case of rigid and
porous surface of a cone depending on longitudinal dimensionless coordinate:
1experiment; 2numerical simulation.
wave number b 0.8. Fig. 17 demonstrates the process of cancellation of cross-ow instability vortices by selective heating. The
distribution of controlling increase of the wall temperature is
shown on the left part of Fig. 17. The form of the disturbance is
shown on the right part by the solid line (Real A) for the spanwise
coordinate z0 and by the dashed line (Im A) for z p/(2b). In the
upstream region the disturbance is given by the incoming system of
natural cross-ow instability vortices A(x) exp(iax) with wave
number a 0.496i0.023. The most intensive oscillations take
place over the middle of the controlling temperature irregularity. In
the downstream region the disturbance takes the form of quickly
relaxing mode of wave number a 0.392+ i0.059.
Comparison of three semi-active methods of suppression of crossow-type instability was executed. Fig. 18 shows the behavior of the
amplitude of disturbance 9A9 in the cases of spanwise-periodic
roughness, suction-blowing, and heating (curves 2 4). The amplitude of incoming disturbance equals 9A91 in the point x 0 in
absence of any impact (curve 1). The coefcients of preliminary
amplication dened as 9A9 at x0 are equal to 28, 16, and 9 for
roughness, suction-blowing, and heating, respectively. This comparison reveals the advantage of selective heating of a wing surface
because this method permits the prevention of laminarturbulent
transition of the by-pass type directly above the control site at
sufciently large initial amplitude of suppressed vortices.
At large enough local Mach numbers (approximately Me Z4 for

boundary layer on heat-insulated surface without external pressure gradient) the second mode becomes dominant. Surface cooling destabilizes the second mode in contrast to the rst one. As the
surface temperature of the typical high-speed ight vehicle is
essentially lower than the temperature of the heat-insulated wall,
instability of the rst mode is suppressed naturally whereas the
second mode grows faster and can lead to rather early transition to
turbulence. In this case for an increase in extent of a laminar site it is
necessary to stabilize disturbances of the second mode. In [36] the
assumption has been stated that the passive porous coatings
absorbing high-frequency acoustic disturbances (ultrasound) can
effectively stabilize such instability. This hypothesis further has
been conrmed both by theoretical and experimental researches
executed in the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of
the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science [37,38].
At TsAGI the stability of the hypersonic boundary layer (at freestream Mach number MN 5.95) on a sharp cone with a porous
coating which absorbs high-frequency disturbances was considered by I.V. Egorov et al. [39]. This research was carried out on the
basis of numerical solutions of the non-stationary NavierStokes
equations. Results of calculations have been compared with
experimental data of [38] and with results of the linear stability
theory. Comparison of numerical results with the experiment [38]
shown in Fig. 19 conrms that the hypersonic boundary layer can
be effectively stabilized by porous coating.
7. Laminar ow control (LFC) in high-speed boundary layer

with the help of passive porous coating
8. Electrogasdynamic methods of LFC
In a high-speed predominantly two-dimensional boundary
layer both the rst (TollmienSchlichting waves) and the second
(high-frequency acoustic) modes of disturbances can dominate.
Some researches devoted to gas ow control with the use of

electrogasdynamic (EGD) interaction realized in corona discharge
178
were carried out in the 19601980s [4042]. The interest to

