Chartwork

Skill Development Course
Chartwork and
Position Fixing
Instructor Manual
Chartwork and Position Fixing Instructor Manual
Contents
Course Arrangements
Course Introduction
Chart Basics
Measurement Basics
17
Tides
25
Position Fixing Methods
36
Finding Dive Sites
47
Voyage Planning
55
Open Forum
69
Chart Exercises
71
Position Fixing Dry Practical
72
Voyage Planning Exercise
74
Practical Navigation Afloat
77
Appendix A Tailoring the course
81
Appendix B Estimating distance
84
Appendix C Tide differences
85
Appendix D Chart for offsetting tide against course
86
Appendix E Magnetic variation
87
Appendix F Model voyage plan
90
Appendix G Further reading
91
Issue 1.2, February 2010

Copyright British Sub-Aqua Club 2010
Published in the United Kingdom
British Sub-Aqua Club, Telfords Quay, South Pier Road, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire CH65 4FL
Telephone: 0151-350 6200 Fax: 0151-350 6215
www.bsac.com
All rights reserved. This Instructor Manual may not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, reproduced or
translated, or converted into any electronic or readable form without prior written consent of British Sub Aqua
Club
V1.2 Copyright BSAC 2010
BSAC is grateful to the members who contributed to the development of this course, its supporting materials, and
the previous versions it has been developed from. In particular:
David George
Tim Moxey
Mark Murphy
Richard Scarsbrook
Where illustrations have been sourced from the internet or from photographers who have requested attribution,
the acknowledgement and the licensing arrangement where applicable is shown on the Notes page of the relevant
Powerpoint slide
The chart extracts used in this manual and the accompanying visual aids are NOT TO BE USED FOR NAVIGATION.
Crown Copyright and/or database rights. Reproduced by permission of the Controller of Her Majestys
Stationery Office and the UK Hydrographic Office (www.ukho.gov.uk).
The extract from Chart 2693 also appears by permission of Trinity House.
ii
Course Aim
To instruct members in the basic techniques of
marine navigation and dive site location to a level
which will help them as active divers in planning
and managing dives undertaken by a typical BSAC
branch.
Course Arrangements
Session
Introduction
Course Overview
This is a practical course which has the students
using charts and chartwork instruments right from
the start. It culminates in a day at sea, navigating to
two dive sites and locating them by echo sounder,
directed by a voyage plan built up gradually over
the first day. The first part of the course teaches
the basics of charts, measurement and tides,
interspersed with exercises. This is followed by
position fixing techniques and a session on the
specific problems involved in locating dive sites. The
last part of day one looks at how all the techniques
are brought together to create a voyage plan.
The focus of the course is developing practical
navigation skills, not boat handling or dive
management, which are covered thoroughly on
other BSAC courses. The course is aimed primarily
at daylight navigation, and makes extensive use
of GPS and echo sounders. On the practical day
students receive coaching in the mental approach
that good navigators employ in addition to mastery
of specific techniques.
Because the course uses actual data from official
nautical reference materials to plan and execute
navigational exercises at sea, it requires a small
amount of tailoring of the visual aids and class
exercises to make them specific to the local area
where the practical navigation afloat is to be
run. Full instructions for tailoring are included in
Appendix A of this manual.
Chart Basics
Chart
Exercises
Measurement
Basics
Tides
Contents
Day 1
Assemble,
introductions,
administration
Chart availability,
major brands paper
and digital, Admiralty,
updates available from
website; scale; general
layout; colours - land,
intertidal, submerged;
chart symbols - depths
(spot, drying, isobath),
wrecks, rocks etc,
nature of seabed,
buoys and lights,
buoyage, landmarks;
lat/long - what it is,
how to write it down,
how to determine lat/
long of a point on
chart;
Exercises
Terminology; bearings,
variation, compass
rose, measuring
at sea; drawing on
charts, measuring
angles, reciprocals,
measuring distance;
speed distance &
time, calculations and
tables; measuring with
GPS; water v ground
track
Exercises
Tidal terminology;
cause of tides; springs
and neaps; tide
tables; tidal range;
calculating depth of
water; rule of twelfths;
tidal diamonds, tidal
stream atlas, local
effects, calculating
slack water; chart
symbols - tides and
currents; implications
for launch/recovery,
diving, navigation
Mins
15
60
30
60
60
Exercises
Course Arrangements
Position Fixing
Methods
Position Fixing
Dry Practical
Finding Dive
Sites
Voyage
Planning
Voyage
Planning
Exercise
Day 2
Practical
Navigation
Afloat
Open Forum
Duration
2 days.
2
Simple fix; position

lines compass
bearing, transits, uses
of position lines clearing lines, leading
lines, fix; position fix;
visual fix accuracy;
GPS; GPS limitations,
geodetic datum; other
methods - depth
sounding, radar.
Take transits. Exchange
with other groups and
use to relocate hidden
objects. Outdoors.
Accuracy v precision;
problems with
positions, types of
error/inaccuracy;
dive site information
needed for searches,
echo sounder basics,
approaching the dive
site; search patterns,
pros and cons
Waypoints, waypoint
navigation, using GPS;
choosing waypoints;
techniques - aiming
off, attack points,
buoy hopping, straight
to GPS; preparing
the voyage plan,
planning process,
documentation;
allowing for tide;
practical navigation;
charter boats;
navigation Zen; model
voyage plan
Work in groups to build
up complete voyage
plan to be used on Day
2
30
Entry Level
BSAC member.
45
Previous experience is not essential, but it will

enhance students' experience of the course if they
have experience of diving from boats, and if they
are able to drive proficiently the type of boats used
on the course.
Qualifications Awarded
30
Qualification card confirming course attendance,

supplied by BSAC HQ on payment of fees and
confirmation of attendance on the course. There
are no examinations or assessments.
Course Registration
Branches wishing to run a Skill Development Course
must order the packs two weeks in advance from
the BSAC Shop and pay the relevant course pack/
registration fees for all students on the course.
This can be done online via the BSAC website, by
telephone, or by post.
45
Instructor Requirements
Qualifications
75
7h30'
6h45'
Course debriefing;
issue documentation;
disperse
Classroom lessons may be split over a number of

(evening class) sessions if required. This approach
allows time for additional exercises to be set, which
some students may find helpful. It would also be
possible to split the practical day into two sessions.
A Voyage planning exercise should immediately
precede every practical session afloat.
15
Each instructor should be a BSAC Open Water

Instructor or above, with practical experience
of navigating dive boats. All instructors should
be familiar with the entire contents of the
course, and should be capable of performing
all elements of the practical exercises
competently and confidently at the chosen
location. Knowledge of the content of previous
versions of CPF alone is not sufficient.
If necessary, instructors should rehearse the
practical skills with other instructors at the
location chosen for the practical day before
teaching/supervising other students.
Each boat should be manned by a person
suitably qualified to take charge of it (see
Equipment, below) and with a thorough
knowledge of how to operate the electronic
navigation aids. Normally this should be the
instructor.

Student:Instructor ratio
The maximum recommended ratio is four
students to each instructor for all parts of
the course. One lecturer may address any
number of students in the theory lessons, but
additional instructors should be on hand to
assist with any exercises.
For the at sea exercises it is preferable to
have two instructors in the boat because the
physical layout of most RIBs makes it difficult
to instruct more than two students at a time
whilst the boat is making way. While one
student is carrying out an exercise, with a
second student observing if appropriate, the
second instructor can coach the others.
Equipment
Up-to-date charts of the area to be used during
the practical lessons, plus dive guides, almanacs,
tide tables, reference books as appropriate, and
chartwork instruments. Students should work
from full colour versions of charts and similar
navigational publications. Internet access for
planning sessions if possible. Specific requirements
are shown under Additional visual aids at the start
of the notes for each lesson.
Boats fitted with a GPS, echo sounder and steering
compass for practical lessons - one boat for each
group of four students and instructor. Any type of
dive boat may be used, including large charter
boats driven by a professional skipper. However, to
ensure that students get sufficient attention and
hands-on experience, there should not be more
than four students per boat unless the duration of
the course is extended accordingly.
Course Arrangements
they were dive sites. Inland sites will not normally

make suitable venues for this course because they
lack tides. Refer to Appendix A of this manual for
full instructions on tailoring the course to local
conditions.
Administration
HQ will supply the appropriate course packs and a
Course Report form, on receipt of an order. After the
course the organiser should return the completed
form without delay to BSAC HQ, who will issue
qualification cards to students and record their
course attendance on the membership database.
For regionally run courses: on completion of the
course, instructors should forward outstanding
fees, accounts and expense claims etc, to the
course organiser (some Regions may operate
different procedures).
Costs
BSAC course fees cover the cost of course packs
and certification cards. Fees must be paid to HQ at
the time of ordering, in order to register and obtain
student packs.
For branch run courses, instructor expenses,
launching fees, boat fuel, boat hire, and any other
costs are the responsibility of the students and
their organisers.
For regionally run courses, students must pay
the appropriate regional course fee to the Skill
Development Course Organiser at time of booking.
Club and private boats used on this course

should be operated in accordance with BSAC
Safe Diving and any other applicable BSAC or
BSAC-recommended guidelines. Check the BSAC
website for the latest information.
Charter boats should be operating under the
appropriate MCA Codes of Practice.
Venue Facilities
Adequate classroom facilities with a suitable table
to lay out charts for each pair of students. Spacious
outdoor area for position fixing exercises.
Coastal site with boat access to an area suitable
for the practical activities. Preferably the area
should contain known dive sites, but if not it
should contain underwater features which can
be navigated to and located by echo sounder as if
Theory Lessons
introduction
Lesson Objectives
This lesson sets the scene for the course overall. It briefly outlines the course content,
domestic/logistics and timetable.
Achievement Targets
At the end of this lesson students should:
understand the objectives and structure of the course
understand what is required of them during the course
understand the domestic and logistical arrangements for the course
understand the course timetable
Additional visual aids

On courses where the instructors and students do not know one another, it may be
useful to insert an extra VA introducing each instructor.
Paper copies of blank voyage plan forms CPF09 VPslate v1.2.doc (or later version)
Introduction
Chartwork and Position Fixing
Introductions
Introduce the instructors, and get the students to introduce themselves. Introductions
can be minimised or omitted on courses where the participants already know one
another.
Ask the students to describe any previous experience of navigation and boat
handling.
Course aims
The aims of the course are to instruct members in the basic techniques of marine
navigation and dive site location to a level which will help them as active divers in
planning and managing dives undertaken by a typical BSAC branches from RIBs.
This means that you can read a chart to identify dangers and things of interest to
divers, work out slack water and the approximate depth, get to the dive site on time,
and then find the exact spot on the seabed.
basic techniques of marine navigation
suitable level for dive planning & management
typical BSAC branch RIB dives
If planning a walk in open country or even a day long car tour, it is most likely that you
would consult maps to see what and where the attractions are, and listen to the weather
forecast. Diving requires similar preparation, to find out how to get to and locate the
site, and to determine what is likely to be found on the seabed. Divers also have to
contend with a third factor - tides. This course teaches you how to read and employ
charts and tide tables to safely navigate small boats, and as aids to dive planning.
Point out that this course focuses on the techniques of chartwork, position fixing, and
4
Chartwork and Position Fixing Manual
Theory Lessons
navigation. It is not a boat handling course, or a dive management course. To take full
charge of diving from small boats you need those skills as well.
Domestic arrangements
Fire exits, catering facilities, house rules, etc
Locations
Cover the different venues that will be used during the course.
Timings
Outline the timetable for the course, including breaks, lunch, and finish time. Either
issue a printed timetable, or add it to this VA.
Guideline durations for each session are provided in the Course Arrangements section
of these notes.
Course Outline
Day one
chart basics
measurement basics
tides
position fixing methods
finding dive sites
voyage planning
Day two
navigation at sea - all day on the boats
course debrief
Voyage plan
Explain how the course is centred around the production and use of a voyage plan,
the key output from chartwork and position fixing. The voyage plan will be built up
progressively during the course.
Hand out blank copies of the voyage plan forms to each student.
Understand charts
Select dive sites
Plot courses
Write it down VP
build up in stages
finish off in last session
use tomorrow
Theory Lessons
Navigate to dive site

Locate the dive site
For us as divers, this is the extra step without which all the others are pointless [and
the bit other navigation courses do not tell you about].
Theory Lessons
chart basics
Lesson Objectives
This lesson describes the types of chart that students are likely to encounter, how
to understand the information that is shown on them, and how to plot and record
positions using a chart.
Achievement Targets
be aware of the types of chart useful to divers
be able to extract information from a chart with the aid of 5011
be capable of plotting a position on a chart
be capable of reading a position from a chart

Local charts, examples of different paper chart formats, 5011.
CPF09_exercises handout.doc (see Appendix A for tailoring instructions)
Chart Basics
Outline
Objectives
introduction to nautical charts
learn to extract information relevant to divers
plot and record positions
Availability
Scale
Chart layout
Symbols and abbreviations
Latitude & longitude
Exercises
Availability
Charts can be purchased from Admiralty Chart Agents and leading yacht chandlers.
Similar charts are published in other countries so charts should be available for almost
all sea areas of the world.
Primarily designed for mariners

Charts are maps of the sea and its adjacent coast line, designed for marine navigation.
Theory Lessons
Charts concentrate on the seabed, coastal topography, and particular features such
as potential hazards to navigation. What are hazards for large ships are often the sites
that are of interest to divers using smaller boats. For example, large ships need to avoid
wrecks and reefs at certain depths, but these may provide a good dive site.
Paper or digital
Paper charts come in a variety of formats. The most common is a large (typically about
1 metre by 2/3rds meter) sheet rolled, or flat and folded in half. Charts for leisure use
may come folded like a map, or be split into a number of smaller, separate sheets
(typically about A3 size). Some charts are available printed on waterproof and/or plastic
paper, so that they can be used in rugged environments such as a RIB.
Show examples of various types of chart. Point out that paper charts are still valuable
even in the digital age.
There are two different types of digital chart. A raster chart is basically a digital
photograph of a paper chart. An electronic chart system which uses raster charts can
overlay the boat's course and position on the chart, but will not be able to recognise any
of the information printed on it. They are relatively cheap, but need a reasonably large
screen (laptop and upwards) to be used effectively.
Most electronic navigation systems use vector charts. A vector chart consists of a
database which holds all the elements of the chart such as spot depths, wrecks, lights,
boundaries and so on as separate data items. This means that in addition to overlaying
boat position information, the software can process all the information on the chart. A
major advantage for small boat users, who use GPS plotter units with small screens, is
improved display scaleability. Data items that would otherwise clutter the screen can
be omitted or reduced in size when zooming in so that the screen remains readable.
Depending on the manufacturer, digital charts may be supplied as downloads, on CD/
DVD or on memory cards (which themselves come in a number of different types eg,
SD, MMC, etc). The file formats used by different digital chart vendors vary, and each
manufacturer may sell a range of charts containing different levels of information. All
this means that not all digital charts can be used in all electronic navigation devices. It
is important to get up to date advice before buying.
Main brands
[BSAC instruction in chartwork assumes use of British Admiralty Charts. Overseas,
instructors should tailor the following list to use any other charts which are in common
use in their part of the world. This information is correct in January 2010.]
Admiralty
Published by the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) for the Royal Navy, they are
amongst the best and most detailed in the world and are available to anyone
who goes to sea. They include seabed information of interest to divers. Admiralty
Charts cover all coastal waters of the UK and many other coastlines of the world.
UKHO products include paper charts in standard, leisure, and Tough Chart
formats (waterproof, but only available for some areas egs, S Coast, N Wales,
Clyde), as well as raster (ARCS) and vector (AVCS) digital versions.
Imray, Stanford
Both produce paper charts, principally for yachtsmen. Small boat versions
available.
C-Map
Digital charts for a wide variety of GPS units and electronic navigation systems.
Navionics
8
Theory Lessons
Digital charts for a wide variety of GPS units including Eagle, Furuno, Lowrance,
and Humminbird.
BlueChart
Digital charts for Garmin systems.
Chart agents, chandlers, websites

Most chandlers carry stocks of paper charts covering their local area, and digital charts
which are compatible with the brands of equipment they sell.
Charts can also be purchased online.
Admiralty charts
The full worldwide range of Admiralty charts can be purchased from Admiralty Chart
Agents.
catalogues
The full list of Admiralty charts is published on the UKHO website. Paper
catalogues showing various subsets of the full range of charts and publications
are also available. NP109, the NW Europe Catalogue (pictured on VA) shows all
the UK charts.
Other manufacturers also provide catalogues of the charts they produce.
Notices to Mariners on web
Over time the information shown on charts becomes out of date as buoys are
moved, new wrecks occur, channels are dredged or silt up, and so on. Changes
to charts are published on the UKHO website as they occur. The updates are
collectively known as Notices to Mariners and can be viewed free of charge, so
that charts can be kept up to date.
Most vector chart suppliers provide an update service for their products.
Scale
Show examples of large and small scale charts for your local area.
Various scales (1:2,500 - 1:20,000,000)

small scale - large area - little detail
Small scale charts cover large areas in little detail. For example, a chart of
the entire North Sea would be a small scale chart. Small scale big number eg
1:20000000.
large scale - small area - more detail best for divers
Large scale charts cover small areas in great detail. For identifying dive sites and
navigating in their vicinity, use large scale charts where available. Large scale
small number eg 1:2500.
Chart layout
Use this VA to introduce charts in general and to go over the main topics and points
found on them.
Chart layout includes various pieces of information which apply to the whole of the
chart. The various topics do not occur in a fixed position, but are usually printed on land
mass parts of the chart so they do not obscure soundings and seabed information.
Where space is available they are printed together, but the nature of the area covered
by the chart sometimes means that this is not possible.
Point out the various features on an actual chart.
Theory Lessons
Title and number

The chart title gives a full description of the area covered, the date of survey, defines
units and lists cautions, etc. Admiralty Charts are printed in metric units, so depths of
water and heights of land are quoted in metres. The chart number is printed at the top
left and bottom right corners of the chart. On standard charts, the title and number
are also printed on the back.
Scale
The scale is printed near the title.
Positions/datum
Charts are drawn to a particular geodetic datum, to which all positions are referred.
Older charts may also contain a block entitled Satellite-derived Positions. The
significance of these items is covered later in the course. The relevant information is
printed in the title block.
Cautions
A caution is a hazard which is not described by any particular chart symbol. Usually
the hazard applies generally across a substantial area of the chart. Examples include
marine farms, military operations, areas which become exceptionally dangerous in
bad weather, and depths/channels which change frequently.
Source data
There is normally a small chartlet which gives details of the hydrographic surveys
which provided the data used to populate the various areas of the chart. This is useful
for assessing the reliability of chart data when looking for new dive sites. This topic is
discussed more fully in the lesson Finding Dive Sites.
Corrections
A record of all the Notices to Mariners corrections that had been applied at the time of
sale is shown at the bottom left of the chart.
Tidal levels
This is a table showing the mean heights of the tide at various points on the chart.
Tidal streams
The Tidal Streams table is used in conjunction with tidal diamonds. It is usually found
close to the chart title. Its function is explained in the Tides lesson.
Compass rose
Point it out. Its use is covered in Measurement basics.

