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Electric Current

and
Direct Current Circuits
Walker, Chapter 21

Why bother with Electric Potential V,


Capacitance, and Electric Fields?
The electric potential difference between point a) and point
b) in a circuit is the force driving current from a) to b)
Capacitance is universal,
Capacitance limits the speed of switching circuits
Capacitance stores energy
Electric Field energy is the energy of waves, light.

Electric Current
Whenever there is a net movement of charge, there exists
an electrical
current.
A current can flow in a wire: usually electrons.
A current can flow in a liquid solution:
For example Na+, and K+ ions across a nerve cell
membrane.

A current can flow in air or free space:


electron or ion beam, lightning.

Unit of measure
of Electric Current
If a charge Q moves through a surface A in a time
t, then there is a current I:
Q
I

The unit of current is the Ampere (A): 1 A= 1


Coulomb/sec.

By convention, the direction of the current is the


direction of flow of the positive charges.
If electrons flow to the
left, that is a positive current to
e
I
the right.
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Resistivity

V1

e-

V2

V1 > V2
In most materials, in order for a steady current I to flow there
must be an electric field E inside the material. For each charge
q, the electric field E produces a force F = qE, this causes the
charge to accelerate, however, due to collisions with the
surrounding medium, there is a viscous force roughly
proportional to the mean velocity of the charges: F = q E-v g. On
average, the free charges travel at a constant velocity
proportional to the electric field: F=0,
v = q E/ g.
If n is the density of free-charges in the material, and A is the
cross sectional area of the material, then the current flowing is
I = n A q v = A(nq2/g)E = A E / r
r = g/(nq2)
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r = Resistivity = instrinsic property of the medium.

Voltage, Current, and Resistance


A block of material has resistivity r, cross sectional area A,
and length L.
If there is an electric field E in the material,
current I = A E/r will flow
from higher potential V1 to lower potential V2.

E = (V1-V2)/L
Define Resistance R = r L / A
V1 - V2 = I R = Ohms Law.

V1

e-

E
Resistivity = r

V2
Resistivity 0
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Ohms Law
For many materials, the current I is directly proportional to the
voltage difference V.
V
R

We define the resistance, R, of such a material to be: I


The unit of resistance is Ohms (W): 1 W 1 Volt/Amp

Common resistors used in electrical circuits range from a few W to


MW (106W).
If R is constant: doesnt depend on current, or history of current
flow, and only small variation with temperature, atmospheric
pressure, etc,
the material is said to be ohmic, and we write Ohms Law:
V

IR
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Fluid Analogy of Resistance

A fluid (liquid or gas) will not flow through a narrow tube unless there is a
pressure difference between the input and output ends.
Fluid flow

Pin

Pout

The pressure difference can be provided by external pressure, or by gravity.


The longer the tube, or the narrower the tube, the larger a pressure difference
(or gravity gradient) is required to maintain the same flow.
Liquid flow
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Resistivity
An object which provides resistance to current flow is called a
resistor.
The actual resistance depends on:
properties of the material (resistivity)
the geometry (length and cross sectional area)
For a conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A,

the resistance is R=rL/A,


resistivity.
L

where r is called the

r
Area A
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Wires & Resistors in Circuits


A piece of wire is a resistor.
However, for good conductors like Cu, Al, Au, Ag,
the resistivity is extremely low.
When we analyze a circuit containing wires and
other elements (such as light bulbs), the resistance
of the wires is so low that we can [usually] pretend
the wires are perfect conductors.
Current can flow in the wire even though the
potential is everywhere the same inside each
separate piece of wire.
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Temperature Dependence and


Superconductivity
The resistivity of most materials depends on the temperature.
For most metals, resistivity increases linearly with temperature over a
small range:

r r0[1 (T - T0 )]

This temperature dependence to resistivity can be exploited to build a


thermometer: Measure the Voltage required to maintain a fixed current in
the resistor. Changes in V measure changes in the temperature of the
medium surrounding the resistor.

Some materials (Pb, Nb, Nb3Sn, YBa2Cu3O7) when very


cold (3 to 20 K), have a resistivity which abruptly drops to
zero. Such materials are then superconductors. Highest
temperature superconductor is T 100K = -173C
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Sample Resistivity values


Material

Resistivity r
(Wm)

Thermal
Coefficient (K-1)

Silver (Ag)

1.59 10-8

4.1 10-3

Tungsten (W)

5.6 10-8

4.5 10-3

Nichrome

100 10-8

Graphite ( C )

350010-8

-5 10-4

Si

2.5 10-3

-70 10-3

Glass

> 1010
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Resistors in Circuits
In drawing a circuit, the symbol for a resistor is

This zigzag pattern is a visual reminder that the


material of the resistor impedes the flow of charge,
and it requires a potential difference V between the
two ends to drive current through the resistor.
Current flows from higher value of potential to lower
value of potential
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Simple Battery Circuit


A battery is like a pump
A pump raises fluid by a height h.
A battery pumps charge up to a higher potential.
I
R

V +

I = V/R
Current is the same everywhere.
Voltage varies from point to
point around loop.
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An Incandescent Light Bulb is a Resistor


(but R depends on Temperature T of filament, and
T depends on current I).