investigate possibilities of aerodynamic applications of EGD-action
on gas ows sharply increased during the last years in connection
with an offer to use the dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) for these
purposes [43]. Several tens of papers devoted to the study of plasma
actuators operating on the basis of electrical discharges of various
types (corona, sliding, barrier, etc.) and to aerodynamic applications of plasma actuators are published annually [44,45]. Most
papers give attention to DBD-actuators and their application to
ow separation control.
Control of boundary layer stability with the aim of laminar
turbulent transition delay and viscous drag reduction is the other
promising scope of application of plasma actuators in aerodynamics. Characteristics of stability of laminar boundary layer are
very sensitive to the velocity distribution in it. Therefore, even
rather weak variations of boundary layer velocity due to impact of
plasma actuators can inuence signicantly the boundary layer
stability. With this purpose some researches of inuence of plasma
actuators on boundary layer stability with respect to Tollmien
Schlichting waves were executed recently [4648].
8.1. Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to
streamwise impact of direct current corona discharge
A reduction of total drag of an electrically conductive at plate
owing to ion wind thrust created by near wall direct current (DC)
corona discharge was estimated theoretically in [49]. But the total
drag reduction achieved in this case is insignicant. Moreover, as it
is shown in [50], this method is energy uneconomical, i.e., electrical
power of the discharge exceeds a saving of mechanical power
resulting from a drag reduction. A semi-active method of viscous
drag reduction owing to laminarturbulent transition delay
achieved by acceleration of boundary layer ow in streamwise
direction due to force action of DC discharge was proposed in TsAGI
by A.P. Kuryachii [42]. Afterwards, theoretical estimations revealed
that this method of viscous drag reduction may be energy efcient
if a boundary layer on a at plate includes both laminar and
turbulent parts [50].
Theoretical considerations in [42,50] have been fullled in the
framework of very simplied mathematical models of DC discharge. But for designing experiments on laminarturbulent
transition control and for analyzing the obtained experimental
results it is important to know those parameters of plasma
actuators (dimensions, current strength, applied voltage, etc.),
for which their inuence on boundary layer stability will be
optimal. Preliminary numerical modeling of a plasma actuator in
the framework of an appropriate mathematical model can help to
answer this question. With this purpose in mind a semi-empirical
model of a DC corona discharge actuator was developed at TsAGI
[51]. This model is based on numerical simulation of unipolar ion

jets generated by a linear ionic source (wire anode in concrete
experimental conguration) located on a dielectric at plate. The
ion jet propagates along the plate in a laminar boundary layer.
Intensity of the ionic source (electric current per unit length of wire
anode) at a given potential difference between anode and downstream located cathode of the actuator is taken from experimental
data. Numerical solution of a boundary value problem formulated
for the system of electrohydrodynamic equations permitted to
dene distributions of the electric eld strength, the volumetric
charge density and the gas velocity induced in the boundary layer
by force impact of the DC corona actuator. Fig. 20 compares
calculated distributions of the relative induced velocity in two
cross-sections of the boundary layer with experimental data of
[52]. This comparison conrms the models reliability.
This model was used for an estimation of the DC actuator
inuence on boundary layer stability [53,54]. Calculations were
carried out for problem parameters corresponding to typical
experimental conditions in a subsonic wind tunnel. The freestream velocity is U0 30 m/s, the static pressure is p 750 Torr,
the gas temperature is T290 K, the distance of the ionic source
(anode) from the plate leading edge is xa 0.5 m, and the distance
between the anode and the downstream located cathode is l 0.04
m. For these ow parameters the Reynolds number corresponding
to the anode position is Rea U0xa/n E106, and the entire interval of
actuator action on a boundary layer is located in the area of linear
growth of the TollmienSchlichting waves. Calculations were
executed at various values of the ionic source intensity (electric
current) I and the potential difference between the electrodes V. It
was shown that at the considered task parameters within the
framework of local-homogeneous approximation of the linear
stability theory it is possible to neglect interaction between
disturbances of hydrodynamic (velocity and pressure) and electric
(volumetric charge and electric potential) ow characteristics.
Thus, the stability of electrohydrodynamic boundary layers can
be analyzed within the framework of the eigenvalue problem for
the usual OrrSommerfeld equation.
Fig. 21 demonstrates the inuence of a DC corona actuator on
the neutral stability curves calculated in various boundary layer
cross-sections in the dimensionless variables RRe1/2
and
x
an a(nx/U0)1/2, where Rex U0x/n and a is the disturbance wave
number. Distributions of the relatively induced velocity and the
second derivative of the main ow velocity in one cross-section at
various values of electric current I and potential difference V in the
actuator are shown in Figs. 22 and 23. Comparison of the neutral
curves 1a1c with Figs. 22 and 23 conrms that the stability
characteristics appreciably depend on distributions not only of the
main ow velocity but its second derivative too. In particular, an
increase in the induced velocity resulting from an increase of
Fig. 20. Proles of the relative induced velocity at distances 20 mm (a) and 30 mm (b) from the ionic source (anode): 1experiment and 2numerical simulation.
179
Fig. 21. Curves of neutral stability in cross-sections of boundary layer x xa 1, 2, 3, and 4 cm (curves (14)) for V 20 kV, I 0.05 mA/m (a) and 0.1 mA/m (b), for V 30 kV and
I 0.1 mA/m (c). Neutral curve for Blasius ow (curves 5).
The analysis of the results permits us to make the following