Road or Ordnance Survey maps give a coded representation of how the land would
look, with its features of towns and roads drawn to a scale. Charts are similar but
concentrate on the seabed, coastal topography, particular features, such as potential
hazards to navigation.
10
Theory Lessons
Over 1000 different symbols and abbreviations

Charts contain a huge amount of information. They can be used to pick interesting dive
sites; to see what they are, how deep they are, what the seabed is like, and so on. But
the main purpose of charts is to assist mariners in the safe navigation of the seas. This
requires an understanding of everything which appears on the chart, not just those
things needed to find dive sites. It is unrealistic to expect mariners to remember every
symbol, but you do need to know the main ones, and to know how to find out about ones
you are unfamiliar with.
Chart 5011
The UKHO publish a book entitled Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts.
It is normally known as Chart 5011 or simply 5011 for short. Anyone navigating a
vessel at sea should have access to a copy and should make themself familiar with its
contents.
Show a copy.
For this course

The following VAs show the main categories of symbols that diver navigators need to be
familiar with. They include common examples of symbols within each category, but not
the entire set.
colours
depths
Depths at CD are covered in this lesson but actual depths (ie, including tides) are
covered in the Tides lesson.
buoys
wrecks
rocks
landmarks
nature of seabed
tides and currents
The symbols relating to tides and currents are covered in the Tides lesson.
For each of the following VAs 7-14, get the students to find examples of the relevant
symbols on the local charts, show them the relevant pages in 5011, and if practicable
get them to use 5011 to find the meaning of additional symbols in the same category
that appear on the chart but not on the VA. [Include any additional symbols that are
important locally (such as traffic separation schemes) either here, or in the Voyage
Planning Exercise].
Colours
Dry land is shown as a buff colour
Areas that cover and uncover with the tide are green
Sea is mainly white, with shallow areas either shades of
solid blue or edged in blue
Point out blue and blue-edged areas on your local charts.
11
Theory Lessons
Depths
Explain that the depths shown on a chart are at chart datum, which is approximately
the lowest astronomical tide, which means that the actual depth will almost always be
deeper than shown. Calculating the actual depth taking into account the rise and fall
of the tide is covered in detail later, in the Tides lesson.
146 sounding 14.6m

15
drying height 1.5m
----10---- depth contour (isobath) 10m

Isobaths fulfil a similar function to height contours on a land map, except that
whereas the latter has contours spaced at regular intervals (eg every 10m on a
1:25000 OS map), isobaths are spaced more closely near the surface than in
deeper water, and the actual spacing varies from chart to chart.
merging contours = wall
Mention, and if possible demonstrate on a local chart, how isobaths
coming close together or merging can indicate an underwater cliff which
might make a good wall dive. The VA shows the excellent vertical wall at
Calve Island in the Sound of Mull.
Buoys
Colour and shape, light characteristics
Point out that this course covers daylight navigation and so lights are not covered.
However many buoys are lit, including those students may be using in daylight, which
is why the examples on the VA include lit buoys, recognisable by the purple blob. Students do not need to know what the light characteristics mean, but can look them up
in 5011 later if they are interested.
Meaning
lateral - marks edge of channel
Lateral marks (port, starboard, preferred channel) are generally used to mark
well defined channels.
cardinal - marks area to avoid
Cardinal marks indicate safe water to the named side of the mark.
others
Other marks are used to show a variety of things such as isolated dangers, safe
water in mid-channel and at landfall, and sewage outfalls.
Buoyage - lateral
[Note that the VAs deal with IALA area A (red to port) which includes the UK and most
of the world except the Americas. In IALA area B lateral buoyage is the other way
around.].
red = port green = starboard
going in direction of rising tide
going in direction of falling tide
direction of buoyage symbol used where direction not obvious
This symbol is used where the direction of buoyage is not obvious eg, in a narrow
channel open to the sea at both ends such as the Solent, and the Menai Strait.
12
Theory Lessons
Cardinal
[Although the course deals with daylight navigation only the light characteristics
of cardinal marks are shown because they are always the same, and thus easy
to identify even without a chart. Lateral mark characteristics, apart from their
colour, vary from buoy to buoy.]
Wrecks
Explain how the presence of a wreck symbol on the chart does not necessarily mean
there is actually a diveable wreck there. Point out the difference in certainty between
symbols that indicate specific details such as swept by wire or exact soundings, and
those that do not. Draw attention to symbols such as PA and PD in 5011.
Rocks
Rock symbols often indicate the presence of reefs and pinnacles which may yield good
dive sites.
Landmarks
Landmarks are important for visual position fixing.
The first six examples are man made objects. The last two illustrate natural features,
which can also be useful for position fixing, and in remote areas may be all that is
available.
Nature of seabed
For navigators, the nature of the seabed is of interest mainly to assess the suitability
of a potential anchorage. For divers it can suggest what types of marine life might be
encountered, and give clues as to the likely visibility.
Abbreviations for material

R = rock
G = gravel
S = sand
Sh = shells
Sn = shingle
People often get Sh and Sn confused.
M = mud, etc
Qualifying terms
bk = broken
f = fine
m = medium, etc
13
Theory Lessons
Used in combination
Material abbreviations are separated by a full stop eg M.S as shown on the VA. Qualifying
terms may be included, as in the following example.
fS.M.Sh?
Ask what this combination would signify.
fine sand.mud.shells
Grid reference system

Chart makers face the problem of representing the seas of the world on a flat piece of
paper. As the world is a sphere (for purists it is an oblate spheroid, slightly flattened at
the poles), transferring its shape to a flat surface will always means distortion. However,
chart makers have allowed for this by drawing charts as 'projections' using mathematical
formulae.
As maps use a grid reference to be able to locate a position, so do charts and these grid
lines are referred to as the parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
Parallels of latitude
Meridians of longitude
Latitude
Imagine the inside of the world scooped out except for the equator plane and a rod
joining the two poles. This rod passes through the centre of the equator plane and,
therefore, the centre of the Earth.
Equator to Pole angle = 90

The angle measured at the centre of the earth to one of other of the poles will be no
more than 90 to the equatorial plane.
Parallels of latitude
Now imagine a pencil, held at a 50 angle from the equatorial plane at the centre of the
earth. Rotating the pencil around this centre point, not changing the angle, would mark
a circle on the earth's surface parallel to the equator circle and always at 50; this is a
parallel of latitude.
Equator divides earth into north & south

The Equator divides the earth into two, the northern and southern hemispheres.
Longitude
To complete the earth's grid system, the meridians of longitude need to be put in
place.
Looking down on equator plan from North Pole

Imagine standing on the North Pole and looking down through a transparent earth onto
the equatorial plane. Radiating lines, like spokes of a wheel can be drawn from the
centre to the edge of the equator plane.
Circles drawn around the world, through the north and south poles and touching the
14
Theory Lessons
equator, divide the world vertically, rather like segments of an orange.
Greenwich Meridian
The base line of 0 is an internationally agreed meridian - the Greenwich meridian,
which passes through the UK and this divides the world into two. One hemisphere is
west of Greenwich and the other hemisphere to the east. Longitude measurements
are from 0 - 180 west, and 0 - 180 east.

Describe the notations used for expressing positions.
Lat & long angles measured in

degrees minutes.decimal (hemisphere)
egs, 55 31.55', 07 06.8', 005 59'. It is usual to include leading zeros.
hemisphere = N, S, E, W
It is important, when using the Earth's grid of latitude and longitude - the
abbreviation is lat and long - to give complete information to define a position.
Just saying 50 and 30 could mean north of the equator and either east or
west; or it could mean south of the equator and either east or west. The latitude
position should always be suffixed with either N or S and the longitude position
always suffixed with either W or E. Then the correct position is given.
A position
latitude = 51 43.250 N
longitude = 002 59.950 W
1 degree = 1 = 60 minutes = 60
Each minute can be subdivided with decimals to any
precision required
5030N 5030.2N 5030.21N 5030.207N 5030.20669N
However there is no point expressing a position to a greater precision than the
accuracy with which it was determined warrants. Three places of decimals in
minutes of latitude correspond to a distance of about 2 metres.
Mapping programs sometimes use decimal degrees

5030N = 50.(30/60) = 50.5

This notation expresses each coordinate with a single signed number (south
and west are negative, east and north are positive), which is more efficient for
computation in software. It is easy to convert between the different notations, as
in the above example: divide minutes or seconds by 60 to get decimal degrees or
minutes respectively. Multiply the decimal part of degrees or minutes by 60 to get
minutes or seconds.
Degrees/minutes/seconds becoming obsolete

51 43.250 = 51 43 15
In the past, positions were often expressed using seconds instead of decimals of
minutes. One minute contains 60 seconds (1'=60"). So 5030.2 = 5030 12".
This notation may still be encountered in old guidebooks and articles. You will not
need to use it on this course.
15
Theory Lessons

The latitude and longitude of any point on a chart can be read using scales along its
borders. Demonstrate the procedure by stepping through the examples on the VA.
Summary
Availability
Scale
Chart layout
Exercises
Examples of questions and answers for the Chart Exercises practical can be found
after the black slide VA23 at the end of this lesson. These exercises are based on
Admiralty Charts 2172 Harbours and Anchorages on the South Coast of England and
2611 Poole Harbour and Approaches. See Appendix A Tailoring the course.
16
Theory Lessons
measurement basics
Lesson Objectives
This lesson covers the basic techniques and equipment for measuring angles, distance
and speed on charts and at sea.
Achievement Targets
understand how to use a compass rose
be able to plot & measure course directions on a chart
appreciate the difference between true and magnetic bearings
be able to measure distances from a chart
know how to convert speed, time and distance
appreciate the difference between travel over the ground and travel through the
water

Local charts
Parallel rule, Portland plotter and dividers
Hand bearing compass, several types if possible.
Measurement Basics
Outline
Direction
bearings
magnetic variation
compass rose
measuring at sea
Chartwork instruments
drawing on charts
bearings
distance
Speed time and distance

relationships
measuring at sea
17
Theory Lessons
Direction
There are a few basic terms which students need to be familiar with. Start to get across
the concept that a boat moves through or over the water, which itself may be moving
relative to the ground.
Nautical direction terms

heading - direction in which the boat is pointing
Heading is the direction through the water (ignoring effects of wind, and
assuming the boat is moving).
course - direction in which the boat is (or should be) steered
Course is normally a direction over the ground.
track - direction in which the boat is moving
If the track equals course, the boat is on course. The track and the heading may
be different if the water is moving relative to the ground.
bearing - direction of an object
Bearing is the term used to describe the direction of one object from another,
illustrated in the VA by the relative positions of the boat and the yellow blob
(representing an island). Bearing is also used as a generic term for all direction
measurements, including heading, course and track.
Direction expressed as an angle

Direction is an angular measurement relative to true north. A bearing describes the
direction of an object from you in relation to north, measured in degrees true or degrees
magnetic.
Bearings
Bearings in degrees
For navigation, bearings are measured in degrees relative to north, which is defined
as 0. Bearings increase in a clockwise direction, and reset to 0 after a full circle.
A bearing in degrees may be expressed to any level of precision required, although a
whole number of degrees is more than adequate for small boat navigation.
relative to North = 0
clockwise
360 = 0
precise
Cardinal points
Cardinal points (N, S, E, W) and their subdivisions (NE, SSW, etc) are often used to
express approximate directions. When bearings expressed as cardinal points are
intended to be taken as precise, the prefix 'due' is normally used.
often used for approximate direction
due N, S etc if precise
Understand both
Students need to be comfortable using both notations, and should be able to convert
between them easily.
18
Theory Lessons
Magnetic North
Charts aligned to North Pole
North on a chart refers to geographic (true) north: the top of the globe where all the
meridians of longitude converge.
Compass points to Magnetic Pole

A compass needle points not to geographic north, but to the magnetic north pole,
which is hundreds of miles away from geographic north and also moves about slowly.
[Technically a compass does not actually point to the magnetic north pole; it aligns
with the local magnetic lines of force, which emanate from the magnetic north pole.]
angle between true and magnetic is variation
different in different places
changes slowly with time
currently about 3-5W in UK
Variation not significant for us

'Us' means UK divers. Variation is less than the accuracy with which a small boat can be
steered using a magnetic compass, so it can be disregarded for small boat navigation.
Any errors are swept up by the methods described later in the course.
However in other parts of the world variation can be substantial eg, at the south tip of
New Zealand it approaches 25E. See Course Manual appendices for a chart of global
magnetic variation and notes on how to work out and use variation. [Appendix E in this
manual].
Distinguish between
chart measurements - T
compass measurements - M
Even though variation is small, it is good practice when recording bearings to state
whether they are relative to true or magnetic North, in case the readings are later used
for something where precision is important.
Measuring bearings at sea

Fixed compass
shows boats heading
To take a bearing of an object you would need to point the boat at it.
smallest graduation 5
on the model shown, which is a common one. This is commensurate with the
accuracy to be expected from these compasses.
deviation
error from nearby ferrous metal, magnets, electrics
The loudspeaker magnets in radios and mobile phones can have a large
effect on a compass. On large vessels, the compass can be isolated from
most magnetic influences, and a deviation card can be carried, which
shows the corrections to be applied to bearings on different headings.
19
Theory Lessons
Bearings corrected for variation and deviation are shown as C, whereas

bearings corrected for variation alone are shown as M.
not usually considered on small boats
Although a fixed compass should always be mounted as far away as
possible from extraneous magnetic influences, in the cramped and
chaotic environment of a small dive boat it is impractical to ensure a
constant magnetic environment. For this reason deviation is normally
ignored, and any compass errors are compensated by other methods
when steering.
Hand bearing compass

A hand bearing compass is impractical for steering, but is a convenient and relatively
accurate tool for measuring the bearing of objects.
used to measure bearing of objects
smallest graduation 1
can distance from sources of magnetism less deviation
Demonstrate a selection of hand bearing compasses.
Record as M
Drawing on a chart
Charts are expensive and relatively fragile, so it is important to treat them carefully.
Paper charts
soft pencil (2B)
Anything harder than 2B is likely to leave an imprint on the paper and be difficult
to erase. Erasing removes material from the paper, so the less rubbing that is
required the better.
draw gently
plastic eraser for corrections
Laminated charts
Charts taken to sea in an open boat must be weatherproof. Plastic and/or waterproof
charts are available, or you can make copies from paper or electronic originals and
laminate them. Copyright restrictions may apply.
indelible marker pen
clean with solvent
Exercise
draw a line from slipway/harbour to first waypoint on chart
Specify the first waypoint (after the launch point) (see Appendix A Tailoring the
course)
20
Theory Lessons
Measuring bearings on charts

Demonstrate the use of each instrument in turn, then get the students to have a go.
Parallel rules
line up on along direction of travel
walk rules to centre of nearest compass rose
read bearing from true scale
Portland plotter
line up along direction of travel
twist circular scale to line up grid lines with grids on chart, north pointer to
North
read the bearing from plotter
Record as T
Exercise
measure the bearing of the line just drawn, enter on voyage plan
Reciprocal bearings
Explain the concept of a reciprocal bearing by working through the example on the VA.
Bearing
direction of island from boat
Reciprocal bearing
direction of boat from island
add 180 (or subtract 180 if answer > 360)
90270
350170
your bearing from object
This can be important in some circumstances: for example the preferred method
of stating your position at sea in a distress call (if an accurate lat/long is not
available) is bearing and distance from a landmark.
your way home
For an out and back trip, planning your return passage is simply a matter of
working out the reciprocal bearing of each leg of your outward voyage.
Add reciprocal to voyage plan

Get the students to do this exercise.
21
Theory Lessons
Measuring distance on charts

Distances at sea are measured in Nautical Miles. The nautical mile is based on an
angular measurement of one minute of arc. Imagine two straight lines with an angle
of one minute between them projected outwards from the centre of the earth. At
the surface of the earth the lines would be one nautical mile apart. The equivalent
distances in metres and statute miles are 1852 and 1.15 respectively.
The border on the sides (not top or bottom) of a chart includes a latitude scale. It is
always subdivided into units of 1 minute of arc, and on larger scale charts it is further
subdivided into tenths of a minute. Each subdivision then represents one tenth of a
nautical mile so on large scale charts, it is possible to work accurately to one twentieth
of a nautical mile or better. Dividers or drawing compass are used to compare a distance
between two points shown or plotted on the chart with the adjacent latitude scale, thus
determining the actual distance between them.
1 Nautical Mile (nm or Nm or NM or M) =

[Several different abbreviations are used for nautical miles. There is no single
'correct' abbreviation. The International Hydrographic Organization uses M while the
International Civil Aviation Organization prefers NM. The abbreviations nm, though
conflicting with the SI symbol for the nanometre, and Nm are also widely used. 'nm' is
used throughout this course.]
1 latitude
1852m
1.15 statute miles
1/10nm = 1 cable (ca)
Short distances are often described in cables in nautical publications.
Measuring length of line

Demonstrate the procedure.
span using dividers
or set dividers to one nm & walk length of line
Convert to distance
read off distance in nm from latitude scale
latitude scale widens towards poles so use scale at same latitude as line
The latitude scale widens because of the way the Mercator projection works. On
large scale charts the effect is negligible.
Exercise: measure line on chart and add to voyage plan
Speed, time and distance

