DESIGN OF STEAM

POWER CYCLE
BESTMAN, TOMPIRIMA
bt021
000635542
10/11/2014

University of Greenwich, School of Engineering, Medway campus, BEng H.

Mechanical Engineering

Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Design summary ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Objectives of the design ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Main component of a steam power cycle ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Increasing the efficiency in rankine cycle ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Energy Analysis for the Cycle ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Lowering the condenser pressure............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Superheating the steam to high temperature ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Increasing the boiler pressure .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assumption to consider............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Discussion ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reheat cycle ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Discussion on reheating cycle .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Regenerative Rankine cycle ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Regenerative cycle with open feed water heater...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Regenerative cycle of one open and one close feed-water heater of reheating cycle .......Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Closed feed-water heater.......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Open feed-water heater ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Advantage of a Regenerative cycle over a simple Rankine cycleError!
defined.
Disadvantage of a Regenerative cycle over a simple Rankine cycleError!
defined.

Bookmark
Bookmark

not
not

Conclusion ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Water cooled steam condenser................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Condenser cooling-water loop ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reference ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

INTRODUCTION
Steam power cycle that convert heat into work. The vapour cycle of the working fluid exists
in the vapour phase during one part of the cycle and the liquid phase during another part.
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapour power cycles because of its many
desirable characteristics, such as low cost, availability, and high enthalpy of vaporization.
This cycle is called the Rankine cycle because it is named after William John Macquom
Rankine, a Scottish polymath. The Rankine cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic concept
underpinning the steam engine. Around 90% of the steam power plants in the world use
Rankine cycle. Before the inception of Rankine cycle there was a cycle called Carnot cycle
for the purpose of thermodynamics. But the due to practical impossibility that Carnot cycle
could not use. Hence the Rankine cycle was introduced as a solution for that practical
problem. One of the main applications of steam power cycle is generated of electricity. Steam
power plants are categorised as coal plants, nuclear plant or natural gas plants, depending on
the type of fuel used to supply heat to the steam. However, the steam goes through the same
basic cycle in all of them. Power generation coupled with providing useful heating is called
co-generation. The continued search for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in some
innovation modification to the basic vapour power cycle like reheat and generative cycle, as
well as combined gas-vapour power cycles.
The basic principle used to design a steam power cycle is established to produce a minimum
efficiency of 40%. Moreover, the designing process in this assignment, different approach
has employed to maximize the efficiency. However increasing the efficiency may affect the
quality at the exhaust of the turbine which can create damage to the turbine. For an individual
to design a better a better and efficient system, the moisture content of the steam kept at less
than 10%.
At the initial stage the ideal Rankine cycle was taking into account to design the steam power
cycle, by reducing the condenser pressure, increasing the boiler pressure and superheating the
steam to high temperature while the efficiency has been able to increase by certain amount.
On the second attempt the ideal reheat Rankine cycle has been considered. As a result of
reheating the steam twice the efficiency and steam quality was improved.

DESIGN SUMMARY
A clear thermodynamic analysis was carried to determine the best efficient system of steam
power cycle that could possibly achieve a minimum of 40% efficiency. In this case study
different steam power structure has been considered, such as the ideal Rankine cycle; reheat
cycle and the regenerative cycle to design the basic required steam power cycle. During the
design process it is has been realised that the efficiency changes while the configuration of
the structure changes. Furthermore, the quality of the steam at the turbine exhaust has been
kept high to attain the long lasting turbine operating system. The functional condition such as
back work ratio and specific steam consumption has been placed into cognisance in designing
the process of the steam power cycle. By considering the analytical result achieved from the
calculating from the regenerative cycle with open, close feed-water and the reheat design has
been selected. Also was able to record the complete result.

OBJECTIVES OF THE DESIGN

Design of steam power cycle that can achieve a cycle efficiency of 40%
To identify the various cycle attempt to meet goal as well as positive and negative
aspect of the design of the steam power cycle
To investigate the steam condensers that is used in steam power plant.