conclusions. Stationary streamwise impact of DC actuator on the
main ow in a laminar boundary layer results in more lled proles
of longitudinal velocity with the predominately increased absolute
values of a negative vertical second derivative of this velocity.
It provides signicant increase in values of critical Reynolds
number of loss of stability and narrowing of the range of wave
numbers of unstable disturbances. For the planning of aerodynamic
experiments on laminarturbulent transition control it is necessary to optimize parameters of a DC plasma actuator for the most
effective increase of boundary layer stability with respect to
TollmienSchlichting waves. The distance between electrodes,
potential difference, and electric current should be selected so
that the thickness of the near-wall ionic layer whenever possible
did not exceed a boundary layer thickness. Besides ow acceleration in a boundary layer resulting from an actuator impact will not
be too strong to prevent an occurrence of inection point in
distributions of the main ow velocity.
Fig. 22. Proles of the relative induced velocity in cross-section x xa 1 cm for
V 20 kV, I 0.05 (curve 1) and 0.1 (curve 2) mA/m, V 30 kV, I0.1 mA/m (curve 3).
Fig. 23. Proles of the second derivative of longitudinal velocity in Blasius variables
in cross-section x xa 1 cm, notations (1)(3) as in Fig. 6, the second derivative of
velocity in Blasius ow (curve 4).
voltage V from 20 up to 30 kV is accompanied by occurrence of

negative values of the second derivative (curve 3 in Fig. 23), that is
appearance of the inection point in the main ow velocity prole.
It, in turn, results in substantial growth of instability area which,
nevertheless, remains conned (curve 1 c in Fig. 21).
8.2. Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to

transverse volumetric force impact
Another semi-active method of laminarturbulent transition
delay is based on the generation of articial regulated momentum
transfer across a boundary layer by spanwise periodicity along a
transverse ow. The velocity of this ow has to be of the order of the
vertical velocity in a boundary layer. Dielectric barrier discharge is
very suitable to induce the mentioned ow because it provides a
wide range of geometric parameters (by variation of the length of
streamwise-oriented exposed electrodes and the distance between
them), volumetric forces (by variation of amplitude, shape, and
frequency of applied voltage), and, hence, induced transverse ow
velocity [48].
This transverse ow in a boundary layer results in the appearance of a span-periodical nonuniformity in the distribution of a
streamwise velocity [55]. It is known that a nonuniformity of
boundary layer ow usually leads to its destabilization. But this
effect becomes remarkable when the amplitude of nonuniformity
um of streamwise velocity exceeds 0.1uN, where uN is the freestream velocity [56]. At the same time, as it is shown theoretically
in TsAGI by M.N. Kogan and M.V. Ustinov [57], it is possible to create
a transverse ow resulting in signicant increase in boundary layer
stability. Additional transfer of longitudinal momentum by transverse ow across a boundary layer results in fuller span-averaged
prole of streamwise velocity. The positive effect of streamwise
velocity variation will compensate a negative inuence of its nonuniformity if the velocity excess (maximal positive difference between
local and span-averaged values of velocity) is large enough and the
velocity decit (maximal absolute value of the mentioned negative
difference) is small. In this case the amplitude of nonuniformity has
180
to be um r0.1uN. Calculations [57] revealed that these requirements