Speed
Speed at sea is measured in nautical miles per hour. 1 nautical mile per hour = 1
knot.
1 knot (kn) = 1nm / hour = 1.15mph
Speed, time and distance are related

22
Theory Lessons
Explain the relationship between distance, speed and time, and run through the options
available for calculating one parameter when the other two are known. Numerate
students will find this topic trivial, but other students may take some time.
Distance (nm) = Speed (kn) x Time (hr)
Speed = Distance / Time
Time = Distance / Speed
for Time (min) use Speed (kn) /60
or Time (min) = Time (hr) x 60
or use triangle, if easier
cover required item, read the others
or use look-up tables
Look-up tables can be found in most nautical almanacs. Tables have the
advantage of being easy to use at sea, whatever your level of numeracy.
nautical almanac
easy to use at sea
Examples and exercise

Run through the examples. If necessary, set additional ones and coach the students
who struggle.
Examples
how long to cover 0.5nm at 15kn?
how far after 30min at 12kn?
how long for 7nm at 21kn?
Exercise
complete details for 1st leg on voyage plan
Add the estimated speed for the leg from the slipway to waypoint 1 and calculate
the elapsed time.
Measuring distance & speed at sea

For divers, GPS has superseded traditional methods of speed and distance
measurement.
GPS
distance travelled
A GPS unit obtains position fixes by using satellite signals, and calculates the
distance travelled between fixes.
calculates speed
A GPS unit does not measure speed directly, but it can calculate it knowing the
distance travelled in a given time. Typically, the speed displayed on a GPS is
averaged over a few seconds.
Ground track v water track

This is an important concept to get across, alluded to earlier on VA3 when talking about
23
Theory Lessons
course, heading, and track. Click through the diagram, explaining how the distance in
1 hour through water is different from the distance in 1 hour over ground when a tide
is moving across the boat's heading.
Summary
Direction
bearings
magnetic variation
compass rose
measuring at sea
Chartwork instruments
drawing
bearings
distance
Speed time and distance

relationships
measuring at sea
24
Theory Lessons
tides
Lesson Objectives
This lesson covers basic information about the nature and causes of tides and explains
how to obtain tidal information from tidal stream atlases, charts and tide tables. It
explains the hazards that tidal streams create for diver navigators.
Achievement Targets
be able to extract tidal information from tide tables
be able to calculate the depth of water at any place on a chart at any time
be capable of using tidal flow information from charts and tidal stream atlases to
estimate the rate and direction of tidal currents
know how to determine the time and duration of slack water
know how to choose days when the tides are good for diving
understand the importance of knowing the depth of water at launch and dive sites
appreciate the implications of tidal currents for diver navigators

local charts
tidal stream atlas
Tides
Outline
Tidal terms
Depth and tides
Tide tables
times and heights of HW/LW
springs and neaps
depth of water for launch, recovery, diving and navigation
Tidal diamonds & atlases

slack time and duration
rates for navigation
Tidal hazards
25
Theory Lessons
Tidal terms
The blue diagram on the VA illustrates the way the height of the tide changes with time.
Explain the following terms:
High water (normally abbreviated as HW)
Low water (normally abbreviated as LW)
Tidal range
Ebb
Flood
Tidal cycle - the time between consecutive high waters is approximately 12.5 hours.
The time between HW and LW, and between LW and HW is usually half a tidal cycle, but
this may vary due to local effects.
[In some parts of the world, chiefly around the Indian and Pacific Ocean coasts, the
tidal regime is more complex, and varies from the above pattern during some or all of
each lunar month. Instructors in such areas should adjust the material in this lesson
accordingly.]
State - is a generic term used to describe the position in the tidal cycle: HW, LW, ebbing,
flooding, half-tide, etc.
Depth and tides

Knowing the maximum depth on a site is important for planning when considering the
level of divers, diving gas and decompression requirements. Navigators need to know
that there is sufficient depth of water for safe passage, and they need to know if and
when the boat will dry out when moored or at anchor.
The tides are caused by the moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun. The moon's
gravitational pull on the ocean creates a bulge of high water with a balancing bulge
on the opposite side of the Earth. [Students may ask why there is a balancing bulge.
The maths is difficult, but qualitatively it is because as the ocean nearest to the moon
bulges towards it, the gravitational pull of the bulge itself on the ocean at the opposite
side of the Earth is reduced because it is further away.] The sun's gravity also has an
effect on the oceans, but although the sun is a more massive body than the moon, it is
much farther away and so has a weaker effect. As the sea surface rises and falls with
the pull of the moon, it is the Earth's crust spinning with its skin of seawater that gives
an observer standing on one piece of land the impression that the tide is rising and
falling. On a perfect sphere, the water would remain almost stationary. But, as the world
is not a perfect sphere and with the shape of the land and seabed affecting the way the
water distributes itself, the rise and fall of the tides is accompanied by horizontal water
movement in many areas of the world.
Spring tides
greatest tidal range
If the moon and sun are in line, which occurs at the new and full moon, both their
gravitational pulls combine causing a big rise and fall of the sea level. These are
known as spring tides.
Lower LW
Higher HW
A large tidal range can be expected on spring tides, giving a high HW level
and a low LW level.
26
Theory Lessons
Neap tides
Least tidal range
If the moon and sun are at right angles to each other, the sun's small gravitational
pull conflicts with that of the moon and reduces its 'pull' effect on the sea. The
resulting rise and fall of the sea is known as neap tides.
Higher LW
Lower HW
A smaller tidal range can be expected on neap tides, giving a lower HW level and
higher LW level when compared to spring tides.
Abbreviations
MHWS MLWS MHWN MLWN
Published information about tides often needs to distinguish between springs
and neaps, usually referring to mean levels. The following abbreviations are used:
Mean High Water Springs, Mean Low Water Springs, Mean High Water Neaps,
Mean Low Water Neaps.
Check that the students can put them in the correct order of height.
Point out that since these are means; actual tides may be higher or lower.
Tide tables
Tide tables are used to find out tidal heights and times. You can find them in almanacs,
where they are likely to cover the entire UK coast for a calendar year. You can also
buy cheap booklets from chandlers and marinas, covering the local area for a year.
Tide tables covering the next few days are published in some newspapers, and tidal
information may also be found on the internet although some of it is of unknown
accuracy.
Some electronic navigation systems also display tidal information.
Tides are predictable

calculated for standard ports
Tide tables are computed and published for selected locations around the
country, known as standard ports.
differences for secondary ports
Almanacs and local tide tables usually contain a list of corrections which can be
used to find tide times at other 'secondary' ports adjacent to each standard port.
For example, HW at Menai Bridge occurs 28 minutes before HW at Liverpool, a
standard port. The correction or 'tidal difference' is -0028. [Some almanacs also
publish corrections for tidal heights at secondary ports, but these are outside
the scope of the course]. Use the tables for the nearest available port, unless
directed otherwise [eg tidal diamonds, below].
Similarly, using the Time Differences table in the Course Manual [and in Appendix
C of this manual], you can find HW times at any standard port in the British Isles
from HW Dover, which is normally quoted in national newspapers. For example,
the tidal difference of Whitby on Dover is +0500, ie 5 hours after Dover.
Tide times calculated in this way can vary from the actual predictions for the port
in question by a few minutes.
usually Universal Time (UT), add 1hr for British Summer Time (BST)
Tide tables are usually published in UT (formerly known as GMT). However, this is
not always the case, so it is important to check.
gives HW & LW times
27
Theory Lessons
Tide tables give the time and height on every day in the year, of HW and LW heights are given in metres.
Spring & neap tides

Looking at the tide tables will show when spring and neap tides occur. Some tide tables
include small moon symbols against the date to indicate spring tides. Otherwise, springs
and neaps can be recognised by looking at the heights of the tides and applying the
classifications from the previous VA:
Springs
Higher HW
Lower LW
The highest high water and lowest low water heights indicate spring tides
Neaps
Lower HW
Higher LW
The lowest high water and highest low water heights indicate neap tides
Tide table exercises

Go through the exercises on the VA with the students.
Exercises
we need a neap tide to dive a wreck. Which of the three weekends would you
recommend and why?
29th smallest tide
if we had to dive at LW on 21st July on which tide would you plan the dive?
11:00 dark at 23:19
[Unless a night dive is required..........]
what will be the states of the tide at 14:00 and at 21:00 on 22nd July?
14:00 flood 21:00 ebb
what will be the tidal range on the morning of 22nd July?
5.6m
are the times shown BST or UT?
The information given does not specify: you would need to check, and add an
hour if the table is in UT.
Calculating depth
This VA covers how to calculate depth at HW and LW.
Charted depths
Remind the students of the material covered in Chart basics showing how depths are
indicated on charts.
depth marked
Depths are marked on a chart as depth 'soundings' in metres.
lowest predictable level
The soundings show the depth at chart datum, the lowest astronomical tide.
[Tide levels can vary from astronomical predictions due to weather conditions. In
28
Theory Lessons
extreme weather tides may be a metre or so higher or lower than predicted].

does not include the water above chart datum - tides
However, the depth at chart datum does not include the water that will usually
be above it due to the effects of tides and different tidal ranges. To find out the
expected depth for a dive on a particular day, requires the charted depth and tidal
variation to be combined.
For example, the charted depth of the seabed is 24m.
Looking at the tide tables for the day, they show 0800 LW as 1.5m, 1405 HW as 5.5m.
The difference between LW and HW, the tidal range is 4m.
From the tide table information at LW there will be 1.5m of water over chart datum. So,
at low water, the actual depth will be 25.5m.
At HW, there will be 5.5m of water over chart datum. So, the actual depth will be
29.5m.
This shows the importance of planning. For example, If the dive was planned just on
the chart datum, it would seem ideal as a site for a new Sport Diver's first dive to build
their depth experience with a planned maximum depth of 24m to the seabed. But
diving the seabed at LW would break the dive plan by 1.5m and, at HW, by 5.5m
A second example of why depth planning is important is that of Nitrox divers. They will
be carrying a pre-mixed gas with a MOD selected to be compatible with the planned
depth. Getting out to a site and finding, from the echo sounder check, that the site is
deeper because the effect of tides has not been included, could make a dive manager
extremely unpopular.
Depth planning is also of obvious importance to navigators: they can check that there
will be sufficient water to pass safely over submerged hazards; and for harbours and
slipways which are only useable at certain states of the tide, they can check that it will
be possible to get in and out at the required times.
Rule of Twelfths
So far we have shown how to calculate the depth at HW and LW. This VA shows how to
calculate the depth at intermediate times using the Rule of Twelfths, an easily applied
rule of thumb which gives an approximation to the rise and fall of the tide without
needing extra documentation and is therefore easy to use in any situation including
small open boats. Go through the example on the VA.
Tide tables indicates that LW is at 0630 0.5m, HW is at 1245 5.3m. The tidal range is
therefore 4.8m.
To use the Rule of Twelfths, divide the tidal range, 4.8m, by 12. One twelfth of the tidal
range = 0.4m.
The planned dive shows 24m at chart datum (CD) and the dive time is planned for
1030.
Low water is 0.5m above chart datum = 24.5m.
High water is 5.3m above chart datum = 29.3m.
The Rule of Twelfths is applied as follows:
In the first hour from LW the tide rises by one 12th: 24.5m + 0.4m = 24.9m
In the second hour, the tide rises by two more 12ths: 24.9m + 0.8m = 25.7m
In the third hour, the tide rises by three more 12ths: 25.7m + 1.2m = 26.9m
In the fourth hour, the tide rises by three more 12ths: 26.9m + 1.2m = 28.1m
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Theory Lessons
In the fifth hour, the tide rises by two more 12ths: 28.1m + 0.8m = 28.9m
In the sixth hour, the tide rises by one more 12th: 28.9m + 0.4m = 29.3m HW
Planning the dive at 10.30 shows the anticipated depth is 28.1m.
Put another way, at 10.30, in the fourth hour there is a total of 9/12 of the tidal range
to add to LW 24.5m+9 x 0.4m (3.6m) = 28.1m.
The same procedure can be used to determine the depth between HW and LW.
[In certain areas, such as around the Solent, and wherever accuracy is critical, it may
be better to use tidal curves. Tidal curves are not taught on this course, but details may
be found in Lesson AT1 of the BSAC Advanced Diver course, and in nautical almanacs.
There are now several proprietary software packages (eg Bellfield Tidal Plotter, available
on the BSAC website), and some websites (eg Admiralty EasyTide), which generate tide
tables and calculate tidal heights at any state of the tide. They are likely to make the
manual use of tidal curves a thing of the past.]
Depth at any time

Using a chart and a tide table we can calculate the depth at HW and at LW. By using
the rise of tide worked out with the Rule of Twelfths we can calculate the depth at any
time. Step through the VA, explaining each point.
CD + LW
Tide tables give the height of the tide above CD at LW.
CD + LW + rise of tide
Adding the rise of the tide from the Rule of Twelfths gives the height of the tide at
any time.
CD + HW - fall of tide
We could also calculate the height of the tide at any time by finding the height of
the tide at HW from tide tables then subtracting the fall of the tide worked out with
the Rule of Twelfths. Either method gives the same result. It requires slightly less
arithmetic to apply the Rule of Twelfths if you use whichever of HW or LW is nearest
to the time for which you wish to know the depth.
height of tide
The height of the tide above CD is calculated using information from tide tables. To
find out the actual depth we need to refer to the chart and find the depth symbol
nearest to the point required.
Actual depth = height of tide above CD......

plus charted depth
Depths are below CD, so simply add the charted depth to the height of tide above
CD to get the actual depth.
minus drying height
Drying heights are above CD, so subtract the drying height from the height of tide
above CD to get the actual depth.
drying height > height of tide = above water
If the drying height is greater than the height of the tide it means that the point is
above water at the time in question. Subtract the height of the tide from the drying
height to find out by how much.
30
Theory Lessons
Depth calculation exercises

Direct the students to do the first four exercises using the tide table extract on the VA.
Students should assume that all times are BST, for the purposes of the exercise (see
Appendix A Tailoring the course).
Go through the answers.
Set the final question, which involves updating the voyage plan with local information,
from the relevant tide tables. If appropriate, demonstrate how using a secondary port
can give improved accuracy. Students must specify BST or GMT on the voyage plan.
Tidal flow
In tidal waters, charts show the speed and direction of currents that can be expected in
the general area at hourly intervals throughout the rise and fall of the tide.
Tidal flow information is of interest for several reasons: many dive sites can only be
dived when the tidal flow has stopped; dive managers need to know the strength and
direction of the current if a drift dive is to be planned safely; the strength and direction
of the current may affect the navigation of the boat; and some areas may become
dangerous at certain states of the tide.
Calculated slack water times are notoriously imprecise, and actual slack may occur
before or after the calculated time. Divers are advised to get to sites early.
Time of least water movement

slack water
Tidal currents usually flow in one direction for a few hours and then reverse and
flow in the opposite direction. The point when the rate of tidal flow is minimal
is known as slack water. It usually occurs close to the time of HW or LW, but
local geographical features can bring about slack water as much as halfway
between HW and LW. Slack water is not a momentary point in time, but generally
represents a period during which there is negligible water flow. For diving, slack
generally refers to the period when the current is half a knot or less. [There is no
precise definition, and the tolerable amount of current may also depend on the
capability of the divers and the nature of the dive]. The length of this period is
known as the duration of slack.
longer slack at neaps
The bigger the tidal range, the more water there is to move about in the same
time. Hence tidal streams are stronger on springs and weaker on neaps, and
slack water is longer on neaps and shorter (or non-existent) on springs.
Tidal diamonds
The diamond shape with the letter A on the chartlet is known as a tidal diamond
(proper title "position of tabulated tidal data with designation"). It is a pointer to a table
elsewhere on the chart which lists the tidal flow at the position of each tidal diamond.
The nearest tidal diamond to your point of interest is usually the best, but this may not
necessarily always be the case, especially around the entrances to harbours / river
estuaries.
Table on chart
The tidal stream information is given in 4 columns.
hours before and after HW
The first column gives the hours before and after HW (this is HW for a reference
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port, not necessarily the nearest standard port, which may be some distance
away, so high water times may be considerably different), so the time of HW needs
to be confirmed using tide tables for the day of the dive.
direction of flow
The next column indicates the direction of flow of the tidal stream as a bearing
relative to true north. The direction given is that which the tide is flowing to.
speed on spring tides
The next column indicates the speed (aka rate) of the flow in knots on springs.
speed on neap tides
The last column indicates the rate in knots on neaps.
The greatest tidal ranges occur on springs so the rates are faster than on neaps, when
the least tidal ranges occur. The rates shown refer to mean spring and mean neap
tides.
Using the table on the VA, show how to determine slack by locating the periods when
the current is least, and the periods either side when the current is 0.5kn or less. Use
the Sp or Np columns as appropriate. Point out how the flow changes direction during
this period.
On springs, the least water movement is 5 hours before HW at 0.2kn, or with a bit of
current, 0.5kn, 2 hours after HW. On neaps tides there is a slack 5 hours before HW
and quite a large slack window from HW to 3 hours after.
Away from mean spring and neap tides, rates will be faster or slower from those shown
in the table. They can be interpolated or extrapolated. For example, on a day half way
between springs and neaps, take a rate half way between the figures given. Demonstrate
this idea at HW, where the spring rate is 1.3 and neap rate is 0.6, making half way 0.95:
say 1 knot.
Tidal stream atlas

Charts are not the only source of tidal stream information. Tidal stream atlases are often
a useful source, not least because they can convey much more information in a single
glance than detailed examination of the tidal streams tables on a chart, especially in
confined waters.
Set of diagrams showing currents in area

Admiralty publications, and in almanacs
A set of UKHO publications covers the whole UK coastline. Small scale chartlets
cover large areas where there are few local variations, and inset or special
chartlets cover smaller areas with strong and localised tidal streams. The example
of Portland Bill on the VA is one such local area.
12 or 13 diagrams cover tidal cycle
time relative to HW Standard Port
arrows indicate strength & direction
numbers show speed in 1/10kn
2.5kn neaps, 5.0kn springs
Show the students the tidal stream atlas for the local area.
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Theory Lessons
Tidal stream exercises

Direct the students to do the exercises and then go through the answers with them (see
Appendix A Tailoring the course).
Tides and currents symbols

