GATE Discrete Mathematics & Graph Theory Book

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
&
GRAPH THEORY
For
Computer Science
&
Information Technology
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Syllabus
DMGT
Syllabus for
Discrete Mathematics & Graph Theory
Connectivity; spanning trees; Cut vertices & edges; covering; matching; independent
sets; Colouring; Planarity; Isomorphism.
Analysis of GATE Papers

(Discrete Mathematics & Graph Theory)
Year
Percentage of marks
2013
9.00
2012
10.00
2011
10.00
2010
7.00
2009
10.66
2008
18.00
2007
17.33
2006
16.67
2005
20.00
2004
19.33
2003
23.33
Overall Percentage
14.66 %
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Content
DMGT
CONTENTS
#1.
#2.
#3.
Chapter
Page No.
Mathematical Logic
1 - 24
1
1-4
5-7
7
8 - 16
17 - 18
19 - 20
21
21 - 24
Syntax
Propositional Logic
First order logic
Disjunction Normal Form
Solved Examples
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
Combinatorics
25 - 52
25
26 29
29 31
31 - 32
32 37
38 - 40
41 - 43
43 - 46
47
47 - 52
Introduction
Permutations
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Derangements
Recurrence Relations
Solved Examples
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
Sets and Relations
53 - 92
53 - 55
55 - 58
58 - 60
60 - 64
64 - 67
67 - 68
68 - 72
73 - 77
Sets
Venn Diagram
Poset
Binary Relation
Lattice
Functions
Groups
Solved Examples
Page i
Content
#4.
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
DMGT
78 - 81
81 - 85
86
86 - 92
Graph Theory
93 - 130
93 - 94
94 95
95 97
97 - 99
99 - 100
101
101 - 103
104
104 - 106
107
108 - 113
114 - 117
118 - 123
124
124 - 130
Introduction
Degree
The Handshaking Theorem
Some Special Graph
Cut vertices & Cut Edges
Euler Path & Euler Circuit
Hamiltonian Path & Circuits
Kuratowski Theorem
Four Colour Theorem
Rank & Nullity
Solved Examples
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
Module Test
131 - 143
Test Questions
131 - 137
Answer Keys
138
Explanations
138 - 143
Reference Books
144
Page ii
Chapter 1
DMGT
CHAPTER 1
Mathematical Logic
Logic is a formal language. It has syntax, semantics and a way of manipulating expressions in the
language.
Syntax
Set of rules that define the combination of symbols that are considered to be correctly
structured.
Semantics give meaning to legal expressions.

A language is used to describe about a set
Logic usually comes with a proof system which is a way of manipulating syntactic
expressions which will give you new syntactic expressions
The new syntactic expressions will have semantics which tell us new information about
sets.
In the next 2 topics we will discuss 2 forms of logic
1. Propositional logic
2. First order logic
Propositional Logic
Sentences are usually classified as declarative, exclamatory interrogative, or imperative

Proposition is a declarative sentence to which we can assign one and only one of the truth
values true or false and called as zeroth-order-logic.
Prepositions can be combined to yield new propositions
Assumptions about propositions

For every proposition p, either p is true or p is false
For every proposition p, it is not the case that p is both true and false.
Propositions may be connected by logical connective to form compound proposition. The
truth value of the compound proposition is uniquely determined by the truth values of
simple propositions.
An algebraic system ({F, T}, V, , -) where the definitions of components are.
-A tautology corresponds to the constant T and a contradiction corresponds to constant F.
The definitions of , V and are given below.
V F
F T
T T T
F F
T F T
T F
The negation of a propositions p can be represented by the algebraic expression p