hold to some extent for a dimensionless volumetric force determined
in analytical form as Fz(x,y,z)170exp( 0.25y/x1/2) sin(2z), where
xx//L, yy//d, zz//d, d (nL/uN)1/2, ReuNd/n, Fz F/zL Re/(ru2N),
and x/, y/, z/ are the dimensional coordinates in streamwise,
vertical and spanwise directions, L is the distance from the at
plate leading edge up to an origin of impact of the dimensional
transversal volumetric force F/z, r is the gas density, n is the
kinematic viscosity.
Calculations of boundary layer stability were executed for
Re 1500 within the framework of local-homogeneous approximation of the linear stability theory. Only symmetric modes of
disturbances with zero spanwise wave number were considered.
The initial section x1 corresponds to Reynolds number
Rex xRe2 2.25 106. Laminarturbulent transition on a at plate
in the absence of any external action occurs at Rex 35 106,
i.e. x1.32.2. Figs. 24 and 25 show the dependence of increments
of temporal growth oi of linear disturbances on wave number a and
Reynolds number Rex, respectively. Solid curves correspond to
boundary layer with volumetric force and dashed curves are
obtained without force action. Fig. 24 shows that the volumetric
force leads to total ow stabilization in the section x 1.8. Similar
behavior of dependence oi(a) is observed downstream up to about
x 5.5 corresponding to Rex 12 106 (see Fig. 25). At large enough
x, for example x 8 (Fig. 24), volumetric force action results in
essential decrease in increments and their shift to smaller values of
wave number a.
To estimate the inuence of two factors (a variation of
span averaged velocity of main ow and a presence of spanperiodical nonuniformity) on boundary layer stability with volumetric force, calculations were executed without account of
nonuniformity. The results of these calculations are presented in
Fig. 24 by dash-dot curves. The inuence of nonuniformity on
increments oi is remarkable in the section x 1.8 where the
amplitude of nonuniformity is close to maximal. Nevertheless
the inuence of average velocity variation is more essential. The
velocity nonuniformity almost does not inuence the ow stability
in the section x 8 because its amplitude is very small here
(um 0.03uN).
Dependence of oi vs. Rex presented in Fig. 25 for a 0.025, 0.05,
0.07 shows that disturbances decay fast under the force impact in a
wide range of wave numbers (at Rex E2.5 106). The stabilizing
effect of the volumetric force is largest in the range of Reynolds
number Rex 35 106, corresponding to x1.32.2. The largest
velocity excess and skin friction are achieved at this distance from
the plate leading edge. Further downstream the stabilizing effect
gradually decays, but a boundary layer remains more stable than
the usual Blasius boundary layer in the whole considered area
xr12. This conclusion is valid for moderate wave numbers
0.025 o a o0.1. Volumetric force increases increments of disturbances only for very small wave numbers a E0.010.02 and at very
large distances from the leading edge x410 (Rex 423 106). But
this process of increments growth cannot inuence laminar
turbulent transition because of the smallness of increments at
these parameters.
Fig. 25 shows that the impact of the transversal volumetric force
ensures an absence of growing disturbances in a wide range of
Reynolds number 2.5 106 oRex 12 106. Therefore, one can
expect that this action will result in laminarturbulent transition
delay up to at least the upper boundary of the mentioned range,
i.e., by a factor of 4 compared to the usual ow. Indeed, the
transition delay may be more signicant because of the relative
smallness of increments of disturbances at large Reynolds numbers. For this reason disturbances grow very slowly downstream.
Note that the method of transition delay based on transversal
volumetric force impact seems to be more preferable than the
Fig. 24. Dependences of increments oi on wave number a of disturbances in at

plate boundary layer with volumetric force (solid curves) and without force (dashed
curves) in cross-sections x 1.8, 8 (curves 1 and 2). Dash-dot curveswith force but
without account of nonuniformity.
Fig. 25. Dependences of increments oi on Reynolds number Rex for a 0.07, 0.05,
0.025 (curves 13). Solid curveswith force, dashed curveswithout it.
method of boundary layer acceleration in the streamwise direction

by DC corona discharge impact considered in the previous section
for two reasons. First, the same variation of the streamwise velocity
component by transverse force impact demands the volumetric
force which is by a factor of R uNd/n less compared to the case of a
streamwise force impact. Secondly, transverse impact may be
realized, for example, by the use of dielectric barrier discharge
with a row of exposed electrodes placed in streamwise direction
over any required distance on a streamlined surface. In contrast to
this, the creation of a system of DC corona actuators successively
accelerating boundary layer ow in a streamwise direction is not so
simple.
8.3. Attenuation of cross-ow-type instability in 3D compressible