Flood tide stream
Ebb tide stream
The above two symbols may be found on some charts, showing the direction of tidal
flows, and optionally the mean spring rate, at specific points on the chart.
Overfalls
Overfalls, tide rips, and races occur where strong tides cause surface disturbances,
with the possibility of large and/or breaking waves which are potentially hazardous to
boats.
Eddies
Eddies occur where strong tides cause horizontal turbulence, forming vortexes which
have the potential to throw a boat violently off course.
Implications of tidal flows

Focus the students' attention on the implications of tidal flows for them as navigators,
thus putting the calculation methods taught earlier into context. There are some things
that they need to be able to get right quantitatively, and other areas where they need to
be able to identify potential hazards. Navigators should discuss the diving issues with
the dive manager.
Slack water diving

As navigators of a dive boat, students need to be able to get to slack water dive sites
in plenty of time for the dive to take place safely. This means that they must know
how to work out when slack water occurs and how long it will last. Then they can work
backwards from the time of slack to produce a voyage plan that will get them there on
time. The remainder of the course will show them how to do that.
speed of tidal flow < 0.5kn
not always at HW or LW
Apart from getting the timing right, it is important to know which way the current
will be running before and after slack. This helps with determining whether you
are before or after (no tidal predictions are 100% accurate), and helps the dive
manager to arrange appropriate cover for the divers.
tidal diamonds and atlases fairly reliable offshore
localised effects around islands, headlands and channels
Additional tidal stream information can be found in pilot books, sailing directions
and dive guidebooks (which generally give slack water times only). Close inshore
tidal streams can be extremely localised, and eddies and counter-currents can
occur. Currents are usually strongest around headlands, in deep water, and in
narrow channels. These localised effects are not always well documented so
accurate local knowledge is the gold standard for information.
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Theory Lessons
Drift and current-free diving

Not all dives require slack water. For drift dives, the issues include:
selecting a time when the current speed and trend (picking up or slowing down)
will be appropriate for the skill level of the divers involved
identifying the direction that the current will be flowing in, and checking that it will
not take the divers into hazardous areas such as turbulent water in which they
cannot control their buoyancy, or into excessively deep water.
Current -free areas, perhaps required as easy sites for beginner divers, or as backup
sites that are free from slack water constraints, can sometimes be identified from
charts. Knowing the direction of the tidal streams it may be possible to spot areas that
will be out of the tide. The same technique can be used as a sanity check on dive sites
recommended by others if you are not sure how reliable the information is. It is also
important to be aware of nearby areas where there are currents which could cause
divers to be lost at the surface or taken into places the boat cannot reach, so that
appropriate precautions can be taken.
Navigation
effect of tide on speed and direction
Strong tides will affect a boat's speed and may deflect it from its course unless
action is taken. How to deal with this is covered later in the course, but the first
step is to do your chartwork and work out what tidal streams will need to be dealt
with.
hazards turbulent water
When tides flow rapidly over an uneven seabed or through narrow channels,
turbulence can develop. This can take the form of overfalls, tide races, eddies and
whirlpools. They can contain confused water and short steep seas, dangerous
to navigation because of the risk of capsize or swamping. Such hazards are
normally identified on charts so that they can be avoided. They may only become
dangerous at certain states of the tide, and are usually safe around slack water.
It is important to be able to work out at what times they must be avoided, and to
plan the voyage accordingly. Seek local information where necessary.
wind over tide
When a strong tide runs in the opposite direction to the wind it has the effect of
steepening the waves, sometimes to the extent of causing them to break. This
effect is particularly severe where the tide is running over uneven ground and
overfalls are present. The stronger the wind and the faster the tide, the greater
the effect. These conditions can be dangerous for boats. In contrast, if the
tide is running with the wind the size and steepness of the waves is reduced.
It is important to know the direction and strength of the tide at all times when
planning a passage and whilst at sea, so that hazardous areas can be avoided.
Enter details of tidal hazards on the voyage plan

Direct the students to look over the local charts, and tidal stream atlas if appropriate,
and note any tidal hazards on their voyage plans. If the charts cover a much larger
area than will be visited during the practical, tell them which parts of the chart to
concentrate on and which to ignore.
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Theory Lessons
Summary
Tidal terms
Depth and tides
Tide tables
times and heights of HW/LW
springs and neaps
depth of water for launch, recovery, diving and navigation
Tidal diamonds & atlases

slack time and duration
rates for navigation
Tidal hazards
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Lesson Objectives
This lesson introduces the concepts of position lines and fixes, and describes their uses.
It covers a variety of methods including visual fixes, bearings, GPS, radar, and echo
sounders. The strengths and weaknesses of the different methods are described.
Achievement Targets
understand what a position line is
know the difference between a transit and a bearing
know how to record a set of transits
understand what a fix is
be able to read position lines from a chart
know how to read position lines at sea
appreciate the limitations of visual fixes
appreciate the abstract nature of a GPS fix
appreciate the advantages of using GPS
understand the limitations of GPS
know the importance of geodetic datum
be aware of alternative position fixing methods
Position Fixing Methods

Outline
Simple fix
Position lines
compass bearing
transits
uses of position lines
Position fix
Visual fix accuracy
GPS
Other methods
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Theory Lessons
Simple fix
Simple fix
The photograph is an example of a simple fix. Get the students to suggest others.
close to you
fixed & clearly identifiable
shown on chart
Ensure object is correct one

This is the main precaution necessary when using simple fixes. A useful check is for the
navigator to ask another member of the crew to describe the object. For example the
navigator might ask "what name is written on the buoy?", and avoid telling them what
to look for. This gets over the problem that we often see what we are expecting to see,
not what is actually there.
Detour for simple fix often better than fix by other means
Navigation by following a series of simple fixes is sometimes called pilotage.
Is GPS position a simple fix?

The VA shows a typical chart plotter screen, where the flashing pink blob shows the
current position on a chart. Ask the students the question.
No, a lat/long is not clearly identifiable
The answer is no, because a lat/long is not a clearly identifiable object in the real world,
and the electronic chart on which it is displayed is not part of the real world either. A
GPS equivalent of a simple fix would require the pink blob to be flashing on the water
itself!
Position lines
Lines that can be identified at sea and on a chart
Types
compass bearing
[3 on-click examples]
transits
[3 on-click examples]
[There are also position circles (eg, the distance off an object lies on a circle) but they
are outside the scope of the course].
Transits
Two identifiable objects in line with each other
Transits can be obtained from a variety of different sources.
taken from a chart to use at sea
recorded at sea for later use
obtained from books or divers with local knowledge
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Theory Lessons
Their main characteristics are:

can be very accurate 0.5
not visible at distance, at night, in fog or in mist
Choosing transits
Fast
Use examples in and around the classroom to illustrate the following points. Make
sure that each student actually sees a transit in operation.
objects wide apart
near mark close to observer
Make sure that there is some horizontal distance between the objects: for the
greatest accuracy, the distance between you (the observer) and the nearest
object should be less than the distance between the two objects.
easy to see if lined up
sensitive to sideways movement
If necessary, emphasise the value of fast transits by demonstrating a slow one.
Suitable landmarks
easily identified
Landmarks need to be chosen so that they can be distinguished from their
surroundings. For example, if the landmark is one of a group of houses or static
caravans, you may need to record distinctive detail such as position (egs '8th
row from the left', 'immediately right of the road'). They also need to be chosen
so that the parts of the landmarks which are to form the transit are distinct and
have clear outlines which are easy to line up. Vertical edges which are sharply
defined are good such as edges of buildings, pylons, poles and clefts in rocks,
as are sharp points such as spires. Landscape features such as summits and
dips in the skyline must be sharply defined: if it is unclear exactly where the
top of a peak or the bottom of a dip lies, the transit will not be accurate. Avoid
considerable height differences between marks.
long lasting
How long is long depends on the purpose to which the transit will be put. For
one-off use such as on this course, even a parked car might be a sufficiently long
lasting object. In general, natural landscape features such as headlands and
islands are the longest lasting. All man made objects are subject to change over
time: they may be repainted or altered, extended or demolished. New structures
may be erected which obscure existing ones. Even natural features are subject to
change through landslide, erosion, and so on.
fixed to the spot
Some permanent objects may move around over time. Select ones that do not,
such as the following.
headlands
conspicuous buildings
easily identifiable rocks etc
avoid vegetation, buoys and tide dependent marks
Vegetation may undergo dramatic changes in appearance as the seasons
change. Buoys may be attached to the seabed by a chain which allows them to
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Theory Lessons
move around with the wind and tide (however navigational marks which stand
on the ground make good transit marks). Conspicuous rocks may be covered at
some states of the tide, and vertical edges may not be vertical throughout the
tidal range.
Recording transits
Reiterate the principal requirements of a good transit.
Conspicuous
Permanent
Precise
Well-recorded
If transits are not recorded properly, they will be unusable. This is especially important
when transits are recorded by one person but used by another. A properly recorded
transit (the example shown is for the Lucy wreck in Pembrokeshire, from an old BSAC
Wreck Register) should have the following components.
sketch
A sketch for each transit, showing how it looks when on site (only one transit is
sketched on the VA). A useful technique is to indicate exactly what is to be lined
up with what by a vertical dotted line, unless it is obvious. [click].
bearing
The bearing of each transit should be shown so that the user knows roughly
what direction to look in. The transit line on each sketch could be annotated with
its bearing, [click] or all the transits can be shown together. Bearings need not
be precise since they is not being used for position fixing. In the example, the
bearings are implied by the position of the lines drawn on the north-up chartlet.
context
The objects used to form the transits should be shown in relation to their
surroundings. The navigator needs to be able to relate what can be seen looking
360 around the boat to the position of the transit objects. In the example the
authors have provided an overall chartlet and sketches for each individual transit.
Where identification of a transit object is not obvious, such as when a building is
one of several in a group, the sketches and/or chartlet should show sufficient of
the surrounding context to make identification unambiguous.
narrative
Each transit should be described in words, including precise identification details
of each object and an accurate description of the way in which the objects are
aligned.
Uses of position lines

Clearing line
A clearing line is a useful navigational tool used to keep a boat in safe water when
passing hazards such as dangerous rocks. On one side of the line is safe water, on
the other lies danger. The example shows a clearing line preprinted on the chart (see
if students can spot the second one). Navigators could also define their own. Clearing
lines are also useful for giving a simple visual reference as to when it is safe to make
a turn.
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Theory Lessons
Step through the example.

The final chartlet shows what the navigator might see as the boat is driven along the
clearing line. Referring back to the idea of transits, ask the students how the view
would change if the boat was steered towards danger, and how it would change as it
was steered away from danger.
[Further instruction on the idea of opening and closing marks is given in Voyage
Planning].
Leading line
Leading lines are used to guide a boat along a safe course through water with hazards
either side. Unlike a clearing line, the boat must stay on the line rather then just keep to
the safe side of it. The example uses a bearing of an object to define the position line.
In other situations, such as leading lines for entry to a harbour, a transit on specially
placed leading marks and/or lights may be used.
Ask the students why a bearing is necessary in the example. Why could you not just
steer towards the beacon?
Fix
an intersection of 2 or more position lines
The intersection of two position lines defines a point. This is known as a fix. Fixes are
very useful because they enable navigators to locate their position on the chart and on
the ground, and for divers because fixes can be obtained to locate interesting features
like wrecks and reefs.
Fix
Run through the points on the VA.
Intersection of 2 or more position lines defines a point

bearings
transits
a mixture of transits and bearings
The only useful type of visual fix for locating dive sites uses transits only. Bearings
are not accurate enough for fixing the position of anything as small as a wreck or a
pinnacle.
Exercise: 'Mystery Point'

[Mystery Point is a position that students must navigate to on the practical day using
transits they have taken off the chart. See Appendix A Tailoring the course.]
Instruct the students to find transits from the chart which will enable them to find this
position. They must record the transits in a format that they will be able to use at sea.
Visual fix accuracy

Errors
all position lines have errors
error effect increases with distance
The best transits have an error of about 0.5. Compass bearings taken from a
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Theory Lessons
small boat achieve an accuracy of about 5. Point out on the table on the VA
what this means in terms of the potential position error at various distances from
the objects used to form the position line. The error distance shown corresponds
to the distance between the red arrows in the error diagram at the top right of
the VA: it is the total not a distance. Eg for an accuracy of 5 the error is the
distance subtended by +5 and -5 = 10 at the range shown.
area of uncertainty
When two position lines cross, their respective errors combine to form the shaded
area of uncertainty shown in the diagram.
Improving fix accuracy

position lines at right angles
This minimises the area of uncertainty.
use transits if possible
extra position lines show area of uncertainty
The shape formed where three position lines intersect (they are unlikely to meet at a
point) is called a 'cocked-hat'.
boat movement during fix
A common mistake that navigators make when taking fixes at sea is to forget that
the boat is moving all the time under the influence of the wind, the tide and its
own momentum, even when the engine is in neutral. You must take fixes quickly,
and if necessary keep returning to the starting point to ensure that each position
line relates to the same position.
What accuracy needed?

Clearly, a dive site such as a small wreck well away from land needs an accurate position
fix or else the entire dive trip may be wasted. But it is worth remembering that not all
fixes need be precise.
clearing lines
Provided the marks for a clearing line are easy to use, and it is set to keep the
boat well away from danger, it need not be particularly accurate.
intermediate points
In waypoint navigation (to be covered in detail later) a voyage is built up from a
number of legs, which means that a number of intermediate points are defined at
which the boat is steered from one leg on to the next. If these intermediate points
are in clear water well away from dangers there is no need for a high degree of
precision in determining when they have been reached.
ease of navigation
Sometimes it is helpful to identify a series of landmarks that should be passed
during a voyage, to give you a simple check that you are on course. For example
over a 5 mile passage you might expect to pass a lighthouse, followed by some
tall masts on a headland, followed by an east cardinal buoy a mile or so out to
sea. None of these plays any part in shaping your course, except to give you
reassurance that you are heading the right way, so there would be no point in
fixing their positions exactly.
One of the skills of a good navigator is to be able to apply precision when it is needed,
but another is to not waste time and effort applying it when it is not needed.
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Theory Lessons
GPS
GPS is a superb system now used almost universally for navigation at sea, though as
we shall see there are reasons for not relying on it totally.
Global Positioning System

Briefly describe how the system works. Many students may have GPS navigation devices
of their own in cars, on mobile phones, or in portable units for walking and cycling,
etc.
GPS consists of about 30 satellites in highly stable orbits around the Earth at an
altitude of about 20000km. It was developed and installed by the US military, and is
still operated by the US government. Each satellite sends out a signal giving its identity,
precise details of its orbit and the exact time.
receiver determines position using signal from 4+ satellites
The receiver contains navigation software which needs a signal from four or
more satellites to work out its own position. The software uses the information
from the four signals to determine 4 unknowns - three spatial dimensions, and
time. Normally a GPS receiver will be able to see 6 or more satellites at any one
time. The more satellites, the more accurate the position. [Instructors requiring
further information about how GPS works will find all they need, and more, on the
internet. The tutorial on the Trimble website is a good start.]
augmentation systems EGNOS/WAAS
There are various sources of error inherent in GPS (outside the scope of this
course). To overcome these, and in particular to make GPS more useful for
aviators, satellite augmentation systems have been developed. In the USA,
and generically, this is called WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System), and in
Europe it is called EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service).
They consist of ground-based stations whose position is known very accurately,
which receive normal GPS signals and calculate the difference between their
GPS position and their actual position. They then transmit corrections to special
satellites, which re-broadcast the corrections to normal GPS receivers. All
modern GPS receivers are WAAS-enabled. [There are 3 EGNOS satellites, in
geostationary orbit over the equator. They are low in the sky in the UK, which can
cause reception problems when close to high ground. Differential GPS is a similar
augmentation system which broadcasts corrections by radio rather than via
satellite. For most users, including divers, differential GPS has been superseded
by WAAS.]
GPS set displays lat/long
calculates distance/bearing to any other lat/long
Point out that GPS will give a distance/bearing regardless of the fact that this may
be straight through a headland or across land.
24/7 all-weather availability

Accurate and easy to use
Accuracy
15m and 3-5m with EGNOS
Specifying the accuracy of GPS is actually rather complicated: it depends on how
it is defined and on how it is measured. For example, any quoted figure will only
apply for a certain percentage (eg, 95%) of the time. But what does that mean?
Those interested should consult the extensive technical documentation that is
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Theory Lessons
available on the internet. Everyone else, whilst remembering that manufacturers

tend to use the most favourable measures to describe their products, should
understand that used properly, GPS is more than adequate to locate any dive site
for which an accurate position is known.
= good transits at 1nm and 400m
[Note: in terms of the table on VA10, 15m corresponds to an error of 30m and
3-5 to 6-10m.]
Also easy to misuse!

It is easy to make mistakes, and not always easy to spot them. GPS is not idiot-proof.
GPS limitations
Although GPS is a fantastic system, which no dive boat should be without, there are
some important things users must understand in order to use it safely and effectively.
Lat/long is just a number.....