Main component of a steam power cycle

The steam power cycle runs in Rankine cycle basically consist of
Boiler : Steam generator(Heat supplied)
Turbine : Steam expander(Produces work and drive the electric generator)
Condenser : Exchanges heat from low pressure steam to cooling water
Feed Pump: Pushes liquid water from low condenser pressure to high boiler pressure.
Simple ideal Rankine cycle
The Rankine cycle is a mathematical model that is used to predict the performance of a steam engines.
The Rankine cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle that converts heat into mechanical work. The
heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as a working fluid. The Rankine
cycle, in the form of steam engines generates about 90% of all electric power used throughout the
world. The simple Rankine cycle is a vapour-liquid cycle and it is necessary to present it on the T-S
diagram with reference to the saturated liquid and vapour lines.

The major four component related with Rankine cycle are the boiler, turbine, condenser and
the pump, and these devices are steady flow device; thus, are all the four process that made
up the Rankine cycle which analyses the steady flow processes. The two major source
(Kinetic and potential energy) changes the phase of the steam which normally have a direct
relationship with the work and heat transfer which could be neglected.

INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY IN RANKINE CYCLE

To increase the efficiency one should increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, and/ or decrease the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. Effort have been made to

improve the efficiency of the cycle on which steam power plant operates; but the basic idea
behind the modification of to increase the thermal efficiency of the power cycle operates on
same principle to achieve a maximum efficiency while maintaining the quality of the steam
which could exceed 90%
Energy Analysis for the Cycle
These are the four components of the Rankine cycle and they are steady-state steady-flow
devices. The potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The first law per unit mass
of steam can be written as:

Pump

q=0

Boiler

W=0

Turbine

q=0

Condenser

W=0

Wpump,in = h2 h1
qin = h3 h2
Wturbine,out = h3 h4
qout = h4 h1

Lowering the condenser pressure

Lowering the condenser pressure will automatically increase the area enclosed by the cycle
on a T-S diagram which indicates that the network will as well increase. Thus the thermal
efficiency of the cycle will be increased. In taking advantage of the increased efficiencies at
low pressures, the condensers of the steam power plants usually operate below the
atmospheric pressure; And does not present a major problem since the vapour power cycles
operates in a close loop. It also has a lower limit on the condenser that can be used which
cannot be lower than the saturation pressure which corresponds to the temperature of the
cooling medium.

Superheating the steam to high temperature

In this context, superheating the steam will increase the network output and the efficiency of
the cycle. It also reduces the moisture contents of the steam at the turbine exit. The
temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical consideration
(approx. 620oC). Any increase in this value depends on improving the present materials of the
blade or finding new ones that can withstand higher temperatures. Ceramics as a material are
capable in this regard

Increasing the boiler pressure

Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler leads to an increase in the temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam and thus raises the efficiency of the cycle. We have to
take account that for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the

moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit increases. This undesirable effect can be
corrected by reheating the steam.

The operating pressure of boiler have progressively increased over these period of time to
30MPa, producing enough steam to produce a net power output of 1000MW or more in a
larger power plant. Furthermore, in this task it has been used lesser pressure to achieve over
40% efficiency while conserving the moisture content lower than 10%. Could also vary the
temperature and pressure parameters at the condenser and boiler to ascertain different
operating limits

Considering the above calculation, a high efficiency has been found by using 12kpa at
condenser pressure and 200bar at boiler pressure; and the temperature is 600oC. The quality
of the steam has gone below the tolerance. Furthermore, the problem one is facing is all about
the excessive moisture at the exhaust of the turbine. This will be discussed in the next
solution which was design to improve the efficiency and the quality of the steam. This
calculations shows how the efficiency of 44.4% could be achieved
Assumption to consider

 Every part of the cycle is investigated as a control volume at a constant steady state
Working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, the high pressure liquid enters a
boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a
dry saturated vapour
The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure
to become a saturated liquid, while the kinetic and the potential energy could be
neglected
State 1
P1 =0.12bar
At 0.12bar = 0.12 x 100 = 12kpa, h1 = hf = 206.9kj/kg
v1 = vf = 0.001012m3/kg and vg = 12.36 m3/kg

