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flows. Although the method has a strong analytical basis, its practical implementation is,
essentially, always numerical and it is then used to compute the values of the flow variables at a
series of distinct points in the flow rather than continuously throughout the flow field.
Lets consider a general steady two-dimensional irrotational flowfield. We have already derived
the velocity potential () equation for such flowfield.
----- (1)
Consider the change in any flow variable,f, df which can be determined by small changes in the
coordinates dx and dy as illustrated in Fig.1. The change in the variable, df,
If f =
But u
so
this
equation
gives:
----- (2)
Simillarly
But v
if f
then
so
----- (3)
this
this
equation
will
give:
gives:
Now consider eqs. 1, 2 and 3 which involve second derivatives of and can be solved using
Cramers Rule. For example
-----------(.4)
In general, this equation can be solved for any chosen values of dx and dy , i.e., for any chosen
direction, to give
at a selected point in the flow. However, it is possible to
have
indeterminate in certain directions. Morereov this differential is expected to be
finite at that point. Hence in these directions, eq.4 must give an indeterminate value.
Governing Equation
We know about the direction of the characteristic line obtained from the indeterminancy of the
eq. (4) for zero denominator. However finiteness of the differentail compels the zero value of the
numeretor. This condition evolves the equation to be solved along the characteristic lines.
Hence for the numeretor eq. (4) we have,
Substituting for slope (dy/dx) of the characteristic lines from eq. (5) that gives:
This is the equation governing the changes in the variables along the characteristic lines. It can
be noted that it is an ordinary differential equation whereas the original equation, velocity
potential equation, was a partial differential equation.
We have already seen the solution for equation 33.2 during consideration of expansion fan . On
the similar line, the integration of eq. 33.2 leads to,
This is the simple algrbric eqution which we will have to solve along the characteristic line.
Flow through duct.
The procedure for using the method of characteristic lines are to numerically calculate the flow
in a duct is as follows:
1. The conditions on some initial line must be specified, e.g., conditions on the line AB in Fig must
be specified.
allow the design of a supersonic nozzle which meets these requirements. In the present work,
design of both gradual-expansion nozzle and minimum-length nozzle is demonstrated.
of the same strength. Consequently the gas streams are of different densities and temperatures.
However, the pressures and flow angles are equalized at the trailing edge.
where Cpl and Cpu are the pressure coefficients on lower and upper surfaces.
Diamond Aerofoil
Consider a typical aerofoil for a supersonic flow i.e., a Diamond Aerofoil as shown in Fig. 3. A
flow at zero angle of attack produces the features as shown. At the leading edge we have a shock
each on the pressure and suction sides. Then at maximum thickness we have expansion waves.
The flow leaves the trailing edge through another shock system. The flow is symmetrical in the
flow normal direction and lift is zero. But there is a drag which is given by,
.4
It is possible to generalise the aerofoil and develop a formula for drag and lift. Consider an
aerofoil with a half wedge angle of w . Let be the orientation of any side of the aerofoil. The
pressures on each of the sides can now be summed to determine lift and drag coefficients as
follows
..5
In terms of Cp for each side we have
.6
Similarly for drag we have,
..7
In terms of Cp for each side we have
.8
Second Order Theory
The approximate theory we have developed is of first order in that it retains only the first
significant term involving in an expansion for Cp . Busemann has provided a second order
theory which includes 2 terms as well. As per this theory,
even while using this equation, a positive sign for compression and a negative one for expansion
is used. Note that the coefficients C1 and C2 are functions of Mach number and only. These
are also listed in Tables in appendix. Thus we have three methods to calculate pressure in a
turning supersonic flow. Of these Shock-Expansion technique is the most accurate. The
remaining are for small flow turnings only. The Busemann's method may provide better answers
for small flow turnings.