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Direct Current Circuits
Walker, Chapter 21
Electric Current
Whenever there is a net movement of charge, there exists
an electrical
current.
A current can flow in a wire: usually electrons.
A current can flow in a liquid solution:
For example Na+, and K+ ions across a nerve cell
membrane.
Unit of measure
of Electric Current
If a charge Q moves through a surface A in a time
t, then there is a current I:
Q
I
Resistivity
V1
e-
V2
V1 > V2
In most materials, in order for a steady current I to flow there
must be an electric field E inside the material. For each charge
q, the electric field E produces a force F = qE, this causes the
charge to accelerate, however, due to collisions with the
surrounding medium, there is a viscous force roughly
proportional to the mean velocity of the charges: F = q E-v g. On
average, the free charges travel at a constant velocity
proportional to the electric field: F=0,
v = q E/ g.
If n is the density of free-charges in the material, and A is the
cross sectional area of the material, then the current flowing is
I = n A q v = A(nq2/g)E = A E / r
r = g/(nq2)
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r = Resistivity = instrinsic property of the medium.
E = (V1-V2)/L
Define Resistance R = r L / A
V1 - V2 = I R = Ohms Law.
V1
e-
E
Resistivity = r
V2
Resistivity 0
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Ohms Law
For many materials, the current I is directly proportional to the
voltage difference V.
V
R
IR
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A fluid (liquid or gas) will not flow through a narrow tube unless there is a
pressure difference between the input and output ends.
Fluid flow
Pin
Pout
Resistivity
An object which provides resistance to current flow is called a
resistor.
The actual resistance depends on:
properties of the material (resistivity)
the geometry (length and cross sectional area)
For a conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A,
r
Area A
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r r0[1 (T - T0 )]
Resistivity r
(Wm)
Thermal
Coefficient (K-1)
Silver (Ag)
1.59 10-8
4.1 10-3
Tungsten (W)
5.6 10-8
4.5 10-3
Nichrome
100 10-8
Graphite ( C )
350010-8
-5 10-4
Si
2.5 10-3
-70 10-3
Glass
> 1010
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Resistors in Circuits
In drawing a circuit, the symbol for a resistor is
V +
I = V/R
Current is the same everywhere.
Voltage varies from point to
point around loop.
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P =U/ t =(QV/t) = IV
SI unit: watt, W= AmpVolt = C V/s = J/s
For a resistor, P=IV can be rewritten with Ohms Law V=IR,
P = I2R = V2/R
Power is not Energy, Power is rate of consumption (or production) of energy
Large power plants produce between 100 MW and 1GW of power. This
power is then dissipated in the resistors and other dissipative circuits in our
electronic appliances, in the resistance of the windings of electric motors, or is
used to charge batteries for later use.
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Kirchoffs Rules
- conservation of charge
I 0
(junction rule, valid at any junction)
- conservation of energy
V 0
Volt (V)
No resistance
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Kirchhoffs Rules
Any charge must move around any closed loop with emf
Any charge must gain as much energy as it loses
Loss:
IR potential drop across resistor
Gain:
chemical energy from the battery
(charge go reverse direction from e)
Often what seems to be a complicated circuit can be reduced to a
simple one, but not always. For more complicated circuits we
must apply Kirchhoffs Rules:
Junction Rule: The sum of currents entering a junction equals
the sum
of currents leaving a junction.
Loop Rule: The sum of the potential difference across all the
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elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
e
I
Rr
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Potential increases by e
Potential decreases by Ir
r
Terminal voltage:
Emf:
V Ir
e IR Ir
I
Total power
of emf
e
Rr
Ie I R I r
2
Load
resistor
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Series
Combination
Parallel
Combination
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Resistors in Series
By the conservation of charge,
d
By Energy conservation (electrostatic potential is a function only of
position in the circuit) potential drop around the loop from a to d
equals the potential gain from d to a:
(Va-Vb)+ (Vb - Vc) + (Vc - Vd) - e = 0 = - e (Va - Vd).
Ohms law:
(Va-Vb)=IR1,
(Vb - Vc)=IR2,
(Vc - Vd) = IR3
e = (Va-Vd) = IReq = I(R1+R2+R3):
Req = R1+R2+R3
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Resistors in Parallel
Ohms law:
(Va-Vd)=I1R1,
(Va - Vd)=I2R2,
(Va - Vd) = I3R3
I1 = e/R1,
I2 = e/R2,
I3 = e/R3
e = I Req = (I1+I2+I3) Req :
e = (e/R1 + e/R2 + e/R3) Req = e Req (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
1/ Req = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
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I2
I3
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I1
I2
I3
Junction Law: I1 + I2 = I3
What is the current in the 9.8 W
resistor?
Loop Rule:
(7.9W )
I1 1.2W
9
.
0
V
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V
1.2W
1.2W
Equivalent Resistance
1/Req =1/R1+1/R2
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Circuits containing
Capacitors
Capacitors are used in electronic circuits. The symbol
for a capacitor is
We can also combine separate capacitors into one
effective
or equivalent capacitor. 2 capacitors can
be combined
either in parallel or in series.
Series
Combination
C1
C2
Parallel
Combination
C2
C2
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C2
Parallel
Series
charge Q1 , Q2
charge on each is Q
total Q=Q1 + Q2
total charge is Q
voltage on each is V
-Q
-Q
voltage V1 + V2 = V
Q1=C1V
Q=C1V1
Q2=C2V
Q=C2V2
Q=CeffV
Q= Ceff V = Ceff(V1+V2)
Ceff=C1+C2
1/Ceff=1/C1+1/C2
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RC Circuits
We can construct circuits with more than just resistor, for
example,
a resistor, a capacitor, and a switch:
Capacitor Charging
Lets assume that at time t=0, the capacitor is uncharged, and
we close
the switch. We can show that the charge on the
capacitor at some later time t is:
q=qmax(1-e-t/RC)
RC is known as the time constant , and qmax is the maximum
amount
of charge that the capacitor will acquire:
qmax=Ce
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Capacitor Discharging
Consider this circuit with the capacitor fully charged at time
t=0:
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