boundary layer by electrogasdynamic impact
The active method of cross-ow-type instability suppression
based on the use of the closed-loop feedback control system
consisting of heat-ow sensors, PID controller, and plasma discharge elements is proposed in [58]. According to this method,
volumetric heating of a compressible boundary layer due to heat
release in near-surface electric discharge leads to stabilization of
ow instabilities via reduction of the Poll Reynolds and cross-ow
Reynolds numbers and increase of the boundary layer thickness.
However, an additional acceleration of compressible boundary
layer and, as a consequence, an increase of cross-ow velocity
caused by a gas heating in the presence of the negative streamwise
gradient of static pressure is not taken into account in [58]. This
phenomenon results in amplication of cross-ow-type instabilities and is discussed below.
The semi-active method of laminarturbulent transition delay
on a swept wing with the help of the electrogasdynamic impact
created by a periodical system of actuators along a wing span using
bipolar corona discharge was proposed at TsAGI by Kuryachii [59].
Fig. 26 represents the design of this method. If external electrodes
of the actuators are placed on a wing surface perpendicular to a
leading edge, then it is possible to generate volumetric forces which
are periodical along a wing span and induce gas ow directed along
a leading edge, as it is shown in Fig. 26. The velocity vector V inside a
three-dimensional (3D) boundary layer in the vicinity of the
leading edge may be decomposed into a main-ow velocity VMF
directed along an external streamline of inviscid ow (dashed
curve in Fig. 27a) and a cross-ow velocity VCF. The velocity induced
by the force action of plasma actuators along the z-axis has only a
component w directed opposite to the cross-ow velocity resulting
181
in its decline. One can see in Fig. 27a, that this attenuation of crossow velocity due to EGD-impact becomes more signicant as the
angle g between the external streamline and the x-axis decreases
[60]. Because increments of stationary vortices of the cross-owtype instability are approximately proportional to maximum
values of the cross-ow velocity [61], the mentioned attenuation
of cross-ow will lead to a decrease of these increments.
The dielectric barrier discharge seems to be more suitable for
practical realization of the proposed method because of its ability
to operate over wide ranges of gas pressure and geometric scales,
simplicity and reliability of conguration, and a possibility to
control its characteristics over a wide range. Both experimental and
theoretical investigations of DBD-actuators are being carried out at
TsAGI [6264]. However, the numerical solution of three-dimensional non-stationary problems describing the dielectric barrier
discharge in a 3D boundary layer on a swept wing is very much of a
challenge. Therefore, to do an estimation of effects of discharge
inuence on gas ows most researchers apply the simplied
approach by introducing into the NavierStokes equations some
terms modeling volumetric forces and heat release generated by
DBD [6569].
The above mentioned approach was used at TsAGI for theoretical estimations of the possibility of attenuation of cross-ow-type
instability in a laminar boundary layer on a swept wing owing to
boundary layer acceleration along a wing leading edge with the
help of DBD-actuators. It is shown in [67] that the velocity
pulsations caused by non-stationary volumetric force sources in
a compressible laminar boundary layer poorly depend on ow
velocity but are considerably weakened with an increase in
frequency and relative duration of sources. Therefore, boundary
layer ow can be considered as quasi-stationary at a high enough
frequency of DBD. Time averaged spatial distributions of
Fig. 26. Schematic pattern of LFC method with the use of plasma actuators.
Fig. 27. Decomposition of velocity vector in 3D boundary layer (a), distribution of intensity of volumetric force source used in calculations (b).
182
volumetric force and heat release in DBD-actuators obtained

