Margaret Armstrong

Basic Linear
Geostatistics
With 59 Figures

Springer

Table of Contents

1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.4
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.7

Introduction
Summary
Introduction
Applications of geostatistics in mining
Estimating the total reserves
Error estimates
Optimal sample (or drillhole) spacing
Estimating block reserves
Gridding and contour mapping
Simulating a deposit to evaluate a proposed mine plan
Estimating the recovery
The $64 question: does geostatistics work?
Introductory exercise
Selective mining
Optimal recovery
Information effect
Support effect
Does geostatistics work in the real world?
Early coal case studies
Gold case studies
More recent case studies
Exercises

1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
10
11
12
12

2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Regionalized Variables
Summary
i
Modelling regionalized variables
Random functions
Stationary and intrinsic hypotheses
How to decide whether a variable is stationary
Spatial covariance function
Exercises

15
15
15
16
18
20
21
23

.-.-!.'

viii Table of Contents

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.10.1
3.11
3.12
3.12.1
3.12.2
3.12.3
3.12.4
3.12.5
3.12.6
3.12.7
3.12.8
3.12.9
3.12.10
3.13
3.14

The Variogram
Summary
Definition of the variogram
Range and zone of influence
Behaviour near the origin
Anisotropies
Geometric anisotropy
Zonal (or stratified) anisotropy
Presence of a drift
Nested structures
Proportional effect
Hole effects and periodicity
Models for variograms
Variance of admissible linear combinations
Admissible models
Common variogram models
Nugget effect
Spherical model
Exponential model
Power functions
Gaussian model
Cubic model
2D hole effect model
Cardinal sine model
Prismato-magnetic model
Prismato-gravimetric model
Simulated images obtained using different variograms
Exercises

25
25
25
26
27
28
28
30
30
31
31
32
32
32
35
36
36
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
40

4
Experimental Variograms
4.1
Summary
4.2
How to calculate experimental variograms
4.3
In the plane
4.4
In three dimensions
4.5
Example 1: regular ID data
4.6
Example 2: calculating experimental variograms in 2D
4.7 , Variogram cloud
4.8
Fitting a variogram model
4.9
Troublesome variograms
4.9.1
Outliers
4.9.2
Pseudo-periodic hiccups
4.9.3
Artefacts
4.10
Exercises

47
47
47
48
48
48
50
52
53
54
54
55
56
57

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ix

5
5.1
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.3
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.5
5.6

Structural Analysis
Summary
Steps in a case study
Step 1: Collect and check data
The decisions to be made
Standard statistics
Case studies
An iron ore deposit
Vertical variogram
Variogram cloud
Fitting a model to the vertical variogram
Horizontal variograms
3D variogram model
Second case study: an archaean gold deposit (M. Harley)
Third case study: a Witwatersrand gold deposit (M. Thurston) . .

59
59
59
60
60
62
63
63
64
65
65
66
66
68
70

6
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.7
6.8
6.8.1
6.9

Dispersion as a Function of Block Size

Summary
The support of a regionalized variable
Dispersion versus block size
Variance of a point within a volume
Variance of v within V
Krige's additivity relation
Exercise: stockpiles to homogenize coal production
Solution
Change of support: regularization
Exercise: calculating regularized variograms
Solution
Exercises

73
73
73
74
76
76
77
78
78
79
79
80
81

7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.7.1
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13

The Theory of Kriging

Summary
The purpose of kriging
Deriving the kriging equations
Different kriging estimators
y
Ordinary kriging
The OK equations for intrinsic regionalized variables
Exercise: Ordinary kriging of a block
Solution
Kriging the value of the mean
Simple kriging
The additivity theorem
Slope of the linear regression
Kriging is an exact interpolator
Geometric exercise showing the minimization procedure

83
83
83
84
85
86
89
90
90
92
93
94
96
97
98

Table of Contents

7.13.1
7.14

Quadratic form to be minimized

Exercises

99
101

103
103
103
104
107
107
108
109
112
114

8.8

Practical Aspects of Kriging

Summary
Introduction
Negative weights
How the choice of the variogram model affects kriging
Similar looking variograms
The effect of the choice of the nugget effect
Screen effect
Symmetry in the equations
Testing the quality of a kriging configuration
Example: Adding extra samples improves the quality of the
estimate
Cross-validation

9
9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.6
9.6.1

Case Study using Kriging

Summary
Iron ore deposit
Grid size for kriging
Point kriging using a large neighbourhood
Block kriging using a large neighbourhood
Point kriging using smaller neighbourhoods
What is causing the ugly concentration of lines?
How to eliminate these concentrations of contour lines
Kriging small blocks from a sparse grid
What size blocks can be kriged?

117
117
117
118
118
118
121
121
123
124
126

10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.5.1
10.5.2
10.6
10.7
10.7.1
10.7.2
10.8

Estimating the Total Reserves

Summary
Can kriging be used to estimate global reserves?
Extension variance
tf
Relationship to the dispersion variance
Area known to be mineralized
Direct composition of terms
Composition by line and slice terms
When the limits of the orebody are not known a priori
Optimal sampling grids
For thelkm grid
Forthe 500m grid
Exercises

127
127
127
128
130
130
130
132
134
136
137
137
138

8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.4.1
8.^.2
>8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7.1

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115

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xi

Appendix 1: Review of Basic Maths Concepts

Al
What maths skills are required in linear geostatistics
Al.l
Means and variances
A1.2
Single and double summations
A1.3
Exercises using summations

141
141
141
142
143

Appendix 2: Due Diligence and its Implications

A2.1
Stricter controls on ore evaluation
A2.2
Due diligence
A2.3
The logbook

145
145
145
145

References

147

Index

151

Author Index

154