State 2
Wpump,in =

= 23.8kj/kg

h2 = h1 + Wpump, in = 230.7kj/kg

State 3
P3 = 200bar

h3 = 3701.7kj/kg

T3 = 600oC

s3 = 8.2695kj/kg3

State 4
P4 = 0.12bar,

hf = 206.9kj/kg
hfg = 2384.2kj/kg
sf = 0.696kj/kg. K
sfg = 7.390kj/kg. K

s3 = s4 = 6.505
Therefore,

s4 = sf + x4sfg

Thus,
T =
Qin = h3 h2 =

3701.7 230.7 = 3471 kj/kg

Qout = h4a h1 = 2161.15 206.9 = 1954.25kj/kg

=
SSC =
BWR =

Discussion
In this context it is necessary to place the condenser pressure to 12bar and as well the boiler
pressure to 200bar; the efficiency have drastically increased to 44.4%. Moreover the system
is faced with high moisture content at the turbine exit. To provide solution to the problem, the
steam could be superheated to a very high temperature before it enters the turbine. If continue
to increase the temperature, it mean introducing more problem that could cause more damage
to the system if the material used to build the component cannot withstand that amount of
temperature. By taking this into cognisance, the whole system could be modify by increasing
the steam in the turbine in two stages and reheat it in between by integrating a single reheat in
our current day power plant and it also increase the efficiency.

REHEAT CYCLE
The reheat cycle is often used to prevent liquid droplet formation. The first turbine accepts
vapour from the boiler at high pressure. After the vapour has passed through the first turbine,
it re-enters the boiler and reheated before passing a second, lower pressure turbine. Among
other advantage, this prevents the vapour from condensing during its expansion which can
seriously damage the turbine blades. The reheat does not significantly influence the thermal
efficiency of the cycle, but it does increase the work output.

10

A schematic diagram of Reheat cycle

T-S Process diagram of reheat cycle

Assumption

Components in the cycle will be investigated under a control volume at steady state.
The working fluid in the processes are reversible
The condensed liquid exits the condenser as a saturated liquid
The pump and the turbine both have adiabatic function
The two forms of energy(kinetic and potential energy) are always negligible

State 1

h1 = 0.12bar
11

hf = 206.9kj/kg
vf = 0.00101m3/kg

State 2
Wpa =

h2a = h1 + wpa, h2a = 206.9 + 23.75 = 230.65kj/kg

State 3
P3 = 200bar, h3 = 3537kj/kg
T3 = 600oC

S3 = 6.505kj/kg. K

State 4

P4 = 50bar,

h4s = 3134kj/kg

T4 = 375oC

S3 = S4 = 6.505kj/kg

T =

, T (h3 h4s) = h3 h4a

h4a = h3 - T (h3 h4s)

h4a = h3 0.95 (h3 h4s)
h4a = 3537 0.95(3537 3134)
h4a = 3154.2kj/kg

State 5
P5 = 50bar,

h5 = 3702kj/kg

T5 = 600oC

S5 = S6 = 7.258kj/kg .K

State 6
P1 = 0.12bar
s5 = s6 = 8.35kj/kg.K

12

s6 = sf + xSfg, s6 sf = xSfg
x=

= 88.81%

Change of enthalpy:

h6s = hf + xhfg = 206.9 + 0.88807(2383)

h6s = 2323.2kj/kg
hf = 206.9kj/kg
hfg = 2383kj/kg
sfg = 7.389kj/kg
h6a = h5 - 0.95(h5 - h6a) = 3702 - 0.95(3702 - 2675.4)
h6a = 2726.7kj/kg

From the value gotten from state 6, the turbine work is the sum of high pressure turbine and
low pressure turbine.
h1 = 206.9kj/kg
h2a = 230.65kj/kg
h3 = 3537kj/kg
h4a = 3154.2kj/kg
h5 = 3702kj/kg
h6a = 2726.7kj/kg
WT = WHP + WLP = (h3 h4a) + (h5 h6a)
WT = (3537 - 3154) + (3702 2726.7)
WT = 1358.3kj/kg
WP = (h2a h1) = 230.65 206.9 = 23.75kj/kg
Wnet = WT WP = 1358.3 23.75 = 1334.6kj.kg
Qin = (h3 h2) + (h5 h4) = (3537 230.65) + (3702 3154.5) = 3853.9
Qout = (h3 h4) + (h5 h6) = (3537 3154.2) + (3702 2726.7) = 1358.1
SSC =