If we describe positions using visual fixes, it is easy for us to picture in our mind where
things are, and how they relate to other features in the area: 'the wreck is about 50m W
of that red buoy just outside the breakwater', 'follow the red and green channel markers
for about two miles then you will see a big white sign marking the entrance to the
marina', 'we're 2 miles due south of Jackson's Point', 'we're in the George and Dragon,
upstairs by the window'. In contrast 'my position is 5324.237N 00219.419W' means
nothing unless it is plotted on a chart. Lat/long is just a number, ideal for computation
in GPS units and chart plotters, but unfortunately lat/long on its own means little to
most humans. This has two implications. Firstly, it means that it is particularly difficult
to spot mistakes in a lat/long, which means that we have to take precautions to guard
against errors. Secondly, because it is impracticable to plot positions on a chart in a
small boat (unless you use an electronic chart system which does it for you), nearly all
the navigation for a small boat has to be prepared before going to sea.
Geodetic datum
Even for a GPS unit, a lat/long is not quite enough to display a position precisely. It is
necessary to state the geodetic datum to which the position applies.
Earth not an exact sphere
The Earth is not a perfect sphere but is slightly flattened at the poles [illustrated
by the squashed orange]. Its shape is not constant either; it changes slowly due
to the movement of tectonic plates and other geological processes. To cater for
this, positions are referred to a mathematical model of the Earth's surface, called
a geodetic datum, in order to calculate a specific latitude and longitude for a
particular point.
different chart makers use different models
There are many different geodetic datums in existence, some produced in the
past when the Earth's shape was not known as precisely as it is today, and others
produced to emphasise regional features at the expense of global ones: all
geodetic datums contain some compromises. Every chart is drawn to a particular
geodetic datum, which will be identified somewhere on the title block. Point out
the datum on one or more charts.
All new charts are drawn to a datum called WGS84 [actually UKHO charts are
being drawn to ETRS89, which is compatible with WGS84.] However there are still
many charts in use drawn to different datums.
By default, GPS units display positions referenced to WGS84, but most units can
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Theory Lessons
be set to use any of a large range of alternatives. For the last 20 years or so,
charts drawn to older datums have included instructions for converting positions
between WGS84 and the chart datum, in a block entitled Satellite Derived
Positions. Point out a block on a chart.
Avoid the need to make conversions by using the latest charts wherever possible
significant differences
[The distorted coloured triangles on the orange on the VA illustrate how points
move depending on the exact shape chosen to represent the Earths surface}.
The errors introduced by using the wrong datum are significant. The diagram
shows how the apparent position of what is actually the same point on the
Earth's surface varies using three commonly encountered datums. WGS84 is the
modern standard; OSGB36 was the previous standard for Admiralty charts (UKHO
is converting all its older charts but had not finished the process in 2009); and
ED50 is the previous standard used for many European charts.
Limitations
[Mention some in-car GPS navigator stories if you have them egs, cars driving into
a river which was not shown on the map; people entering the wrong postcode and
ending up miles from their intended destination, having failed to notice where they
were going.]
must use correct datum
Using the wrong datum could easily put you over 100m from where you think you
are, which could lead the boat into danger, and could also result in you failing to
find your dive site.
garbage in garbage out
GPS units rarely validate the positions entered into them. If you make a keying
error, or enter a position that is otherwise incorrect, the GPS will happily accept it
and process it.
large errors if satellites obscured
GPS accuracy declines if the unit can only see the minimum number of satellites.
Out at sea in an open boat this is never a problem, but close up against high
ground or harbour walls it can be. GPS units will not work properly if the aerial is
indoors: this could be a problem if you are trying to use a portable unit inside a
large boat.
relies on accurate chart
Provided the above points are addressed, a GPS unit will provide an accurate lat/
long referenced to the chosen datum. For many purposes, the lat/long will then
be displayed on a chart, either manually or electronically. How well the resulting
picture mirrors the boat's actual position relative to its surroundings depends
on how accurate the chart is. Although modern charts are based on recent and
accurate surveys for areas that are heavily frequented by shipping, some of the
areas that divers operate in, close in amongst rocks for example, are areas that
most chart users avoid and they may not have been surveyed for many years.
Charts can have significant errors in such places, and an electronic display may
show you in safe water when you are not. In these areas it is prudent to navigate
using the echo sounder and the mark one eyeball.
can become inoperable
By definition GPS navigation relies on having the equipment available and
working. GPS units can and do become inoperable for many reasons. Some risks
can be mitigated by carrying a spare unit, perhaps a cheap handheld device, but
others are system wide. Prudent navigators should always be able to navigate
their boats to safety using traditional methods. A good dive boat navigator will
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Theory Lessons
also be able to find a selection of dive sites this way as well, though it is likely that
the loss of GPS and/or the echo sounder will rule out most offshore sites.
electrical faults
Loss of power supply, aerial problems, wiring faults, internal faults,
corrosion
damage, theft
Water ingress, hit by dive equipment or falling bodies, clumsy handling,
vandalism, theft
military operations
GPS is ultimately a military system. Sometimes military exercises may
involve jamming of signals locally, or reduction of accuracy for civilian
users.
Other methods
GPS and visual fixes are the prime methods of position fixing, but the following are
useful additions.
Depth soundings
checks other fix if deeper or shallower water nearby
If the expected position is in an area close to other areas that are significantly
different in depth, seeing the expected depth on the sounder provides
confirmation that you are where you should be. If the depth is similar for miles
around, it proves nothing.
get-me-home in fog
In poor visibility, with no GPS and no visual fixes, it may be possible to navigate by
following a depth contour along the edge of a steep slope.
crude position line where depth changes sharply
The previous example involved using the position line marked by the edge of a
steep slope as a kind of leading line. This technique involves crossing such a
position line. When the depth changes abruptly, you know you have crossed it and,
assuming it was what you had expected, your (rough) position is confirmed.
apply tidal height and transducer offset if depth variation is small
If applying the above methods where the change in depth between 'deep' and
'shallow' is about the same as the tidal range or smaller, apply the tidal range (and
on larger boats transducer offset if appropriate) so that you know the expected
depths more precisely.
Radar
Radar is a superb tool for larger boats, particularly in poor visibility when it compensates
for the restrictions on visual navigation. It is sometimes fitted to small open boats,
where its benefits may be rather limited.
range and bearing of land
It is possible to obtain a position fix by measuring the range and bearing of a
conspicuous radar target such as a headland. The bearing gives a position line,
and where the distance off intersects it gives the fix.
height of aerial problem for small boats
Radar works on line of sight. The lower the aerial the shorter the distance the
radar can see, particularly in bad weather when waves and heavy rain may
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Theory Lessons
cause clutter on the screen. The impracticality of mounting the heavy aerial unit
sufficiently high rules it out as a cost effective option for most small boats.
Summary
Simple fix
Position lines
compass bearing
transits
uses of position lines
Position fix
Visual fix accuracy
GPS
Other methods
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Theory Lessons
finding dive sites

Lesson Objectives
This lesson looks at the specific problems of locating dive sites, and describes how they
can be overcome.
Achievement Targets
appreciate the various ways in which supplied positions may be wrong
appreciate the type of information about a dive site that is required to help find it
understand the implications of sonar beam width on surface searches
know how to conduct a surface search
Finding Dive Sites

Outline
Most of the skills taught on this course are the same as those used by all mariners
to navigate from place to place across the surface of the sea. If the dive site is a
continuation of a feature which shows above the surface, or if it is marked by a buoy,
these skills are all you need. But for dive sites that are not marked, divers must also
be able to locate submerged objects precisely, from the surface. This lesson deals with
the skills and knowledge required.
Accuracy v precision
Problems with positions
Dive site information
Site location
Echo sounders
Search patterns
In planning your dive trip, you will have obtained a position for the dive site, either from a
chart, from a previous visit, or from a third party via guidebooks, websites, articles, etc.
You can plan a voyage to arrive at that surface position, but if the dive site is unmarked
you must then ensure that you are actually over the wreck, reef, or whatever it is that
you are expecting to dive. How easy this is depends on the quality of the position, in
terms of how closely it corresponds to the position of the dive site on the seabed.
The blue square on the VA represents an area of seabed. The following positions
each have a different precision: the figure in parentheses indicates the distance
corresponding to a change of one in the last decimal place.
Precise
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Theory Lessons
50 30.1234N (18cm)
001 10.4321W
This position describes a tiny area, and the precision is greater than normal GPS units
are capable of (3 decimal places is the normal maximum) so one might expect that no
searching would be necessary.
Less precise
50 30.10N (18m)
001 10.12W
This level of precision is probably as good as you will get reading from a chart.
Imprecise
50 30.1N (180m)
001 10.1W
Accurate
The actual location of the wreck shows why accuracy is more important than precision.
Not only does the (spuriously) precise position not put you over the wreck, but it also
fails to warn you in advance that a surface search may be required. In contrast the
imprecise position tells you that a search should be planned for.
accuracy essential
Without accuracy you are lost. The dive site could be anywhere. However, multiple
(believed to be inaccurate) positions may be better than nothing for either
illustrating the potential size of a search area, or for bolstering one's confidence in
a single (believed to be accurate) position.
precision needed depends on nature of dive site
Small sites such as a wreck or a pinnacle need a precise position, but for say a
scallop dive or a dive on a large reef it may be sufficient simply to drop divers in
the right general area.

Some positions are spot on
If you have a position known to be accurate and sufficiently precise, finding the dive
site should be easy. Whether the marks are GPS or visual: just navigate to the spot, and
drop the shot.
Others are not..........

Unfortunately even the best marks can be corrupted if data entry errors occur during
input to the GPS, and unverified positions are subject to errors from several different
sources.
notation eg 58 53 .50N
Positions written in degree/minute/second notation may be treated as if the
seconds were decimals of a minute. In the example, 50" might be entered as
0.50' which is wrong: half a minute is only 30". 50" is actually 0.83'.
mistakes eg 58 35.40S
Basic keying errors are common: numbers transposed eg 53 becomes 35, wrong
numbers eg 4 instead of 5, and wrong N/S or E/W suffix. GPS units used on small
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Theory Lessons
boats do not usually have a full keyboard for data entry and often use some kind
of scrolling system with the arrow and enter keys instead. It is all too easy to skip
over a digit so that it remains at its default value.
hand-me-downs
Many of the positions found in guidebooks, articles and websites have a long
history. They may have been compiled into lists which were then combined
with other lists, and then copied into spreadsheets where they were sorted
and analysed and extracted, then put onto websites from which they were
copied and merged with yet more lists, and so on. In the process they may have
accumulated a whole series of errors, as like was inadvertently combined with
unlike, as individual positions were 'tweaked', and so on.
obsolete systems Decca, SA
Some positions may have been taken using older, less accurate navigation
systems which are now obsolete. In particular the radio-based Decca navigation
system which was widely used until the late 1990s generated lat/longs that
could be hundreds of metres away from the equivalent GPS position, and
GPS positions recorded by civilian users before May 2000 were subject to a
deliberate random error called selective availability (SA) which could be up to
100m.
geodetic datum
The significance of geodetic datum was mentioned in the Position Fixing lesson.
With positions obtained from third parties, the geodetic datum may simply be
unknown. Until fairly recently many people were unaware of its significance.
deliberate
It is not unknown for positions given in certain guidebooks and on certain
websites to contain deliberate errors.
age of chart source data
There is normally a small chartlet which gives details of the hydrographic surveys
which provided the data used to populate the various areas of the chart. It
contains a table which lists the date and scale of each survey and assigns it a
letter. There is also a miniature version of the entire chart, divided up into areas.
Each area contains the letter corresponding to the survey from which that part
of the chart was drawn. The example on the VA shows that some of the surveys
were conducted over a century ago, and several of them pre-date modern
satellite position fixing methods. It is still common for the less frequented areas
shown on charts to be based on very old surveys. Old surveys are unlikely to be
accurate. Be aware of this when taking positions of dive sites from charts.
unspecified
The above list is not exhaustive, and one should never rule out the possibility of
unknown unknowns affecting the quality of dive site positions.
SMS Kln in Scapa Flow

Run through the example to illustrate the inaccuracies which may occur in positions
used to locate dive sites on a real example (although locating the Kln is unlikely to be
a diving issue for most people since all the major Scapa wrecks are buoyed, and their
exact positions are well known to the commercial skippers from whose boats the vast
majority of dives are made). The positions quoted in this example were all current in
2009.
Do your homework!
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Theory Lessons

The more information the navigator has about the target to be searched for, the better
the chances of finding it. The information required is different from that needed by a
dive manager, although there is some overlap. Dive managers need to know about
points of interest and hazards, so that they can brief divers appropriately. Navigators
need to know how to distinguish the dive site from its surroundings.
Sea bed depth and flatness

Depth determines the sonar beam width (covered in more detail later), and hence
the width of search lanes. If there are extremely shallow parts there may be a risk of
the boat hitting them. If the target rises abruptly from a flat seabed it will be easier to
detect than if it is amidst undulating ground.
Height of the site above the sea bed

If the site stands well clear of everything around it, it should be easy to spot, but if it is
very close to the seabed it will not be so easy. This information can help in selecting
the best settings on the echo sounder.
Site profile where are the tall parts?

Knowing the profile of the site will make it easier to find the highest parts of the site
once some part of it has been located. It is normal practice to place the shot on the
shallowest part of a dive site.
Orientation direction of the long side

Knowing the orientation of the site if it is long and thin (a wreck is the obvious example)
is important when planning the best search pattern. It also helps navigation around
the site once it has been located.
Pilotage
Guidebooks (and other divers) sometimes provide annotated photographs or diagrams
of dive sites which are close up against land. Armed with this information, assuming
it is correct, you may be able to navigate right on top of the dive site without the need
for transits or GPS.
Know what you are looking for
Echo sounders
The echo sounder is the most commonly used detection device. Briefly explain how it
works, and hence what it would show. Give examples of what it could be used to search
for.
Principles of sonar
transducer emits sound pulses
time delay of reflected pulse indicates depth
results displayed on scrolling screen
strength of echoes often colour coded
The strength of an echo is influenced by the type of material, so for example soft
materials like mud and weed give weaker echoes than hard ones like rock and
metal.
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Theory Lessons
Using echo sounders

A target which is large compared to its surroundings, such as an underwater pinnacle
or a wreck standing well clear of a flat bottom, is normally easy to identify using an echo
sounder. However locating targets which are less distinct, and identifying details on
even the largest targets, is more difficult.
beam angle affects footprint and definition
The beam angle depends on the transducer. Most manufacturers offer narrow
(10-12) and wide (20+) transducers, and some units may have both. A wide
beam has the bigger footprint at any given depth, which means that the area of
seabed searched is greater but the signals returned from the target are weaker
because the transducer's power is dispersed over a larger area. On the other
hand, a narrow beam concentrates the power, giving better definition of detail.
Echo sounder footprints are quite small. A narrow beam transducer in 15m of
water may have a footprint of as little of 3m. Note that this is comparable to the
accuracy of GPS. Even transducers described as wide beam may have a footprint
of less than 15m in 40m of water. Point out the implications for getting 100%
coverage with a search.
screens need interpreting
Put simply, the trace displayed from a single ping is a vertical line which is a
composite of all the reflections within the transducer's footprint, so the profile
of the seabed drawn on the screen as the boat moves along is not an exact
representation of the seabed directly underneath the boat but an average of
everything within the path swept out along the seabed by the footprint.
The screen scrolls at a constant rate so the relationship of the trace to the actual
seabed profile is also affected by boat speed. For example, a sloping seabed will
appear steeper the faster the boat is going.
Interpreting the echoes shown on the screen can be quite an art.
read the manual
Although most echo sounders have an auto setting which means they will work
straight out of the box, they normally have a variety of controls which adjust the
way that signals are processed, in addition to functions which activate alarms and
adjust the display settings. To achieve optimum results in different conditions,
learn how to use the unit to its full potential. Start by reading the manual, or
getting someone to demonstrate each function in detail.
practise, practise, practise!
Using an echo sounder for surface searching is far from an exact science.
It demands detailed knowledge of the equipment used and experience in
interpreting sonar screens. This can only be gained through practice.
Site location
This VA describes the procedure for approaching the position of the dive site. If using a
shotline you may decide to prepare it before locating the dive site and shot the site on
the first pass, or you may decide to find the site first and shot it later.
Begin by following the route towards the site until ready to turn on to the final
approach.
Using transits
If using transits to fix the dive site, use one of them as a leading line.
keep nearest transit to tide in line
Wherever possible, choose a transit leading into the tide (or wind if that is having
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Theory Lessons
the greatest effect on the boat). This is the easiest way to hold the boat on a
steady course, and to stop it when required.
slow down as 2nd transit comes up
As the dive site approaches you must slow down so that you have time to monitor
the echo sounder properly, you do not overshoot the site, and if necessary the
crew can deploy the shot. 3-4 knots is fast enough.
monitor echo sounder
when target appears
mark if necessary
Mark a site with a shotline, or place an electronic marker on the GPS
screen. All marine GPS units have a man overboard function (MOB)
which could be used, but most allow instant placement of a waypoint
at the current position which is better, since it reserves the MOB for
emergencies.
search for best bit
If nothing is found, begin a search pattern.
Using GPS
The procedure when using GPS is very similar. Head into the wind/tide where possible.
The GPS unit will indicate the required course.
follow GPS/compass course towards waypoint
The GPS will always give a reliable course to steer to the waypoint, but do not
rely on the GPS to give the boat's current heading. Use the steering compass to
follow course that the GPS asks for. At slow speeds, and during turns, the heading
displayed by a GPS always lags behind the actual heading. This can lead to the
helmsman overcorrecting, making it difficult to settle on a steady course.
slow down when close
use sounder and mark target as above
If you have good pilotage information for locating a dive site close to land [example on
Finding VA5] use GPS to navigate to a waypoint near the area and then motor slowly
over to the marks. Confirm using GPS coordinates, if available. Wrecks close up against
the shore are often broken up and scattered over uneven rocky ground, making them
almost impossible to identify positively on the sounder.
Searches
Search patterns
Various search patterns are possible. Draw parallels with those used for underwater
searches, eg circular around an initially deployed shotline or electronic marker; or
lane pattern with or without deployed shotline(s) to help. Each search pattern has its
advantages and disadvantages, but the final choice of search pattern also depends on
factors including the size of the expected search area, the weather and sea conditions,
the nature of the target, and the technology and resources available.
Spiral search
Circling around a mark in ever increasing circles, or spiral, needs a good judge of
distance, so it is only suitable for searching a relatively small area. As the original
compass heading is approached at the end of each circuit, the distance from the mark
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Theory Lessons
is increased to widen the search area. The constantly changing heading makes it very
difficult for the helmsman to correct for any tide, which means that spiral searches do
not work well in a current.
Square spiral search