The conjunction of two propositions p and q can be represented as an algebraic expression
pq
Page 1
Chapter 1
DMGT
Truth Table
pq
The disjunction of two propositions p and q can be represented as an algebraic expression

pVq
Compound propositions can be represented by a Boolean expression
The truth table of a compound proposition is exactly a tabular description of the value of the
corresponding Boolean expression for all possible combinations of the values of the atomic
propositions.
Example-1
I will go to the match either if there is no examination tomorrow or if there is an examination
tomorrow and the match is a championship tournament
Solution
p = there is an examination tomorrow
q = the match is a championship tournament
I will go the match if the position p V (p q)is true
A proposition obtained from the combination of other propositions is referred to as a

compound propositions.
Let p and q be two propositions, then define the propositions as p then q, denoted as
(pq) is (p implies q)
This is true, if both p and q are true or if p is false.
It is false if p is true and q is false specified as in the table
pq
Truth Table
Page 2
Chapter 1
DMGT
Example-2
The temperature exceeds 700C and The alarm will be sounded denoted as p and q
respectively.
If the temperature exceeds 700C then the alarm will be sounded = r i.e. it is true if the
alarm is sounded when the temperature exceeds 700C (p & q are true) and is false if the alarm
is not sounded when the, temperature exceeds 700C. (p is true & q is false).
p q is true if both p and q are true or If both p and q are false
It is false if p is true while q is false and if p is false while q is true.
If p and q are 2 propositions then p bi implication q is a compound proposition denoted by
Truth Table
Example-3
p = a new computer will be acquired
q = additional funding is available
Consider the proposition, A new computer will be acquired if and only if additional funding is
available = r.
r is true if a new computer is indeed acquired when additional funding is available (p
and q are true)
the proposition r is also true if no new computer is acquired when additional funding is
not available (p and q are false)
The r is false if a new computer acquired. Although no additional funding is available. (P is
true & q is false)
r is false if no new computer is acquired although additional funding is available (p is
false & q is true)
Two compound propositions are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth tables.
Replacement of an algebraic expressions involving the operations and by equivalent
algebraic expressions involves only the operations , V and
Equation
p
p q
~p
~p V q
pq=pvq
Similarly p q = (pq) V (~p ~q)
Page 3
Chapter 1
DMGT
Example-4
p q = (~p v q)
= ~ ~ (q) v ~p
= ~q ~ p
Given below are some of the equivalence propositions.
~(~( ))
~( ) ~ ~
~( ) ~ ~
~
(~ ) (~ ) ( ) (
) ( )( )
A propositional function is a function whose variables are propositions
A propositional function p is called tautology if the truth table of p contains all the entries
as true
A propositional function p is called contradiction if the truth table of p contains all the
entries as false
A propositional function p which is neither tautology nor contradiction is called

contingency.
A proposition p logically implies proposition q. If is a tautology.
Inference will be used to designate a set of premises accompanied by a suggested

conclusion.
(p p p
p )Q
Here each p is called premise and Q is called conclusion.
If (p p p
p ) Q is tautology then we say Q is logically derived from p p
p
i.e., from set of premises, otherwise it is called invalid inference.
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic

Inference rule
Tautology
Name
(p(pq)) q
Modus ponens (mode that affirms)
(q(pq))p
Modus tollens (mode that denies)
((pq) (qr)) (pr)
Hypothetical syllogism
((pq)(p))q
Disjunctive syllogism
p(p q)
Addition
(p q)p
Simplification
((p) (q)) (pq)
Conjunction
((p q) (pr) (qr)
Resolution
Page 4
Chapter 1
DMGT
First Order Logic