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Quiz 1: Which Circuit will light the bulb?


A)
B)
C)

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Power in Electric Circuits


Recall that resistance is like an internal friction - energy is
dissipated. The amount of energy dissipated when a charge
Q flows down a voltage drop V in a time t is the power P:

P =U/ t =(QV/t) = IV
SI unit: watt, W= AmpVolt = C V/s = J/s
For a resistor, P=IV can be rewritten with Ohms Law V=IR,

P = I2R = V2/R
Power is not Energy, Power is rate of consumption (or production) of energy
Large power plants produce between 100 MW and 1GW of power. This
power is then dissipated in the resistors and other dissipative circuits in our
electronic appliances, in the resistance of the windings of electric motors, or is
used to charge batteries for later use.
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Energy and Power


Energy Usage: Power times time = Energy
consumed
1 kilowatt-hour = (1000 W)(3600 s) = (1000 J/s)(3600 s) =
3.6106 J

Electricity in VA costs about $0.10 per KWhr


My typical household uses 1KW of power, on average.
There are 8800 hours in a year

In one year, each household consumes 8800 KWhr, or 3.2


1010 J at a cost of (8800 KWhr)($0.10) = $880.

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Direct Current (DC) Circuits


A circuit is a loop comprised of elements such as batteries,
wires, resistors, and capacitors through which current flows.
Current can only flow around a loop if the loop is continuous.
Any break in the loop must be described by the capacitance of
the gap, which allows charge to build up as current flows onto
the capacitors.
For current to continue flowing in a circuit with non-zero
resistance,
there must be an energy source. This
source is often a battery. A battery provides a voltage
difference across its terminals.

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Circuits, Batteries, EMF


Batteries and Electromotive Force (emf)
Any device which increases the potential energy of charges which
flow
through it is called a source of emf.
The emf is measured in volts

and often written as e.

The emf may originate from a chemical reaction as in a battery or


from
mechanical motion such as in a generator.

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Simple Battery Circuit


An incandescent light bulb can be
approximated as an ideal resistor
(this is a bad approximation,
because most light bulbs have a
very strong temperature
dependence to the resistance).
V=IR
5 Watt bulb with 3 V battery:
P= V2 / R
R = V2/P = (3V) 2/(5 AV)
R = 1.8 V/A = 1.8 W.
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Direct Current (DC) Circuits - MORE


Includes:

batteries, resistors, capacitors

Kirchoffs Rules

- conservation of charge
I 0
(junction rule, valid at any junction)
- conservation of energy

(Laws) follow from:

(loop rule, valid for any loop)

V 0

With emf (e):


charge pump

constant current can be maintained

SI unit for emf

Volt (V)

No resistance

connecting wires of the loop

forces electrons to move


in a direction opposite to the electric field

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Kirchhoffs Rules
Any charge must move around any closed loop with emf
Any charge must gain as much energy as it loses
Loss:
IR potential drop across resistor
Gain:
chemical energy from the battery
(charge go reverse direction from e)
Often what seems to be a complicated circuit can be reduced to a
simple one, but not always. For more complicated circuits we
must apply Kirchhoffs Rules:
Junction Rule: The sum of currents entering a junction equals
the sum
of currents leaving a junction.
Loop Rule: The sum of the potential difference across all the
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elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.

A real battery is not an ideal emf.

A simple circuit with a battery and resistor can be graphically


represented as:

r is known as the internal resistance of the battery. The


voltage on the terminals of the battery is, therefore, V= e Ir and the
current in the circuit is:

e
I
Rr
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Battery as emf in the DC Circuits


+ terminal
V=e-Ir

at higher potential then - terminal


V terminal voltage
r internal resistance
e - equivalent to open-circuit (I=0) voltage

Potential increases by e
Potential decreases by Ir

r
Terminal voltage:
Emf:

V Ir
e IR Ir
I

Total power
of emf

e
Rr

Power dissipated as joule heat in:

Ie I R I r
2

Load
resistor

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Combining Circuit Elements


Any two circuit elements can be combined in two
different
ways:
in series - with one right after the other, or
in parallel - with one right next to the other.

Series
Combination

Parallel
Combination

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Resistors in Series
By the conservation of charge,

The same current I flows through


all three resistors, and through the
battery.
Junction rule at a, b, c, d, separately

d
By Energy conservation (electrostatic potential is a function only of
position in the circuit) potential drop around the loop from a to d
equals the potential gain from d to a:
(Va-Vb)+ (Vb - Vc) + (Vc - Vd) - e = 0 = - e (Va - Vd).
Ohms law:
(Va-Vb)=IR1,
(Vb - Vc)=IR2,
(Vc - Vd) = IR3
e = (Va-Vd) = IReq = I(R1+R2+R3):

Req = R1+R2+R3
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Resistors in Parallel

By the conservation of charge,


The current I splits into three (non-equal)
branches such that
I=I1+I2+I3.