An increasing square search pattern can be made using compass headings and timed
'legs'. This pattern has similar applications to the spiral search, but the use of straight
'legs' means that it can be extended over a larger area, further from the datum, without
becoming haphazard.
spiral where early result expected
Both types of spiral search work outward from a point, which makes them useful
for a quick search when the mark is known to be on or close to the target, so that
an early result is expected eg, looking for the highest point of a site after it has
been located.
Rectangular search
A rectangular search pattern can be made, using compass or GPS headings and timed
or distance-measured 'legs'.
rectangular for large areas
This pattern is suitable for methodical searches of larger areas, as might be
required when only a rough position of a wreck is available. It is important to
ensure 100% coverage, and to have a means of recording which areas have been
searched.
Search datum
electronic marker
An electronic marker on the GPS screen makes it easy to monitor the coverage
of the search. The 'snail trail' on the screen shows the areas searched and
those not, provided that the screen has sufficient size and resolution to record
the boats track in a readable manner. However when using this method it is
important to guard against getting fixated by the screen and so failing to look
where you are going.
shot
A shotline can be used alone for searches of a sufficiently small area that
distance from the buoy can be judged sufficiently accurately by eye. Sometimes it
is useful to place a shot to aid orientation even when GPS is being used.
Searching for new sites can be time consuming and it needs to be methodical. On
finding the site, another datum marker/shot should be deployed and, if wanting to
locate the site again in the future, transits and/or GPS position noted.
Consider
sonar footprint v lane width
The distance between lanes is determined by the width of the coverage of the
seabed provided by the equipment. As discussed earlier, the footprint of an echo
sounder can be quite small, which means that search lanes are narrow and
accurate helming is necessary to ensure 100% coverage.
wind/tide/sea state
The weather and tidal conditions influence the choice of search pattern because
they determine how easy it is to hold the boat on any particular course. It is
normally best to steer directly into the tide or to run with it, because a cross
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Theory Lessons
tide deflects a boat from its heading especially when it is travelling slowly, as
it is during a search. However wind, and more particularly waves, can make
a particular course uncomfortable. Also, significant amounts of rolling can
affect the operation of the echo sounder. These considerations mean that
the rectangular search pattern is usually preferable in all but the most benign
conditions.
shape of target
When searching for long narrow targets, such as shipwrecks, it makes sense
to search at right angles to their length rather than along it (assuming the
orientation is known) because it increases the number of passes which will go
over the wreck, and hence increases the chance of detecting it.
Summary
The problems of identifying dive sites can largely be eliminated by sticking to well
known sites or by using a hired skipper with a charter boat. But that also eliminates
the achievement of doing your own site location, and the pleasure and adventure to be
gained from exploring new sites.
Site location
Echo sounders
Search patterns
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Theory Lessons
voyage planning
Lesson Objectives
Voyage planning is thinking about what you are going to do before you do it. Before
putting to sea, every skipper is required by maritime law to have considered the
passage to be undertaken in the light of the expected conditions and the capabilities
of the vessel and its crew, and to have made appropriate contingency plans. This duty
applies to the person in charge of a RIB or a hardboat just as much as to the captain of
a supertanker. On larger vessels the fine detail of navigating the route may be worked
out during the voyage. But this is impractical in fast or open boats, and so all aspects of
navigation have to be prepared in advance. This lesson teaches how to do it.
Achievement Targets
understand the concept of waypoint planning
know how to choose waypoints
be able to select appropriate practical navigational methods to make it easier to
locate the target
appreciate the importance of eliminating input errors when using GPS
be able to list the topics covered in a voyage plan
appreciate the legal duties placed on ship' masters by SOLAS V
know how to deal with the effect of tide on a boat
appreciate the mental approach required for successful navigation
appreciate how voyage planning methods can be applied when charter boat diving

A copy of the Model voyage plan for each student
Voyage Planning
Outline
Waypoint navigation
Choosing waypoints
Voyage planning
Allowing for tide
Practical navigation
Charter boats
Navigation Zen
Example
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Theory Lessons
Waypoints
Click through the VA and describe what a waypoint is.
Waypoint
a navigationally significant point along a boats route
Examples
destination/dive site
home port
intermediate points
Established by
Waypoints are selected from a chart, but they need to be identified at sea using one or
more of the various methods of position fixing:
simple fix
compass bearing and/or transits
position from GPS
Choosing waypoints
Most of the time simply following a series of positions on the GPS will work, but a good
navigator will try to choose the waypoints so that progress can be confirmed by other
means. This makes the voyage plan more robust if there are mistakes or if equipment
fails. It gives added confidence to the person driving the boat and by providing an
element of cross checking, helps identify errors in good time.
Even if no visual fixes are available, it is good practice to use the calculated elapsed
time for each leg to check that each waypoint is reached in roughly the expected time,
allowing for any variations in boat speed.
Look for visual fixes

The exact position of intermediate waypoints is usually somewhat arbitrary, in which
case provided they are surrounded by safe water a precise visual fix is not necessary.
For inshore work the crossing of a position line at roughly the right distance from land
is adequate.
transits opening, closing
The classic transit of objects in line is ideal, but where exact positioning is not
needed opening and closing are useful concepts.
Open means that a view has opened up. For example when running along a chain
of islands the channels between them will not be visible until you reach each one.
The channel opens as you reach it and have an unobstructed view through it.
Closing means the opposite. For example you may be able to see two headlands
ahead of you, one more distant than the other. If you turn inshore before the
first headland the distant one will eventually be obscured. It is then said to have
closed.
If necessary use further practical examples around the classroom to get these
ideas across.
bearings of nearby objects
Suitable transits may not be available, so bearings can be used instead. It is
difficult to steer and take a bearing at the same time so it is helpful if someone
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Theory Lessons
other than the helmsman can take it.

It is important to understand how the bearing should change as you travel past
the waypoint. Set the students an example around the classroom and let them
work it out.
depth changes
Courses with visual aim point

Courses with visual aim points make it easy for the helmsman to hold the course and
look where the boat is going at the same time. Using GPS alone to keep on course
tempts you to look at the instruments rather than the surroundings.
leading lines
clearing lines
bearing on objects/features
Where the bearing defines the course, the steering compass is used, so the
helmsman can check the bearing and keep a lookout at the same time.
Ask the students why you need a bearing. Why not just aim at the object?
Techniques
aiming off
This technique is useful where a dive site lies alongside a linear feature like a cliff.
If you were to aim directly at the dive site, errors could throw you off to either side
of it so when you arrived you would be unsure which side it was on. By aiming for
the linear feature well to one side, on arrival you turn in the appropriate direction
and follow it down to the dive site.
attack points
An attack point can be used when you are trying to find a very small feature. If
you attempted to navigate to it from a long way away you could easily miss it. By
aiming for a nearby much larger feature which can be found easily, the attack
point, you will reach a known point from which the small feature can be found
more easily.
buoy hopping
Buoy hopping consists of navigating by following from one simple fix to another.
The classic example from which the technique gets its name is following a buoyed
channel. However the same principle can be applied when following any type of
simple fix. This method of navigation is also known as pilotage.
straight to GPS position
Often with an accurate GPS position surrounded by clear water there is no need
for any special techniques. If so, head directly towards the dive site. Navigational
techniques are a means to an end. If they are not needed do not use them.
Waypoint navigation
Run through the VA describing each step in creating a passage plan. The illustration
is based on the form used throughout the course, but the method would apply just
the same using an electronic chart system, or even the back of an envelope. Using an
electronic system details such as bearings, distances and lat/longs will be captured
automatically, saving time and eliminating the possibility of transcription errors.
Plot course on chart
Define and list waypoints
There are two columns on the form. Waypoint details contains the meat: lat/long,
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Theory Lessons
nature of waypoint etc.

WPT is simply an identifier for the waypoint. When waypoints are entered into a
GPS unit they must have an identifier code attached to them so that the unit can
distinguish one waypoint from another. Usually the GPS names them by default
eg 0001, 0002, etc. Many club GPS units are full of waypoints with meaningless
names, often with multiple entries of the same position. Assigning unambiguous
codes to your waypoints may make reusing them easier.
Measure bearings
The bearing is the bearing of the leg from the previous waypoint to the current
one. Writing down the reciprocal means that you can easily use the waypoints in
reverse order for the homeward trip, if necessary.
Measure distances
The distance is the length of the leg from the previous waypoint to the current one.
Estimate speed
Obviously, this depends on the boat and the conditions. Make your best guess
taking into account all the factors. The method allows a different speed for each
leg so that you can take account of, for example, travelling in areas of speed
restriction such as harbours, travelling in sheltered water, and exposed legs where
rough water is expected.
Estimate time
Notes as required
Record details of fixes, aiming points, hazards, etc which apply to the leg.
Result
Overall distance & time
This is crucial information for working out actual departure and arrival times, and
for estimating fuel consumption. If there is uncertainty about what boat speed can
be achieved, work out the overall time at a variety of possible speeds to see how
much contingency would be required in different circumstances.
Step-by-step passage plan
You have created a concise step by step plan which should be sufficient to
navigate the boat to and from the dive site without needing to do any working out
at sea.
Waypoint navigation with GPS

Series of waypoints = route
Most units will accept a series of waypoints as a route, so that when one waypoint is
reached the unit automatically starts to navigate towards the next. Alternatively the
navigator can switch between waypoints manually.
The GPS unit will calculate and display a variety of useful parameters based on the
boat's progress towards the next waypoint. Depending on the particular model it may be
necessary to select one or more different screens in order to see all the information.
bearing & distance to next waypoint
averaged speed, course, eta
continuously updated
If the boat deviates from its intended course the GPS will automatically change
the required bearing and update the distance to go and eta accordingly.
waypoint alarm
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Theory Lessons
straight lines only!

A GPS unit provides all of the above information for any waypoint entered,
wherever it is. The bearing and distance will be in a straight line from the current
position, regardless of any obstacles that may be in the way. It is very important
to be aware of this at all times. The planned course which was entered into the
GPS will have been free of obstructions, but if the boat deviates from it the new
headings provided by the GPS could lead into danger.
Garbage in garbage out

GPS and entered lat/long must be same datum normally WGS84
apply correction where different
check for input errors
If a lat/long has been entered incorrectly, one or both of bearing and distance of
a leg will be wrong. Most GPS units have a planning mode which enables you to
check each leg against what was expected from the chart as you enter the data.
With high precision waypoints, such as a wreck, the lat/long itself should be
checked because even small errors are unacceptable.
Always plot your route on a chart first

A GPS unit has no local information. This can only be obtained from a chart. Plotting
your route on a chart helps to visualise it and eliminate mistakes.
paper
Paper charts are excellent. You can write on them, and you can see large areas
and full detail simultaneously.
electronic may simplify or eliminate measurements and data entry
Electronic charts are excellent productivity tools. For planning, they are best when
viewed on a large screen. PC-based planning tools based on Admiralty raster
charts can be purchased very cheaply [Bellfield c70, UKHO c50, in January
2010 - check latest products and availability before giving out details].
take waterproof copy with you
The navigator should always have a copy of the relevant charts available at sea.
Any electronic system can fail, so there must be a paper backup. In an open boat
it must be waterproof or carried in a waterproof case. Remind students of the
weatherproof versions of charts mentioned in Chart basics. Electronic chart users
may be able to print a chart (copyright permitting) and laminate it.
Preparing the voyage plan

It is a legal requirement for the master of a vessel to make a voyage plan before going
to sea.
Route alone is not enough

For a fast open boat it is essential to have worked out the route details required to
navigate to the dive site in advance. However, a detailed route plan is not a legal
requirement, whereas other things are. The proposed voyage must be assessed against
the prevailing conditions to make sure that it can be conducted safely.
SOLAS V regulations
The legal requirements for voyage planning are set out in Annex five of the Safety of
Life at Sea convention SOLAS V. This course is about navigation techniques, not the
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Theory Lessons
responsibilities of skippers, coxswains and dive managers, so some aspects of SOLAS

V are greyed out in the following list, and are just given a mention.
Under BSAC guidelines, all boats used for diving should be under the supervision of
someone who has completed a BSAC Boathandling course, as a minimum, and has
therefore been trained in these topics.
weather
The master should obtain an up to date weather forecast and use it to determine
if conditions are suitable for the planned voyage. Swell forecasts are also useful in
areas subject to swell from distant storms. Force 4 is the maximum wind strength
for diving in open water (ie, places exposed to the full force of the wind and
waves).
exposure of site/route
On this course, students should think about the vulnerability of their
chosen route to the weather: wind, waves, and swell, and record any
particularly exposed sections, and places subject to wind over tide, on the
voyage plan.
shelter from wind/waves
Waves and swell can make life uncomfortable for passengers, even when
they pose no hazard to navigation, so where practicable, choose a route
which is sheltered from the weather.
Shelter from the waves can be found behind any ground on which the
waves break, even rocks just below the surface. High ground gives shelter
from wind and waves. Point out that the wind will tend to blow strongly
through narrow channels with high ground either side,
tides
limitations of the vessel
Students on this course should check that the length of the voyage is within the
boat's range, by estimating the fuel requirements.
crew
navigational dangers
contingency plan
Students should identify safe havens which can be reached in case of unexpected
bad weather or other emergencies, and record sufficient detail to navigate to
them. Emphasise that this is for emergencies not alternative dive sites.
leave information ashore
If using RIBs
1 sheet, waterproof, legible
The voyage plan needs to be concise so that it is easy to use in an open boat.
Unnecessary paperwork?
The law does not actually require any aspects of voyage planning to be written down;
it simply requires that the required tasks should be carried out. This course assumes
that students are planning voyages to destinations that are new to them in unfamiliar
waters, which means that to ensure safe navigation detailed plans should be taken to
sea. [At this stage, students are better with too much detail than not enough, but with
experience, they should learn to judge what constitutes 'enough' for them].
However, divers will not see many charter boat skippers operating from detailed voyage
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Theory Lessons
plans: if you genuinely 'know these waters like the back of your hand', have made the
voyage in question many times before, and are confident that you can still navigate
safely if contingencies arise, there is no seamanship value in plotting out and recording
a voyage plan every time.
Those fearful of litigation and insurance claims may wish to keep comprehensive written
records of all their boating and diving activities as possible evidence. That is a personal
decision, outside the scope of this course.
Planning process
Summarise the whole planning process, emphasising where steps are dependent on
their predecessors. The detail of what happens in each step is covered later in the
lesson.
Pick sites
After picking the dive sites you can get on with the next four tasks in parallel.
Determine slack
Determine tides
Get local info
Check launch
Using the tide times, work out the times when launching and recovery will be
possible.
Plan route
Once you have worked out the route on the chart you can get on with these next three
tasks in parallel.
Contingency
Check fuel
Set up GPS
Set timings
Waterproof backup
Check weather
Note that this task stands alone, with no predecessors: you can't plan the weather!
Go diving
Pre-planning
Although planning is shown as a linear process, it makes sense to do some rough
estimates to establish the feasibility of a proposed dive trip before planning it in detail.
It may be necessary to consider several proposals before coming up with one that
will work. For example, sometimes the starting point may be a timeslot rather than a
particular site, so you would begin by looking at the tides and seeing what would be
possible.
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Theory Lessons
Voyage plan
Explain what goes in each section of this part of the voyage plan. Details of the route
are recorded on the form covered earlier (or its equivalent).
Dive site
This section should contain the information necessary to locate the dive site, such as
transits, depths, orientation, dimensions etc. Point out that dive managers will require
extra and different information in order to plan the diving and brief the divers, which is
not necessary for navigation and need only be recorded here if convenient.
Tides
port, HW/LW, heights, slack, streams, direction
All these topics have been covered earlier in the course. It is important to take the
relevant information to sea.
Local information
Local information may be scattered across many different sources. Some harbour
authorities and local councils publish booklets of rules and regulations relating to
their area. There are often launching fees to pay, and slipway owners may want to
see evidence of insurance and boating qualifications. In some areas boats have to be
registered with the local authorities.
Details may be found in almanacs, and on the internet. Remind students that local
rules and regulations can change so it is important to use up to date and reliable
sources of information.
launching/recovery
Some slipways are only useable at certain states of the tide. Slipways may also
become unusable in certain weather conditions. Record such limitations on the
voyage plan.
VHF channels, Coastguard
In busy shipping areas VHF channel usage may be strictly controlled, and it is
important to know which channels are used for which purpose. This information
can be found from almanacs. Coastguard operations are controlled from units
called an MRCC (Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre). Each MRCC covers a
very large area so it is not obvious which one to call unless you check. In some
areas there are more local coastguard units called MRSCs. Contact information
can be found in almanacs and on the MCA website.
hazards, rules
Natural hazards, such as areas of overfalls, exposure to waves and swell, and
strong tidal streams, should be identified from the charts and navigational
publications used during route planning and should be recorded on the voyage
plan. Other hazards and rules such as high speed ferries, exclusion zones, military
exercise areas, etc should also be recorded.
Navigation
The first two items below are recorded separately on the detailed plan described
earlier.
waypoints/passage plan
timings
boat range
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Theory Lessons
The boat's range is how far it can travel on the amount of fuel it can carry. The
range is determined by the boats design, its loading, the sea conditions, and the
manner and speed in which it is driven. Use the boat's actual fuel consumption if
known and if not use the formula at the bottom of the voyage plan. Apply the rule
of thirds (one third to get there, one third back, one third for contingency) and do
not forget that the boat will also be burning fuel whilst patrolling the dive site.
[If operating well offshore range also depends on whether the boat is designed
and equipped for the purpose, and on whether the crew are suitably qualified
and experienced. However that is outside the scope of this course.]
contingency
Record any contingency arrangements, such as nearby safe havens or landing
places that could be used in emergency. Provide enough detail that they could be
navigated to easily. Point out that for most dives, nothing elaborate is necessary:
if distances are fairly short, return to base is adequate contingency; and provided
there are no off-lying dangers, heading for the coast and then turning left or right
for home may be all the navigation that is required.
Weather
This is space [for the person in charge (skipper/coxswain/dive manager)] to record the
weather forecast for the day. How to do this is covered on the BSAC Dive Leader course,
and also on the Boat Handling and Dive Planning and Management SDCs.
Allowing for tide

None of the planning covered so far has allowed for the effect that the tide may have
on a boat's course. Usually, the helmsman can compensate for the tide by the way the
boat is steered, but this is not always the case so navigators must understand how the
tide affects a boat.
Tide will push boat off course

biggest effect
tide at 90
The deflection is greatest when the tide is at right angles to the direction
of travel. The smaller the angle the less the effect.
A tide on the bow or dead astern will cause no deflection, but it will affect
the boat's speed. With large boats, which usually travel relatively slowly,
the direction of the tide can make a substantial difference to journey
times.
fast tide
The faster the tide, the bigger the effect.
slow boat
The ratio between boat speed and tide speed is significant. If the boat is
travelling much faster (at least 5 or 6 times) than the tide, the effect will
be fairly small. Even so, the distance off course will add up over a long
distance. If the boat and tide are going at similar speeds the tide has a
large effect on the boat's motion over the ground. In some circumstances
a boat may even be driven backwards.
[One implication is that some large boats may be unable to provide good
safety cover for divers in very tidal areas.]
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Theory Lessons
<5 if planing across 1-2kn tide