through their numerical modeling may be used as stationary
source terms in momentum and energy equations for calculation
of compressible boundary layers. These distributions are complex
enough and depend on many geometric and physical parameters of
actuators and on gas pressure [64] which varies appreciably along a
wing surface. The determination of optimal parameters of DBDactuators for given ow parameters and wing geometry is an
important self-contained complex problem. Therefore, it seems
reasonable for preliminary estimations of efciency of the considered LFC method to use simple analytical expressions for the
intensity of volumetric sources which permit to receive their
explicit Fourier expansion and, at the same time, present qualitative features of the distributions obtained by numerical simulation
of DBD-actuators.
For these reasons the intensity distribution of a single volumetric force source in executed calculations was taken in the form
of a pyramid shown in Fig. 27b. This distribution is stationary and
independent of the x-coordinate. A similar distribution was used
for heat sources. The space integrated intensity of a single source
per unit length along the x-axis equals /F1S F0yFzF/6 (N/m)
for force source and /Q1SQ0yQzQ/6 (W/m) for heat source.
Here F0 (N/m3) and Q0 (W/m3) are the maximal intensities of the
sources per volume unit. The average density of force or heat action
per unit of a wing surface equals /FS/F1SNS (N/m2) or /QS
/Q1SNS (W/m2), where NS 1/z0 is the number of sources per
length unit along a leading edge, z0 is the distance between
adjacent sources. It is supposed that the distance z0 is much greater
than the boundary layer thickness on a critical line d and vertical
scales of sources yF and yQ do not exceed this thickness.
Numerical simulation of DBD-actuators shows that the time
averaged horizontal volumetric force Fz (responsible for ow
acceleration) is negative in a small region near the edge of the
exposed electrode (i.e., directed to the electrode edge) and becomes
positive at some distance from the edge. Space distribution of heat
release (Joule dissipation) Q differs remarkably from the force
distribution Fz. Particularly, the heat release distribution is sharper
and concentrated near the electrode edge where both the electric
eld strength and the electric current density are a maximum. But
for a more accurate modeling of the processes of heat release and
transfer in a boundary layer it is necessary to take into account the
energy of vibrational degrees of freedom of air molecules. It is the
fact that more than half of the discharge power enters initially into
vibrational energy. Relaxation of the vibrational energy into
translational degrees of freedom, i.e., in gas heating, takes place
during milliseconds, therefore, the presence of gas ow will
inuence remarkably the distribution of heat release [67]. An
accounting of this effect has to result in essential spreading of the
heat source in comparison with the calculated distribution of Joule
dissipation. Moreover, the space integrated volumetric force /F1S
and Joule dissipation /Q1S will both change along the exposed
electrodes because of static pressure variation along the x-axis.
However, all mentioned features of force and heat generation in
DBD-actuators are not taken into consideration in executed
calculations. Geometrical parameters of force and heat sources
were taken to be similar. The numerical simulation of the periodical
system of DBD-actuators makes it possible to estimate these
parameters. The evaluations at zF 3 mm, yF 0.15 mm, zm 0.3
mm were obtained for spatial period z0 0.01 m (NS 100 m 1)
at total volumetric force /F1SE0.02 N/m and Joule dissipation
/Q1SE86 W/m. These geometrical parameters of force and heat
sources z0, zF, zm, yF were used in the calculations.
To evaluate the practical usefulness of the mentioned
LFC method numerical modeling was carried out for the
following free-stream parameters: gas velocity VN 240 m/s,
Mach number MN 0.8, gas density rN 0.4 kg/m3, gas dynamic
Fig. 28. Distributions of maximum of dimensionless cross-ow velocity for E N

(a) and 2.5 10 4 s/m (b). Solid curveswithout impact, dashed curvesmaximal
and minimal values with impact, dash-dot curvesspan-averaged values with
impact.
viscosity mN 1.5 kg/(ms). The three-dimensional spanwiseperiodical boundary layer is simulated in the vicinity of the
leading edge of an innite span swept wing with the sweep
angle w 251. The characteristic length of the problem is
taken as l VN(due/dx) 1 0.05 m, where (due/dx) is the external
velocity gradient along the x-axis. Calculations were executed for
due/dxconst to obtain the estimation of the method effectiveness
at maximal cross-ow. The boundary layer thickness on a critical
line at given parameters is evaluated as d E0.4 mm and remains
almost constant downstream because of intense external ow
acceleration.
Note that the value of the volumetric force used, /F1S0.02 N/m,
is remarkably smaller than the maximum force generated by a single
DBD-actuator measured in the experiments [69]. A very important
point for practical application characteristic of a DBD-actuator is the
coefcient of energy efciency dened as E/F1S//Q1S [70]. In the
case of the considered LFC method, this characteristic determines not
only the required power consumption but the working capacity of
the method too, as it is shown below. According to experiments [71],
the coefcient energy efciency of a DBD-actuator can vary in the
range 17 10 4 s/m depending on, for example, the form and size
of the exposed electrode. Therefore, this coefcient may be
considered in theoretical considerations as a variable parameter
at a given volumetric force /F1S.
Calculations were executed for the following four values of
the efciency coefcient: EN, 10 3, 5 10 4, 2.5 10 4 s/m.
It corresponds to the power consumption per unit of a wing surface
/QS0, 2, 4, 8 kW/m2 at given values /F1S 0.02 N/m and
NS 100 m 1. Periodical localized impact of force and heat sources
results in signicant spanwise nonuniformity of boundary layer
ow. Fig. 28 shows distributions of the maximum cross-ow
velocity referred to the free-stream velocity VN along the x-axis
for two values of the efciency coefcient. These distributions
represent the extent of the mentioned nonuniformity. Volumetric
force impact without heat release (EN, Fig. 28a) results in crossow attenuation on the whole. But volumetric heat release results
in cross-ow amplication over the major part of the interval
between adjacent sources. As a consequence, the maximum crossvelocity averaged along this interval slightly increases as compared
to the cross-ow without impact (Fig. 28b).
Thus, a negative inuence of gas heating inside a boundary layer
on its stability appears through cross-ow intensication. This
effect results from the momentum equation ru du/dx E dp/dx.
Gas heating at a given static pressure is accompanied by density
decrease. Since the streamwise pressure gradient dp/dx is determined by an external inviscid ow, a decrease of gas density r
results in an increase of the product u du/dx and, hence, the velocity
Fig. 29. Proles of span-averaged dimensionless cross-ow velocity in the crosssection x/l 1 without impact (curve 1), with impact for E N, 10 3, 5 10 4,
2.5 10 4 s/m (curves 25).
component u. The cross-ow velocity increases too, as is evident