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Let A be a given set. A propositional function (or an open sentence or condition) defined on A
is an expression p(x) which has the property that p(a) is true or false for each a in A. That
is, p(x) becomes a statement (with a truth value) whenever any element a A is
substituted for the variable x.
The set A is called the domain of p(x), and the set Tp of all elements of A for which p(a) is
true is called the truth set of p(x).
Tp = {x | x A, p(x) is true} or Tp = {x | p(x)}.
Frequently, when A is some set of numbers, the condition p(x) has the form of an equation
or inequality involving the variable x.
The symbol which reads for all or for every is called the universal quantifier.
The expression (xA) p(x) or x p(x)is true if and only if p(x)is true for all x in A.
The symbol which reads there exists or for some or for at least one is called the
existential quantifier.
The expression (x A)p(x) or x, p(x) is true if and only if p(a) is true for at least one
element x in A.
Sentence
Abbreviated Meaning
x, F(x)
all true
x, F(x)
at least one true
~,x, F(x)]
none true
x, ,~F(x)-
all false
x, ,~F(x)-
at least one false
- (x,[~F(x)])
none false
~( x,,F(x)-)
not all true
~( x, ,~F(x)-)
not all false
all true
x, F(x)=~,x,~F(x)-
none false
all false
(x, ,~F(x)-+=*~, x, F(x)-)
none true
not all true
(~,x, F(x)-)=(x, ,~F(x))
at least one false
not all false
(~,x,~F(x)])= x, F(x)
at least one true
Statement
Negation
all true
x, F(x)
x, ,~F(x)-
at least one is false
at least one is false
x, ,~F(x)-
x, F(x)
all true
all false
x, ,~F(x)-
x, F(x)
at least one is true
at least one is true
x, F(x)
x, ,~F(x)-
all false
Page 5
Chapter 1
DMGT
We see that to form the negation of a statement involving one quantifier, we need to only change
the quantifier from universal to existential, or from existential to universal and negate the
statements which it quantifies.
Sentences with Multiple Quantifiers
In general if P (x, y) is any predicate involving the two variables x and y, then the following
possibilities exist
(x)(y)P (x,y)
(x)(y)P (x,y)
(x)(y) P (x,y)
(y)(x)P (x,y)
(y)(x)P (x,y)
Rules of Inference For Quantified Propositions
Universal Instantiation
If a statement of the form x, P(x) is assumed to be true then the universal quantifier can be
dropped to obtain that P(c) is true for any arbitrary object c in the universe. This rule may be
represented as
, ( )
P(C)
Universal Generalization
If a statement P(c) is true for each element c of the universe, then the universal quantifier may
be prefixed to obtain x, P(x), In symbols, this rule is
( )
, ( )
This rule holds provided we know P(c) is true for each element c in the universe.
Existential Instantiation
If x, P(x) is assumed to be true, then there is an element c in the universe such that P(c) is true
This rule takes the form.
, ( )
( )
Existential Generalization
If P(c) is true for some element c in the universe, then x, P(x) is true In symbols, we have
P(c)for some c
x, P(x)
Generally speaking, in order to draw conclusions from quantified premises, we need to remove
quantifiers properly, argue with the resulting propositions, and then properly prefix the correct
quantifiers.
Page 6

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Analysis of GATE Papers

Sets and Relations

Semantics give meaning to legal expressions.

Sentences are usually classified as declarative, exclamatory interrogative, or imperative

Assumptions about propositions

The negation of a propositions p can be represented by the algebraic expression p

The disjunction of two propositions p and q can be represented as an algebraic expression

A proposition obtained from the combination of other propositions is referred to as a

This is true, if both p and q are true or if p is false.

It is false if p is true and q is false specified as in the table

A propositional function is a function whose variables are propositions

A propositional function p which is neither tautology nor contradiction is called

A proposition p logically implies proposition q. If is a tautology.

Inference will be used to designate a set of premises accompanied by a suggested

Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic

Modus ponens (mode that affirms)

Modus tollens (mode that denies)

((pq) (qr)) (pr)

((p) (q)) (pq)

((p q) (pr) (qr)

First Order Logic

at least one true

at least one false

not all true

not all false

(x, ,~F(x)-+=*~, x, F(x)-)

not all true

(~,x, F(x)-)=(x, ,~F(x))

at least one false

not all false

at least one true

at least one is false

at least one is false

at least one is true

at least one is true

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