In broad terms, a RIB that is on the plane (ie doing 10-15kn or more) across a
moderate tide will be deflected no more than 5 degrees.
4kn+ tides are significant
Even the fastest dive boats are likely to be affected by tides as strong as this.
>45 possible when manoeuvring
At low speeds boats may have to ferry glide to manoeuvre: they will appear to
approach their target almost sideways.
Correct by
with GPS use XTE or course line
The easiest way to cope with tides is to use the cross track error (XTE) display
on a GPS. The unit will calculate how much the boat has been deflected from
its course from the origin to the next waypoint, and give the required course
corrections. Alternatively using a chart plotter the helmsman can adjust the
heading manually to stay on the displayed course line.
Effectively, following the GPS enables you to more or less ignore the tide while
travelling at high speed to and from the dive site.
manually adjust course
Using a visual fix such as a leading line, the helmsman will be able to steer so
as to stay on course and keep a lookout at the same time. It is helpful if the
navigator can plan the route so that suitable visual marks can be used.
If the boat has no GPS and no visual fixes are available, such as when heading
straight out to sea, it may be necessary to make a manual course adjustment.
This means adjusting the bearing taken from the chart to give a new course which
allows for the tide. This method is not often required in diving situations.
adjustment chart in notes
The chart in Appendix D shows the course correction that would be required for
various combinations of boat/tide speed ratio and tide angle of to boat course.
Practical navigation
Use the following miscellaneous items to reinforce points made earlier, and to offer
solutions to common problems.
Dont get set on to dangers

The tide can push the boat sideways into danger. In a situation like the one depicted,
the mark will always be directly ahead of the boat, fooling the helmsman into thinking
the boat is travelling in a straight line. Look for additional visual references, or use the
GPS, and/or plan ahead.
Get positive ID on marks

It is said that most groundings occur in broad daylight and good visibility to vessels
whose crew thought they knew where they were. People see what they expect to see, so
mistakes are not detected until it is too late. Do not be casual or lazy: take the trouble
to get positive confirmation on all marks.
Use back bearings

When travelling out to sea there is usually a shortage of visual marks to aim for. Back
bearings are often a useful substitute, although less convenient for the helmsman.
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Theory Lessons
Look behind as you leave a waypoint to identify the view for

the way back
It is not only specific marks, but also having a general picture of what the land looks
like that makes navigation easier and more reliable. By looking behind as you leave a
waypoint you can see what to look for on your return.
Keep track of time

Use the elapsed times for each leg to check that you are on course. There are so many
factors that can affect boat speed - sea state, loading, passenger comfort, slowing to
adjust things that have come loose, etc - that it is not sensible to expect timings to
be accurate to the second. But if the plan was for the next waypoint to appear in 10
minutes and there is no sign of it after 15, it may be a sign that something has gone
wrong.
It is also worth keeping track of the eta at the dive site. For example, if you have a long
journey to a slack water dive and it looks like you will not be there in time, it may make
sense to abort and go to a nearer site rather than have a wasted journey.
[The recommendation to use time as the principal method of High Speed Navigation
which was in earlier versions of CPF has been superseded.]
Charter boats
This VA looks at how the techniques learned on this course may still be useful when
diving from a charter boat with a professional skipper.
Voyage planning applies to all

Although this course is primarily aimed at users of small open dive boats the basic
techniques, and the requirements of SOLAS V, apply to all types of vessel regardless of
size or function.
charter boat = skipper
On a charter boat, the skipper is responsible for navigation of the boat and for
locating the dive sites. In terms of navigation, safety and responsibility, there is no
need for anyone in the dive party to do any voyage planning at all.
distance and time = cost
A charter boat is a commercial operation whose principal variable costs are
the fuel used and the wages (or perhaps on a liveaboard, working hours) of the
skipper and crew. Both of these items are closely related to the distance and
duration of the dive trip.
large boats more affected by tide
Liveaboards and some day boats are displacement craft, which means they are
quite slow with top speeds typically in the 7-10kn range. Tidal streams of 2kn or
more are common around the UK, which is quite significant for a slow boat. For
example, tides at the southern end of the Sound of Mull reach 3kn on springs. A
boat travelling at 7kn through the water might take an hour and a half to cover
this section against the tide but only 45 minutes going with it.
Large boats are also less manoeuvrable, particularly in strong tides and in
amongst rocks, making them unsuitable for some types of dive site unless they
carry a tender capable of carrying divers to and from the dive site.
overall plan for multi-day trips
Unless it is intended to return to the same port each night, multi-day trips
(normally on a liveaboard) have extra planning considerations to be taken into
account. The skipper will want to minimise the overall distance travelled by
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Theory Lessons
avoiding zigzagging between dive sites, and the plan will have to be flexible
enough to cope with bad weather. On trips lasting several days it is likely that at
some point the boat will be more than a day's sail from the home port, so the
skipper will not want to get into a situation where bad weather stops the boat
getting back in time for the next charter. For this reason it is a good idea to head
for the furthest point of a trip early on, allowing more time for the return.
Do rough voyage plans

Some divers are happy to let the skipper do everything, including selecting the dive
sites. There is nothing wrong with that, but if you wish to have more control over where
and how you dive it is well worth doing some rough planning of your own.
understand whats possible
If you have some particular sites that you wish to dive, do a rough voyage plan,
checking that what you want to do is feasible in terms of tides, distances and
timings. Think about the effects of the weather on the site: for example, an
onshore wind may make it difficult to pick up divers who surface close to the
rocks. For multi-day trips plan to visit the dive sites and the overnight stops in a
sensible order without excessive zigzagging and going back on yourself, which
would unnecessarily lengthen the journey and extend the skipper and crew's
working day.
shape expectations
Organisers of dive trips can use voyage planning to help shape the expectations
of the other divers on the trip. Many divers have little awareness of their
surroundings when they are on a boat: some may have no idea of the geography
connecting the various sites they have dived or the ports they have visited.
Doing rough voyage plans will help to include requested sites where possible, and
to explain why diving other sites is not possible.
improve negotiations
If for any reason you wish to change what the skipper thinks should happen in
terms of the dive plans, you will be in a stronger position to negotiate if you have
done your homework. Skippers rely on repeat business and if what you request is
well thought out and does not require extra work for no extra income, most will be
happy to agree.
mutual respect?
Obviously there is a great more to interpersonal relations than attending a CPF
course, but understanding voyage planning will help you understand a dive trip
from the skipper's point of view, and demonstrating that you know what you are
talking about may make the skipper more ready to see your point of view.
Dive site research if exploratory diving

By definition, exploratory diving involves locating and diving sites that are unknown
even to the skipper. Adventurous divers who wish to do this potentially very rewarding
type of diving will need to make full use of the techniques covered in the lesson Finding
Dive Sites. In particular they will need to do as much research as possible to find
out about the target and its surroundings, to maximise the chances of finding it. This
type of diving needs to be planned by or in conjunction with a dive manager with the
appropriate skills and experience.
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Theory Lessons
Navigation Zen
To be a good navigator requires more than just the ability to apply a set of procedures.
It requires the right state of mind as well. Having the right mental approach helps the
navigator cope with all the problems and uncertainties that can arise. There may be
mistakes or equipment may fail; things may not be where they should be or they may
not look like you expected them to look; you can never be sure what might be lurking
just below the surface of the sea; the weather may be bad with poor visibility and rough
seas. Unless you only ever go on voyages you have made many times before, in benign
conditions and with good luck, you will never be completely sure of your exact position
at all times. In these circumstances confidence is important. Knowing how to apply the
navigation methods taught on this course should give you confidence, but applying the
following mental techniques listed below will ensure that your confidence remains well
founded.
Navigation is not just a set of procedures

stay alert
use a wide variety of techniques
Cross check the results. If they are not consistent find out why. There may be a
problem.
develop a mental picture of your route
compare what you can see with your mental picture
keep track of where you are
look where you are going
Getting fixated by looking at a screen is a common problem for the helmsman, but
they can be distracted by other things as well. Point out that this point is not about
keeping a good lookout, though that is essential, but about checking the boat's
progress on its voyage.
look around you
It is important to gather as much information from the surroundings as possible,
which means looking in every direction not just along the boat's heading.
KISS
Keep It Simple Stupid
The students will get the chance to practise these techniques on the practical day.
Example
Take the students through the model voyage plan. They should each have a paper
colour copy of the handout CPF09 VPexample. Refer to the instructor's version CPF09
VPexample_annotated which contains further notes on the entries.
[The model voyage plan in VA14-15 may be replaced by an example based on a local
dive site familiar to the students, at the instructor's discretion.]
RIB dive in Loch Nevis on W coast of Scotland

launch/recovery at Mallaig
dive Smyth Rock
Handout contains
passage plan
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Theory Lessons
voyage plan
marked up chart
Example
Exercise
Introduce the exercise, which will be the next session on the course.
Work in groups with an instructor

Voyage planning only, not dive planning
charts of the area
dive guides, almanac
local information
chart 5011
local tidal information
current weather forecast
waterproof slate for recording voyage plan
Day 2
carry out your plan
Summary
Considered all aspects of voyage planning relevant to
operating area for practical navigation exercises
identified relevant information from a chart
obtained tidal information & understood its impact on the practical navigation
exercises
defined a route
documented the information needed to navigate the route
considered contingency plans
Planning exercise
If required display VA19 (requires tailoring) during the Voyage planning exercise which
follows this lesson.
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Theory Lessons
Open Forum
Lesson Objectives
This brief lesson ends the course by setting chartwork and position fixing in the context
of dive organisation and management as a whole. It should summarise the key points
which the students should take away with them, hand out any remaining course
documentation, and give students a final opportunity to ask questions.
The logistics for the course are such that it would not normally resume at the dry venue
after the practical afloat, so the contents of this session should be delivered informally
'in the car park' as the final debrief at the end of the course.
Achievement Targets
understand the role that chartwork and position fixing plays in dive management
and planning, and in boathandling
have had an opportunity to ask any remaining questions
Additional Visual Aids

There are no VAs for this session.
Contents
Course debriefing
Highlight the key messages from the course and comment upon the students'
performances where appropriate.
chart basics
measurement basics
tides
finding dive sites
voyage planning
navigation at sea - all day on the boats
Conclusion
The techniques learned can be applied to the navigation of any type of vessel. The
course has used paper charts, but the principles apply equally well when using
electronic navigation systems. Always remember that it is unwise to rely on electronic
systems alone.
On this course you have learned all the techniques that you will ever need to find 99%
of all dive sites. What you must do now is go out and gain experience by using them.
Practise practise practise.
Other BSAC courses

Remind students that taking responsibility for dive management and for being in
69
Theory Lessons
charge of a boat require additional skills to those taught on the course. They can
learn these skills on the Dive Leader course, the Boat handling and Dive Planning and
Management SDCs, and at a higher level by going for the Advanced Diver and First
Class Diver qualifications.
Course documentation
Hand out any remaining course documentation.
Open forum
Take questions and comments from the students.
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Practical Lessons
chart exercises
Lesson Objectives
These exercises provide further practice in basic chartwork.
Achievement Targets
be able to record the lat/long of a point on a chart
be able to locate a point on a chart from a given lat/long
be able to identify any symbol at any point on a chart, using 5011 where necessary
have recorded the starting point for the practical day afloat on their voyage plan
Equipment Needed
Copies of Admiralty Charts 2611 and 2172 or local charts if using tailored exercises.
Copies of 5011.
Lesson Contents
1. Exercises

Supply each student with a printed copy of CPF09_exercises handout.doc to work from. It covers
all the exercises for the theory part of the course, but requires tailoring (see Appendix A).
When the students have finished, go through the answers with the whole group.
Once the answers have been checked, get the students to enter the starting point for the
practical day afloat on their voyage plans.
Provide individual coaching as necessary.
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Practical Lessons
position fixing dry practical

Lesson Objectives
This lesson gives students practical experience in finding, documenting and using transits, and in using
a hand bearing compass.
It is also intended to provide a break from classroom lessons.
Achievement Targets
be able to find a transit and record it well enough for a competent third party to use it
successfully
have experienced using a hand bearing compass
have successfully used transits to locate a hidden object
Equipment Needed
Weatherproof writing materials
Outdoor clothing.
Lesson Contents
In this exercise students are put into small groups (ideally pairs). They go to an outdoors area and hide a
small, inconspicuous object on the ground. They then take transits and bearings to fix the location of the
hidden object. They document the transits as taught in the lesson Position Fixing Methods. Finally the
groups exchange transits and use them to locate the hidden objects. Optionally, instructors could also
place objects in pre-planned locations for which they have documented transits. Each group uses the
transits to locate an object.
It may add an element of challenge and/or fun if each group provides another with a moderately valuable
item such as a banknote or key for them to hide. The hidden objects could also be something like a raffle
ticket, which wins a 'prize' such as a packet of biscuits or a cake to be shared during a break.
1. Briefing

Allocate the students to groups.
Brief the groups
2. Hide

Groups exchange objects to hide (optional).
Groups disperse over the area and hide objects.
Take transits to fix position of object.
Take bearing of each transit.
Record transits.
3. Seek

Groups exchange transits.
Use supplied transits to locate and recover objects.
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Practical Lessons
(optional) Each group locates an object pre-placed by the instructors using supplied transits.
4. Review

Instructors review results.
Instructors check recorded transits against criteria

Conspicuous
Permanent.

To make the exercise work it may be necessary to set a fairly low standard for
'permanent' eg use of parked cars and vegetation.
Precise
Well-recorded
sketch
bearing
context
narrative
Debrief. Go over the key points with the students.
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Practical Lessons
voyage planning exercise

Lesson Objectives
This exercise gives students practical experience of preparing a voyage plan. Part or all of the voyage plan
will be used at sea during the Practical navigation afloat exercise.
Achievement Targets
At the end of this lesson students should have:
completed the voyage plan built up during the preceding lessons, making use of the following:
charts of the area
local information
chart 5011
documented a route using waypoint planning techniques
researched known dive sites and documented the information needed to locate them
put their voyage plan into a weatherproof format suitable for taking to sea in a small open boat
Equipment Needed
Each group requires:
charts of the area
local information
chart 5011
weather forecast
waterproof slate for recording voyage plan plus suitable writing implement and eraser
chartwork instruments
if available, laptop with internet access
Lesson Contents
The voyage should visit the following points:
Launch site (provided during Chart basics)
Waypoint 1 (provided during Measurement basics. This waypoint should be a simple fix.)
Exercise area 1 (location to be provided by the instructors)
Mystery Point (provided during Position fixing methods)
Lunch spot (anchorage or landing. Location to be provided by instructors. Students to work out
position)
Dive site 1 (position to be found by students from research given site name)
Dive site 2 (position to be found by students from research given site name)
Recovery (normally the launch site)
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Practical Lessons
Students work in groups with an instructor to complete all aspects of the voyage plan. They should
add whatever intermediate waypoints they think necessary, and provide suitable visual fixes where
appropriate.
1. Voyage planning
Build up the voyage plan starting from the partly completed documents from earlier lessons. The instructor
should provide guidance and coaching where necessary, including explaining any locally important chart
symbols (such as traffic separation schemes) that were not covered in Chart Basics. Follow the planning
process shown in Voyage planning VA8.

Pick sites
Sites are specified by the instructors. Use the materials supplied (and internet if available) to
find the necessary details for site location and diving. Note that dive site references may provide
details on slack water times.
Determine slack
Work out the time and duration of slack at each dive site, and note the tide direction before and
after. Also note how the tide will be running around the area of the exercise throughout the day.
Determine tides
This should have been completed during Tides.
Get local information

Gather information about local hazards, byelaws, regulations, etc
Check launching
Find out about the availability of the slipway, and any rules, fees or other associated
bureaucracy. Check the tides to make sure that launching and recovery will be possible at the
required times.
Plan route
Do the detailed waypoint planning, using the supplied waypoints and adding others as
necessary. Work out visual marks and bearings to assist in navigating the voyage.
Set up GPS
Consider the naming of waypoints for GPS entry. The actual entry may be deferred until later.
The instructors should agree amongst themselves what waypoints will actually be entered, since
it may be impractical for every group's plans to be entered.
Check fuel
Work out how much fuel will be required for the day. The instructor will confirm or state
otherwise that the boat will be carrying at least that much.
Contingency
Identify safe havens, other refuges to be used in case of emergency, and/or get-home plan. The
instructor should lead the students through the options by considering the eventualities that
might lead to the need to seek an alternative destination.
Set timings
Timings would normally be worked backwards from slack water at the dive sites. However on
this course, timings are set by the start and finish time, and the duration of the exercises to be
carried out. The instructor should explain this to the students, and move on to the next task.
Waterproof backup
The voyage plan should be transcribed on to waterproof material, or laminated, or place in a
suitable waterproof container such as a map case.
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Practical Lessons
Check weather
The instructor will supply the latest marine weather forecast (or one can be obtained from the
internet). The group should consider its impact on the planned voyage.
2. Debrief and disperse

Summarise any key points
Confirm the arrangements for the following day
Disperse
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Practical Lessons
practical navigation afloat
Lesson Objectives
This lesson is intended to give each student practical experience of navigating a dive boat at sea.
Achievement Targets
At the end of this lesson students should have practical experience of the following:
using transits taken from a chart to find a position
taking transits and bearings to fix a position
locating a position using GPS
following a route using GPS and visual marks
following a route using pilotage
locating a dive site using an echo sounder
carrying out spiral and grid searches
predicting and dealing with the effects of tides and weather
Equipment Needed
Boat equipped with GPS and echo sounder
Waterproof charts of the area
Each person requires:
protective clothing appropriate for the expected weather conditions at sea;
lifejacket, buoyancy aid, or buoyant diving suit suitable for the conditions,
food and drink for personal needs
Each student needs, in addition:
a waterproof copy of their voyage plan plus the means to write on it
Lesson Contents
The lesson involves navigating the whole of the voyage plan prepared by the students on Day 1 of the
course, carrying out various navigational exercises, detailed below, on the way. Each student should be
involved in each activity. Students take it in turns to use the voyage plan to navigate & drive the boat. If
local conditions prevent the exercises being performed exactly as specified, do whatever best meets the
Achievement Targets.
The focus of the lesson should be on navigation and techniques, as opposed to boat handling and
responsibilities, or the specifics of operating the particular GPS and echo sounder units on the boat. If
using a charter boat or if most or all of the students are not capable of helming a boat competently, let
the skipper or a helmsman drive the boat.
Instructors should use every opportunity to coach the students in addition to the specific exercises detailed
below (but not at the expense of the core parts of the syllabus). Concentrate on helping the students to
understand how the theory they have been taught relates to real world features they can see around
them. The following areas are suggested topics to coach on should the opportunity arise:
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Practical Lessons
Orientation
'Where is North?'; 'Where is 100?' Encourage students to look at the chart and identify what is to
the N,S,E,W of them.
Point to features on chart (easy ones - buoys etc; harder ones - bays, inlets, entrances etc). and get
students to point out the actual features.
Demonstrate how the appearance of features change as you motor past.
Ask 'where are we on the chart?' Look at the GPS, take bearings, etc.
Buoyage
Lateral, cardinal, safe water, isolated danger, special buoys. Shapes, colours, top marks & lights
Positioning
Transits, compass lines, GPS, latitude/longitude & echo sounder. Leading lines, leading lights,
clearing lines.
Tides
Slack, ebb, flood, LW, HW, springs, neaps, tidal range, Rule of twelfths, Chart datum, tidal diamonds,
tidal stream atlas.
Effect of tide on boat at slow speed, at high speed.
Overfalls, eddies and other evidence of tidal streams.
Wind & waves
Sea types: head sea, following sea, beam sea.
Beaufort scale; 4 - moderate breeze, wind speed 1 -16 knots, wave height 1-1.5m. Compare with
local conditions.
Onshore/offshore winds, fetch, wind over tide.
Pragmatics
Demonstrate that you can't do chartwork easily in an open boat, that's why you need to do it before.
Time and plan don't have to be followed slavishly.
Consider what is worth writing down and what isn't. How could voyage details be made more
useable at sea. How detailed do plans need to be?
Pros and cons of electronic chart systems.
Distance off
Estimate distance off by size of objects (see Appendix B)
1. Prepare & launch boats (45min)

This section assumes that the boats will be trailer launched. Modify the tasks as appropriate if using
boats from a berth or mooring.