from Fig. 27a. Fig. 29 shows the inuence of the energy efciency
coefcient on the average cross-ow velocity proles at a given
intensity of force impact. It is evident that the force impact
resulting in an increase of the w-component of the gas velocity
and, hence, a decrease of cross-ow velocity VCF (see Fig. 27a)
ceases to compensate the effect of u-component increase caused by
gas heating at small enough coefcient of energy efciency.
The stability of the incompressible boundary layer on an innite
span swept cylinder spatially modulated along a span due to
localized volumetric force impact was considered in [72]. In
accordance with the stability theory of periodic ows, the disturbances of velocity components and pressure were sought in the
form q(x,y,z)qn(y,z) exp(iax+ ibz). Here b is the wave number
along a span and a is the complex eigenvalue to be found. The
imaginary part of this value determines the local rate of spatial
growth of disturbances. The eigenfunction qn(y,z) is searched in a
set of functions periodic in z-direction with the period equal to that
of undisturbed ow z0. The number of terms taken into account of
the Fourier expansions of undisturbed ow and eigenfunction of
disturbances were varied for the control of accuracy of the
calculation of the stability characteristics. It was shown that, in
spite of remarkable nonuniformity of undisturbed ow caused by
localized volumetric force impact, the increments of stationary
modes of cross-ow-type instability are determined accurately
within several percent by the span-averaged undisturbed ow,
i.e., by the zero terms of the Fourier expansion of the undisturbed
ow functions. The weak inuence of transversal nonuniformity of
undisturbed ow on its stability characteristics is explained by the
large spatial period of nonuniformity z0 as compared to the
characteristic period of the unstable disturbances b 1.
The relative extent of the ow nonuniformity shown in Fig. 29
does not exceed that considered in [72]. Therefore, based on results
of [72], an estimation of the inuence of volumetric force and heat
sources on the stability of the compressible boundary layer was
obtained in the framework of a numerical solution of the eigenvalue problem for the DunnLin equations [73] with the use of
span-averaged functions of undisturbed ow. Fig. 30 represents the
inuence of volumetric sources on the increments of spatial growth
of the stationary modes of the cross-ow-type disturbances in one
cross-section of a boundary layer at xed density of force impact
/FS2 N/m2 and variable heat release. The spanwise wave
number is represented in units of d 1, where d lRe 1/2,
183
Fig. 30. Increments of stationary modes of cross-ow-type instability Im a vs.

spanwise wave number b in the cross-section x/l 1. Indications are similar to
Fig. 29.
Re 3.2 105. A decrease of the energy efciency coefcient and,

hence, an increase of heat release in the range EZ5 10 3 s/m
results in about proportional growth of maximal cross-ow
velocity, according to Fig. 29. However, maximal values of increments of disturbances Im a increase slightly, according to Fig. 30.
Even when the cross-ow velocity at E2.5 10 3 s/m exceeds
this velocity in the boundary layer without impact the increments
remain remarkably smaller (see curves 5 in Figs. 29 and 30).
The results obtained are explained in the following way. A gas
heating inside a boundary layer exerts both negative and positive
inuence on cross-ow stability. Negative inuence, as it was
mentioned above, generates an increase of cross-ow velocity.
Positive inuence, in turn, generates a decrease of gas density and
an increase of dynamic viscosity. It may be treated as a decrease of
the local effective Reynolds numbers in the stability equations.
The smaller the effective Reynolds number, the smaller the
increments of unstable disturbances at given functions of undisturbed ow. In turn, the force action of volumetric sources at high
enough energy efciency permits to compensate the mentioned
negative inuence of gas heating. Thus, the energy efciency of
DBD-actuators is a very important characteristic critically inuencing the total effectiveness of the considered method of laminar
ow control on a swept wing.
Electric power per unit of a wing surface consumed by DBDactuators (reaching several kW/m2) seems to be too large since it is
comparable with the mechanical power required to overcome the
turbulent skin friction on a wing. However, DBD-actuators to delay
a laminarturbulent transition caused by cross-ow-type instability may cover only a few percent of the total wing surface.
Therefore, signicant savings in mechanical power may be
achieved due to laminarization of about half the wing surface
(approximately up to the point of static pressure minimum).
Subsequent renement of the considered LFC method demands
both theoretical and experimental optimization of plasma actuators with the aim of reaching maximal volumetric force per unit of a
wing surface at minimal power consumption.
9. Concluding remarks
In spite of 10 years of investigations and remarkable efforts of
many groups of researchers in various countries, the problem of
laminar ow control still remains very urgent from both theoretical
184
and practical points of view. Potential economical and ecological