By Energy conservation potential drop


across each resistor is the same (wires
assumed to have zero resistance).
(Va-Vd) - e 0.

Ohms law:
(Va-Vd)=I1R1,
(Va - Vd)=I2R2,
(Va - Vd) = I3R3
I1 = e/R1,
I2 = e/R2,
I3 = e/R3
e = I Req = (I1+I2+I3) Req :
e = (e/R1 + e/R2 + e/R3) Req = e Req (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
1/ Req = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
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Resistors in both Series and Parallel

Combine the first two in parallel to obtain


equivalent resistance R/2.
Combine three in series to obtain equivalent
resistance R + (R/2) + R = 2.5 R.
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What is the Current in each resistor?


I1

I2

I3

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Use Kirkhoffs Loop


and Junction Laws to
solve for Currents

I1

I2
I3

Junction Law: I1 + I2 = I3
What is the current in the 9.8 W
resistor?

Loop Rule:

Left loop: I1 (3.9 W) + I3 (1.2 W) + I1 (9.8 W) 12 V = 0


I1 (13.7 W) + I3 (1.2 W) 12 V = 0
Right loop: I2 (6.7 W) + I3 (1.2 W) + 0 9.0 V = 0

Three unknowns, three equations: system is solvable.


Use Junction eqn to eliminate I3 in all other equations
I1 (13.7 W) + (I1 + I2) (1.2 W) 12 V = 0 I1 (14.9 W) + I2(1.2 W) 12 V = 0
I2 (6.7 W) + (I1 + I2) (1.2 W) 9.0 V = 0 I1 (1.2 W) + I2 (7.9 W) 9.0 V = 0
Solve left loop for I2 :
I2 = [12 V - I1 (14.9 W) ] / (1.2 W)
Substitute into right loop:
I1 (1.2 W) + [12 V - I1 (14.9 W) ] (7.9 W) /(1.2 W) 9.0 V = 0

Final step in substitution--solving


I1 (1.2 W) + [12 V - I1 (14.9 W) ] (7.9 W) /(1.2 W) 9.0 V = 0
(14.9W )(7.9W )

(7.9W )
I1 1.2W
9
.
0
V
12
V

1.2W
1.2W

I11.2W - 98.1W 9.0V - 79V

I1- 96.9W -70V

I1 70V / 96.9W 0.722 A

Now substitute backwards to get I2 and I3:

I2 = [12 V - I1 (14.9 W) ] / (1.2 W)


I2 = [12 V (0.722A) (14.9 W) ] / (1.2 W) = -0.764 A
I1 + I 2 = I3
I3 = (0.722A) -0.764 A
I3 = -0.042 A
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Equivalent Resistance

The current I is the same in both The current may be different


in resistors, so the voltage Vba must
each resistor, but
the voltage satisfy:
Vba is
the same across each Vba=Va-Vb=IR1+IR2=I(R1+R2)
resistor and the total current
is conserved: I=I1+I2
Req=R1+R2

1/Req =1/R1+1/R2
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Circuits containing
Capacitors
Capacitors are used in electronic circuits. The symbol
for a capacitor is
We can also combine separate capacitors into one
effective
or equivalent capacitor. 2 capacitors can
be combined
either in parallel or in series.

Series
Combination
C1

C2

Parallel
Combination
C2

C2
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Parallel vs. Series Combination


C1

C2

Parallel

Series

charge Q1 , Q2

charge on each is Q

total Q=Q1 + Q2

total charge is Q

voltage on each is V

-Q

-Q

voltage V1 + V2 = V

Q1=C1V

Q=C1V1

Q2=C2V

Q=C2V2

Q=CeffV

Q= Ceff V = Ceff(V1+V2)

Ceff=C1+C2

1/Ceff=1/C1+1/C2
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RC Circuits
We can construct circuits with more than just resistor, for
example,
a resistor, a capacitor, and a switch:

When the switch is closed the current will not remain


constant.
Capacitor acts as an open circuit: I=0 in branch with capacitor
under study state condition.
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Capacitor Charging
Lets assume that at time t=0, the capacitor is uncharged, and
we close
the switch. We can show that the charge on the
capacitor at some later time t is:
q=qmax(1-e-t/RC)
RC is known as the time constant , and qmax is the maximum
amount
of charge that the capacitor will acquire:

qmax=Ce

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Capacitor Discharging
Consider this circuit with the capacitor fully charged at time
t=0:

It can be shown that the charge


on the capacitor is given by:
q=qmaxe-t/RC
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Ammeters and Voltmeters


Just as a real battery is not a perfect EMF,
Real ammeters and voltmeters are not perfect either.
An Ammeter can be represented as a small resistance, with a
perfect voltmeter in parallel
A voltmeter can be represented as a large resistance, with a
perfect voltmeter in parallel.
What does large or small mean?
Than must be defined in relation to your circuit.
All Ammeters & Voltmeters will distort the circuit
they are trying to measure.

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