= 2.697kj/KW.h

13

= 0.0174

BWR =
=

0.346 = 34.6%

Discussion on reheating cycle

The challenge encountered from the previous system has been resolved but still realised that
the moisture content at the exit of the turbine has increased by 10.1%, considering the same
temperature and pressure limit without reheating the process. Moreover, the efficiency of the
system has drastically dropped from 44.4% to 34.6%. Therefore, the efficiency decrease
might seem small but it will still affect the turbine

Regenerative Rankine cycle

Regenerative process in steam power plant proficient by extracting steam from the turbine at
various stages and use that steam to feed the heat exchanger, where the feed-water is heated.
And the heat exchangers serves as regenerator of feed-water heater (FWH), this also help in
removal of air leaks in the condenser. In this context we could we could consider FWHs in
two forms, which is open and close.

Regenerative cycle with open feed water heater

In this system, it is apparently a mixing chamber where the steam extracted from the turbine
mixes with the feed water exiting the pump. Then the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated
liquid at the heater pressure. Ideal regenerative Rankine cycle has an open feed water heater
and the process cycle is shown. In this cycle the steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure
and expands partially in the turbine to an intermediate pressure. While some steamy at this
state is extracted and routed to feed water heater. The remaining (1-Y) kg of the steam
expands completely to the condenser pressure. Therefore the mass flow rate is different in
different components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m, it will be (1 Y)
through the condenser. The heat and work interactions for this cycle per unit mass of the
steam flowing through the boiler are as follows: The advantages of open heater are
simplicity, lower cost, and high heat transfer capacity. The disadvantage is the necessity of a
pump at each heater to handle the large feed-water stream
qin = h5 h4

14

qout = (1 - Y) (h7 h1 )
Wtub,out = (h5 h0) + (1 - Y) (h0 h2)
Wpump, in = (1 - Y) wpump,I in + wpump,II in

Regenerative cycle with open feed water

T S diagram with open FWH

15

To carry out a clear study on this step of the assignment, we must determine the mass flow rate on
each of the component.
6 + 7 = 5, In order to stabilise the equation with regards to the mass flow rate by dividing
through by 5.
Flow-rate at point shows that,
6/5 = y and 7/5 = 1 y
Without heat loss at FWH, let us carry out a balance of the energy across the FWH;
yh6 + (1 - y) h2 = 1h3
y=

When,
P1 = 0.12bar
P2 = 50bar
P3 = 200bar
State 1
h1 = hf = 206.9kj/kg
v1 = vf = 0.001012m3/kg

State 2
Wpump,in =

= 5.93kj/kg

h2a = h1 + Wpump,in = 206.9 + 5.93 = 212.83kj/kg

State 3
P3 = 50bar, h3 = hf = 1154.5kj/kg
Saturated liquid
V = 0.001012m3/kg

State 4
P4 = 200bar
Wpump,in =

=
16

h4a = h3 + Wpump,in = 1154.5 + 17.86 = 1172.4kj/kg

State 5
P5 = 200bar,

h5 = 3539kj/kg

T5 = 600oC

s5 = 6.507kj/kg.K

State 6
P6 = 50bar,
s6 = s5 = 6.507kj/kg.K
By interpolating the temperature between 350 degrees and 400 degrees:

Therefore,

,=

7.05

78 - 0.195T

358. 3

17

5254.2 = 50 (3196 -

) = 5254.2 = 159800 - 50

Kj/kg

h6a = h5 0.95(h5 h6s) = 3539 0.95(3539 3091) = 3113.4kj/kg

The steam fraction extracted from the turbine is:

y=

0.323

WHP = h5 h6 = 3539 3126.7 = 412.3

WLP = (1 -y) (h6a h7s) = (1 0.323) (3113.4 2081) = 698.9kj/kg
Turbine work = (h5 - h6a) + (1 - y) (6a h7a) = (3539- 3126.7) + (1- 0.323) (3126.7- 2153.9)
=1070.9