benets stipulated by drag reduction of airplanes due to laminar
turbulent transition delay stimulate further investigations in this
eld. TsAGI made a remarkable contribution in the development of
LFC methods. Nevertheless, the most novel LFC methods offered at
TsAGI during the last few years and presented above are still far
from practical applications. More detailed theoretical as well as
experimental conrmations of the effectiveness of these methods
are necessary. Theoretical research based on modern numerical
methods and high-performance computers permit us to simulate
rather complex physical phenomena taking place in three-dimensional compressible boundary layers in the presence of different
articial impacts in wide ranges of governing parameters and to
estimate optimal values of these parameters. Besides, a theoretical
approach is less expensive compared to an experimental one.
However, the nal estimate of the effectiveness of any LFC method
can be given only by its experimental verication.
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Laminar Flow Control Research at TsAGI Past and Present

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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

Laminar ow control research at TsAGI: Past and present

Available online 26 January 2011

demonstrated the effectiveness of various methods of aircraft

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

is known as boundary layer receptivity). After amplication of

In the middle of 1960s the research on laminar ow control with

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

creation of wing congurations allowing provision of a natural

problems of application of systems of the hybrid laminar ow

application of local heating of a wing surface in the vicinity of

control of development of a boundary layer by excitation of

control of boundary layer receptivity,

application of near-surface electric discharges for laminar

2. Natural laminar ow concept investigations

Fig. 2. Laminar shape conguration designed by Alenia Aeronautica.

computer code developed by V.V. Kovalenko. This code is based on

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

Fig. 5. The correlation of N-factor distribution calculated at the middle-span section

The main objective of the work of TsAGI group of investigators

edge even more quickly (e.g. to x/c0.220.24 at eu 0.7%). In the case

3. Investigations of boundary layer suction systems use for

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

with boundary layer suction in the vicinity of the leading

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

Fig. 11. Turbulent boundary layer relaminarization as result of heating power

4. Laminarturbulent transition delay by local surface heating

carried out in the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

Fig.13. Scheme of the model and measuring equipment.

the region with negative pressure gradient leads to laminar

5. Boundary layer development control by excitation of

advantage of this method of boundary layer control is that its

6. Laminar ow control (LFC) in 3D boundary layer by

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

unstable disturbances. Concrete type of MEMS and the simple law

main part the amplitude of disturbances decreases more than 10

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

Fig. 18. Amplitude of disturbance: 1incoming disturbance without control, 2, 3,

At large enough local Mach numbers (approximately Me Z4 for

7. Laminar ow control (LFC) in high-speed boundary layer

Some researches devoted to gas ow control with the use of

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

were carried out in the 19601980s [4042]. The interest to

[51]. This model is based on numerical simulation of unipolar ion

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

The analysis of the results permits us to make the following

voltage V from 20 up to 30 kV is accompanied by occurrence of

8.2. Increase of boundary layer stability on a at plate owing to

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

to be um r0.1uN. Calculations [57] revealed that these requirements

Fig. 24. Dependences of increments oi on wave number a of disturbances in at

method of boundary layer acceleration in the streamwise direction

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

8.3. Attenuation of cross-ow-type instability in 3D compressible

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

volumetric force and heat release in DBD-actuators obtained

Fig. 28. Distributions of maximum of dimensionless cross-ow velocity for E N

S.L. Chernyshev et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 47 (2011) 169185

component u. The cross-ow velocity increases too, as is evident

Fig. 30. Increments of stationary modes of cross-ow-type instability Im a vs.

Re 3.2 105. A decrease of the energy efciency coefcient and,