Review an up-to-date weather forecast & reconsider impact of the weather/tide.
Prepare boats for launching.

Deal with fees, permits, etc.
Demonstrate how to operate/use GPS and echo sounder.

Enter route details (this task could be done in advance, provided the students are still involved).
Consider handing out copies of the operating manuals before the course, or at the end of Day 1.

78
Launch boats and park cars and trailers.

Practical Lessons
Make sure that someone ashore knows your plans and knows what to do should they become
concerned for your well being.
If using more than one boat, swap VHF callsigns and agree channel (or use DSC).
2. Navigate towards exercise area 1

'Buoy Hopping (Pilotage) (30min)

The position of Exercise area 1 should be chosen so that at least part of the passage towards
it can be accomplished using pilotage (the marks do not have to be buoys) alone. Demonstrate
the use of leading lines (transit of landmark/buoy). If no seaward mark is available use a back
bearing.
3. Exercises in area 1

Transits (30min)
Select a suitable random point, take transits, move away and demonstrate the return procedure.
The leading transit should be into the tide/wind, whichever is greatest. Check position relocation
accuracy with GPS.
Searches (20 min)

Deploy a small shot and demonstrate spiral and grid search patterns. Remind students of
the pros and cons of the methods (see Finding Dive Sites lesson), and point out how the tide,
wind, sea state, sonar beam width, expected nature of target, and availability of visual marks
influence the way in which searches should be carried out.
Students will get an opportunity to practice search techniques themselves after lunch.
4. Exercises around 'Mystery Point'

'Mystery Point' location (30min)

Locate Mystery Point using transits (check accuracy with GPS).
GPS point location (20min)

Select a suitable random position with the GPS, record or store the lat/long. Move away &
demonstrate return procedure using the lat/long numbers & compass only.
Plot current location (10min)

Select a suitable position & take transits/bearings then plot the location on a waterproof chart.
Check the lat/long position accuracy with GPS.
Dead reckoning (20min)

Run a 4 leg square course approximately 30 seconds per leg, turning 90 each time and
returning to start point. Check accuracy with the GPS and/or plotter screen.
5. Exercises on passage to lunch

GPS route (20min)

Follow the route pre-entered into the GPS. Use a GPS moving highway, cross track error (XTE), or
similar display to maintain course. Demonstrate the distance to go and time to go/ETA displays
and the arrival alarm function.
Lunch
To be taken at anchor or ashore as necessary. Instructors should provide coaching on the
events so far, or on additional theory/practical topics, if appropriate.
79
Practical Lessons
6. Location of dive sites

A normal diving expedition would be timed to arrive at a tidal dive site a comfortable time before slack, but
this may be impractical on the course. Teaching the course syllabus takes priority.
The choice of location techniques offered in the following exercises reflects the wide variation in dive sites
and their surroundings at different locations around the UK.

Location of dive site 1 (45min)

Navigate to the site using the voyage plan, and locate it by echo sounder using, in descending
order of preference either transits, pilotage or GPS. Do not shot. Practice grid search technique.
Compare the state of the tide and weather with the predictions, and discuss the implications.
Location of dive site 2 (45min)

Navigate to the site from dive site 1 using the voyage plan and locate it by echo sounder using,
in descending order of preference either GPS, pilotage or transits. Shot with a small datum shot
(once only) and practice spiral search technique. Use a grid search instead if conditions dictate.
If different from dive site 1, compare the state of the tide and weather with the predictions, and
discuss the implications.
Return navigation (45min)

Use the relevant parts of the voyage plan pre-entered into the GPS to navigate back to shore.
Take visual fixes as required.
7. Recovery and close

This section assumes that the boats are trailer launched. Modify the tasks as appropriate if using boats
from a berth or mooring.

Recover boats onto trailers (45min)

Inform persons ashore of safe return
Recover boat
Wash down, flush engine, refill fuel/oil etc or make arrangements for these tasks to be done
later
Prepare boat and trailer for towing
Student debrief/Open Forum (15min)

See theory lesson notes
80
Appendices
Appendix A - Tailoring the course

This is a practical course which demands that students use actual data from official nautical reference
materials to plan and execute navigational exercises at sea. This means that instructors must tailor parts
of the course to the area in which the practical work will be done. These notes explain what tailoring is
required.
Location
The practical day may be run at any location that enables students to meet the achievement targets of the
relevant lesson. Preferably, the location should be one that gives convenient access to known dive sites
for which information is available in guidebooks etc. Failing that, there should be suitable submerged
targets that can be located by echo sounder as if they were dive sites. In either case try to use targets
which will show up clearly on the sounder, and above all make sure that the instructors can find the
targets themselves without fail. However, with advanced students, more challenging (from a navigational
point of view) sites could be chosen.
In bad weather, it may be necessary to divert to a more sheltered area as a backup. It should still meet the
above criteria. The planning exercise includes using published information sufficient to identify and locate
two known dive sites, which are then located by echo sounder during the practical afloat. This should be
the highlight of the course, so instructors should think carefully about which of the following options would
be best if using a backup site:
students plan for real dive sites, but use a substitute plan supplied by the instructors for the
afternoon practical afloat
students plan for the backup sites using 'dive site' information prepared by the instructors and use
their plan for the afternoon practical
the afternoon practical is deferred until a later date when it can be carried out at the real dive sites.
Having selected a location, instructors must do the following:
collect information as appropriate
o up to date navigational materials: charts, tide tables, almanacs, pilots, etc,
o dive guides, magazine articles, local information booklets, etc. If practicable, students
could also be pointed at information on the internet.
prepare handouts as required
81
Appendices
Assign waypoints for the practical exercise as shown in the table below. Entries in the Type column have
the following meanings:
location: a description which can be used to identify a position on the chart
position: a lat/long
name: a description which can be used to look up reference information about a dive site but which
does not directly identify a position on the chart (eg the name of a shipwreck)
Waypoint
Lat/long
Type
Notes
Launch
location
1st waypoint
location or
position
simple fix preferred
1st exercise
area
location or
position
simple fix preferred
Mystery Point
position
students must find transits on chart.
1st exercise area should be a nearby area

suitable for transit exercises: not too much
boat traffic, free from dangers for at least
0.5ca all round, tide but not too much
Choose point that will enable this. Otherwise
criteria as for 1st exercise area
lunch spot
location
anchorage or ashore
dive sites 1 & 2
name
named
choose two local dive sites, suitable for
locating by echo sounder, for which reliable
information exists. Wherever possible, one of
the sites should be capable of being located
using transits or pilotage, and one using a GPS
fix. If possible at least one of the sites should
require slack water for diving (it need not
actually be slack when visited on this course).
Recovery
location
normally same as launch

there is no teaching reason why the course
needs to end up where it started, but logistics
would usually dictate an out and back voyage
82
Appendices
Exercises/VAs
Some exercises will need tailoring to the location, as shown in the following table. All items requiring
tailoring and all links to the Voyage planning exercise are marked in red on the VAs. Note that the VAs also
contain a few items in red that are neither links nor items needing tailoring.
Item
Action needed
Chart basics VA23-24
Replace questions by similar ones using local charts.

Q5a must be the launch location for the practical day
Measurement basics VA7
Replace {first waypoint on chart} by 1st waypoint location/position
Tides VA10
Optional - replace or supplement the first four questions with local

examples.
Tides VA13
Tailor the questions to the local area or replace with similar ones.
Supply answers.
Position fixing methods VA9
Insert the lat/long of 'Mystery Point'
Voyage planning VA19
Insert the locations/positions for the practical day
CPF09_exercises handout.doc
Update the Word file to include the above tailored exercises, then
print a handout for each student.
(may have version number

suffix - use latest available)
The above table shows those instances where tailoring is essential if the course materials are to work
as intended. At their discretion, instructors may replace other components of the course materials which
are used as illustrations, such as the chart extracts used on VAs, with local examples. However, note that
UKHO permission is required to reproduce charts, and that the Course Manual is produced centrally by
HQ, and cannot readily be changed. Do not underestimate the effort required to make changes beyond
the essential ones listed above.
Model voyage plan

At the instructor's discretion, the model voyage plan may be replaced by one based on a dive site and/
or area familiar to the students. This will entail replacing VA14 and VA15 in the Voyage Planning lesson,
and replacing the file CPF09 VPexample.doc, and if necessary the file CPF09 VPexample_annotated .doc
(these filenames may be suffixed with a version number: use the latest available).
83
Appendices
Appendix B - Estimating distance

Range
Appearance
6M
large houses, small apartment buildings, towers recognisable
2M
chimneys on buildings visible, windows are dots, can see vehicles moving
1M
people = dots, trunks of large trees visible
0.5M
people = posts, larger branches on trees visible
0.25M
people's head and body visible, leg movement seen, clothing colour visible
250m
face/hands/clothing detail = blur but visible
100m
eyes = dots
50m
eyes/mouth clear
Notes
In bright illumination objects appear closer than the table suggests.
In murky weather objects appear more distant than the table suggests.
Radar is much better at measuring distance, if you have it.
84
Appendices
Appendix C - Tide differences

Add or subtract time difference to High Water DOVER to get approximate local HW.
Time differences are hours and minutes in the format hhmm.
England South Coast
Orkney and Shetland I
Ireland
Isles of Scilly 0635
Kirkwall
0040
Rosslare
0525
Penzance
0635
Lerwick
0010
Wicklow
0020
Falmouth
0610
Dublin Bar
+0015
Fowey
0555
Outer Hebrides
Lough Carlingford
+0010
Plymouth
0540
Stornoway
0420
Strangford Lough
+0200
Salcombe
0535
Castle Bay
0510
Belfast
+0010
Dartmouth
0505
Scotland West Coast
Londonderry
0300
Torquay
0500
Ullapool
0415
Lough Swilly
0455
Exmouth Approaches 0445
Portree
0440
Killybegs
0530
Lyme Regis
0450
Fort William
0505
Broadhaven
0533
Portland
0430
Tobermory
0510
Galway
0510
Portsmouth
+0020
Oban
0510
Tarbert Island
0535
Newhaven
0000
Campbeltown
+0045
Bantry
+0555
Rothesay
+0100
Cobh
0600
England East Coast
Stranraer
+0055
Ramsgate
+0020
Sheerness
+0130
England West Coast
BurnhamonCrouch +0115
BarrowinFurness
+0025
Brightlingsea
+0050
Liverpool
+0005
Harwich
+0040
Lowestoft
0145
Isle of Man
Hunstanton
0455
Douglas
Spurn Point
0550
Wales
Bridlington
+0545
Holyhead
0050
Whitby
+0500
Aberystwyth
0330
North Shields
+0430
Fishguard
0400
Milford Haven
0500
Scotland East Coast
Swansea
0500
Leith
+0340
Dundee
+0350
England West Coast
Aberdeen
+0220
Avonmouth
0410
Inverness
+0100
Ilfracombe
0525
Wick
+0015
St. Ives
0610

+0015

85
Appendices
Appendix D - Chart for offsetting tide

against course
Correction angles
90
80
Correction angle
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
Speed ratio
Angle of tide to boat heading

90
86
75
60
45
30
15
Appendices
Appendix E - Magnetic variation

Magnetic variation in the UK in the early 21st century is sufficiently small (and becoming smaller still) that
small dive boats can be navigated satisfactorily without worrying about it, Consequently the calculation
of variation and conversion between true and magnetic bearings are not taught on this course. However,
there are parts of the world where BSAC is represented and variation is much larger. At the instructors
discretion, the following notes may be used in conjunction with VA16-19 of Measurement basics to teach
how to use variation.
87
Appendices
Magnetic variation (optional)

Use these notes in conjunction with the four VAs which follow the black (end of lesson)
slide in Measurement basics.
Compass Rose
One or more compass roses are printed prominently on every chart. They can be used
to measure the angle relative to north of any line drawn on the chart (students will
practice doing this shortly). A compass rose consists of an outer circle graduated in
degrees, with 0 aligned to true north. Many charts also have a similar inner circle,
rotated so that 0 is pointing to magnetic north as it was when the chart was printed.
Variation is shown in the special format, as in the following example:
430W 2003 (9E)
where 430W was the variation in 2003 and variation is changing by (9E) each year.
Using this information it is easy to work out the current variation and use it to convert
between true and magnetic bearings.
One or more on every chart

True bearings on outer circle
Magnetic bearings on inner circle
The magnetic rose may be omitted on some charts.
Variation at given date plus annual change
Calculating variation
Work through the example on the VA.
variationnow= variationchart(yearselapsedX changeannual)

Variation is 4 30 W in 2003 (9 E) what is it in 2010?
variationchart = 4 30 W
yearselapsed = 2010 2003 = 7
changeannual = 9 E
yearselapsedX changeannual= 63 E = 13 E
variationnow= 4 30 W 13 E = 3 27 W
Exercise: get variation from your chart & write on your

voyage plan
Bearing conversion
Bearings have to be converted back and forth between true and magnetic. This is a
simple procedure which involves adding or subtracting the variation to or from the original bearing. There are several different mnemonics in common use to help mariners
remember in which direction to apply the corrections. To avoid confusion this course
just teaches one: CADET, Compass to True Add East. 'Compass' is equivalent to 'Mag88
Appendices
netic' (compass includes deviation, but he distinction is irrelevant for small boats).
[Portland plotters often have a degree scale on them which can be used to apply variation. Some people find it helpful. If appropriate mention this when introducing the
plotter on VA12.]
Chart
bearings recorded are true T
bearings measured are true T
Compass
bearings displayed are magnetic M (or C)
magnetic bearing required for steering
Conversion
CadET
Compass to True Add East

or subtract West
vice versa for T to M (or C)
C to T
+E or -W
T to C
-E or +W
Bearing conversion examples

Work through the example with the students.
Bearing 330T, variation 4 W, what is M?

compass to true add east/subtract west
true to compass subtract east/add west
330T + 4 W = 334M
Bearing 170M, variation 4 W, what is T?

compass to true add east/subtract west
170M - 4 W = 166T
359T, variation 4 W, M?
003M
117M, variation 3 E, T?
120T
89
Appendices
Appendix F - Model voyage plan

The model voyage plan is published separately as CPF09 VPexample.pdf on the website along with the
other instructor materials for this course.
90
Appendices
Appendix G - Further reading

The following reading list appears in the Course Manual issued to students.
Adlard Coles Book of Navigation Exercises A Noice & J Stevens ISBN 13: 9780713663235
Adlard Coles Book of Electronic Navigation Tim Bartlett ISBN 10: 0713657154
The Expedition Manual: a BSAC manual due for publication April 2010
GPS Afloat Bill Anderson ISBN 13: 9781898660934
Reeds Skippers Handbook Malcolm Pearson ISBN 13: 9780713683387
Safe Diving: the BSAC safe diving reference booklet.
Seamanship: A Guide for Divers, 2nd edition: a BSAC manual ISBN 0953891976
All the above titles are available from the BSAC Shop.
91
British Sub-Aqua Club, Telfords Quay, South Pier Road, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire CH65 4FL
Telephone: +44 (0) 151-350 6200 Fax: +44 (0) 151-350 6215 bsac.com

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Skill Development Course

Chartwork and Position Fixing Instructor Manual

Position Fixing Methods

Finding Dive Sites

Position Fixing Dry Practical

Voyage Planning Exercise

Practical Navigation Afloat

Appendix A Tailoring the course

Appendix B Estimating distance

Appendix C Tide differences

Appendix D Chart for offsetting tide against course

Appendix E Magnetic variation

Appendix F Model voyage plan

Appendix G Further reading

Issue 1.2, February 2010

V1.2 Copyright BSAC 2010

Chartwork and Position Fixing Instructor Manual

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Chartwork and Position Fixing Instructor Manual

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