State 7

P7 = 0.12bar, hf = 206.9, hfg = 2384.2kj/kg, Sf = 0.696kj/kg.K, Sfg = 7.390kj/kg.K

S5 = S6 = S7 =

6.507kj/kg

x=

==

= 0.786 = 78.63%

h7s = hf + xhfg = 206.9 + 0.78633(2384.2) = 2081kj/kg

18

h7a = h5 - 0.959 (h5 - h7s) = 3539 0.95(3539 2081) = 2153.9kj/kg

Qin = h5 h4 = 3539 1172.4 = 2366.6
Qout = (1 y) (2153.9 206.9) = 1318.1

=1=
Ssc =

=
=

BWR =

=
0.0205

Regenerative cycle of one open and one close feed-water heater of reheating cycle
There is a drastic increase in the efficiency compare to the reheat cycle of the regenerative
with one open and one close feed water heating system. Steam power plant normally operates
on an ideal reheat-regenerative Rankine cycle with one open feed-water heater, one closed
feed-water heater, and one reheater. The stream fractions extracted from the turbines and the
thermal efficiency of the cycle are to be determined.
Assumptions:
All components in the reheat Reg cycle operate at steady state.
Both Kinetic and potential energy changes and are negligible.
Both the pump and the turbine are adiabatic
Formation of condensate leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid

Schematic of steam power plant

19

T-s diagram of the steam power plant

Considering this process, we have to determine the fraction of steam extracted from the
turbines. And the enthalpies at various states and the pump work per unit mass of fluid
flowing through them can be determined by using the water tables.
State1
= 10 kPa, h1 = 191.83 kJ/kg

= 0.00101 m3/kg

State 2
= 1 MPa (given)
Wpump ,in = v1 (P2 - P1) = 0.00101(1000 - 10) = 1.0 kJ/kg
= + wpump,in = 192.829 kJ/kg
State 3
= 1 MPa,

h3 = 762.81 kJ/kg

= 0.00113 m3/kg

State 4

= 16 MPa
wpump, in = v3 (P4 - P3) = 0.001010 (16,000 - 1,000) = 16.9 kJ/kg
= + wpump, in = 762.81+ 16.9 = 779.71 kJ/kg
State 5

= 16 MPa, h5 = 1650.1 kJ/kg

State 6

20

= 16 MPa, h6 = 3569.8 kJ/kg, s6= 6.6988 kJ/kg.K

= 600oC
State 7
P7 = 5 MPa, h7 = 3222.4 kJ/kg,

= 6.6988 kJ/kg.K

State 8
P8 = 5 MPa, h8 = 3,665.6 kJ/kg, s8= 7.2731 kJ/kg.K
= 600oC (given)

State 9
P9 = 1 MPa,
h9 = 3138.1 kJ/kg
= = 7.2731 kJ/kg.K
State 10
P10 = 10 kPa,

= 7.2731 kJ/kg.K

= sf + x8sfg
= (s8 - sf) /sfg
=

= 88.3%
=

h10 = 191.81 + 0.8332 * 2329.1 = 2248.9kj/kg

State 11
P11 = 5 MPa,

= 1154.2 kJ/kg

State 12
=

= 1154.2 kJ/kg

Closed feed-water heater

y (h7 - h11) = 1(h5 - h4), y(3222.4 -1154.2) = (1650.1 - 779.71)

y=

21

Open feed-water heater

(1) h3 = (z)h9 + (1 - y - z)h2 + (y)h12

where z is the steam the quality of steam extracted from the turbine.
762.8 = z (3138) + (1 0.421 - z) 192.8 + 0.421(1154.2)
762.8 = 3138z + (0.579 z) 192.8 + 485.9
762.8 597.5 = 2945.3z
165.3 = 2945.3z
z = 0.056kj/kg
We have to determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle by considering the power output
from the high-pressure and low-pressure turbine for 1 kg of mass flowing through the boiler
is,
wturb,out = 0.95(1)(h6 - h7) + (1 - y)(h8 - h9) + (1 -y - z )(h9 - h10)
= 0.95( 3569.8 - 3222.4)+(1 -0.42)(3665.6 - 3138.1)+(1 - 0.42 - 0.056)(3138.1 2304.7)
= 2189.5kJ/kg
wpump,in = (1 - y -z) 1 + 16.9
= (1 -0.421 0.056) + 16.9
= 17.423 kJ/kg

Total network output from 1kg mass of water (H2O) passing through the boiler is
wnet, out = wturb, out - wpump, in = 1090 - 17.423 = 1072.577 kj/kg
The maximum heat input of the cycle is equal to the sum of the heat input in the boiler and as
well the heat input from the reheater.
Qin = (1) (h6 - h5) + (1 - y) (h8 - h7)
= (3569.8 - 1650) + (1 - 0.42)(3666 - 3222.44)
= 2177 kj/kg
Qout = 1 y z (h12 h1) = 1
The thermal efficiency is =

0.056 (1154.2 206. 9) = -52.5

49.3%

Total efficiency of the cycle is 49% and the quality of steam at the turbine outlet increased to
88.3%.

22

Advantage of a Regenerative cycle over a simple Rankine cycle

The boiler heating process is reversible

The boiler is minimised due to the thermal stress exerted on it based on temperature
range
Thermal efficiency is improved due to the average temperature of adiabatic nature of
the cycle increment.
There is heat reduction
The turbine drainage line is improved due to the extraction.
The condenser needs a small size

Disadvantage of a Regenerative cycle over a simple Rankine cycle

High maintenance is required due to addition of heaters
Gain in thermal efficiency is not much because of the cost of heaters
The power is determine based on the capacity of boiler.
Conclusion
The efficiency has been achieved to 44.4%. Moreover the moister content at turbine was very
high. In taking advantage of the efficiency value gotten, a reheat cycle was introduced to
improve the moister content at the exit but at that level the efficiency dropped,. Finally the
regenerative Ranking cycle with open and combined feed water heater system was also
considered to design the best possible efficiency and better operating condition. The
advantage or regenerative cycle over weight to Rankine cycle average efficiency of 49% and
specific steam consumption rate has been accomplished.
Water cooled steam condenser
Water cooled steam condensers are the most common types of technology applied to steam
turbine condensing system. Condensers are generally called water cooled, as mentioned
previously, and are of the shell and tube type. Condensers are used in power plants to
condense exhaust steam from turbines. They are also used in refrigeration plants to condense
refrigeration vapours such as ammonia or fluorinated hydrocarbons, and in the petroleum and
chemical industries to condense a variety of chemical vapours. The air cooled condensing
unit shown below is a chilling system used for ice and curling rinks. Water cooled steam

23

condenser are normally used for larger application in commercial building. Design types
include shell and tube, shell and coil, and tube-in-tube water cooled steam condensers to
achieve the required heat exchange, Pipe-in-pipe", sometimes called the double pipe or
coaxial capacitor. Its name reflects its design. One tube is placed in a big pipe, and the ends
of large tubes are sealed. Water circulates through one of the tubes, while the refrigerant
passes through the other and the selection of condenser is dependent upon the manufacturers
because it has three main features which includes flawless finishing, optimum strength and
very easy to use in the industrial application

Condenser cooling-water loop

The cooling loop, in which water passes through tubes in the condenser removing heat from
the condensing steam, is an important water path in large steam plants. This cooling water,
clearly separate from the working fluid, is usually discharged into a nearby body of water (a
river, or a natural or man-made lake)
Design and selection criteria
The temperature of hot water entering the tower and cold water leaving the tower
should be known
Condenser water depends on many factors such that the process that is cold and
optimization of the pumping system
The process lines should be air tight in order to avoid leakage of gas or steam cloud in
the process area
Limitation
The rate at which air enters the condenser should be control to avoid excess freezing
Always drain the cold water if it not useful during the operation.

24

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