Steady State Analysis1 PDF

EE101: Sinusoidal steady state analysis
M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Sinusoidal steady state
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
R
t=0
Vm cos t
R (C Vc0 ) + Vc = Vm cos t ,
Vc
t > 0.
(1)
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
t > 0.
The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =
(h)
Vc (t)
(1)
+
(p)
Vc (t) .
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
t > 0.

(h)
Vc (t) satisfies the homogeneous differential equation,
R C Vc0 + Vc = 0 ,
from which,
(h)
Vc (t)
= A exp(t/ ) , with = RC .
(h)
Vc (t)
(1)
+
(p)
Vc (t) .
(2)
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
t > 0.

(h)
R C Vc0 + Vc = 0 ,
(h)
Vc (t)
(h)
Vc (t)
(1)
+
(p)
Vc (t) .
(2)
from which,
(p)
Vc (t) is a particular solution of (1). Since the forcing function is Vm cos t, we try
(p)
Vc (t) = C1 cos t + C2 sin t .
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
t > 0.

(h)
(h)
Vc (t)
(1)
+
(p)
Vc (t) .
R C Vc0 + Vc = 0 ,
(h)
Vc (t)
(2)
from which,
(p)
(p)
Substituting in (1), we get,
R C (C1 sin t + C2 cos t) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t = Vm cos t .
R
t=0
Vm cos t
Vc
t > 0.

(h)
(h)
Vc (t)
(1)
+
(p)
Vc (t) .
R C Vc0 + Vc = 0 ,
(2)
(h)
Vc (t)
from which,
(p)
(p)
Substituting in (1), we get,
R C (C1 sin t + C2 cos t) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t = Vm cos t .
C1 and C2 can be found by equating the coefficients of sin t and cos t on the left
and right sides.
R
t=0
2 k
C
Vm cos t
Vm = 1 V
f = 1 kHz
0.5 F
Vc
0.2
(SEQUEL file: ee101_rc5.sqproj)
Vc (V)
0.2
4
6
time (ms)
10
R
t=0
2 k
C
Vm cos t
Vm = 1 V
f = 1 kHz
Vc (V)
0.2
0.5 F
Vc
0.2
4
6
time (ms)
10
* The complete solution is Vc (t) = A exp(t/ ) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t .
R
t=0
2 k
C
Vm cos t
Vm = 1 V
f = 1 kHz
Vc (V)
0.2
0.5 F
Vc
0.2
4
6
time (ms)
10

* As t , the exponential term becomes zero, and we are left with
R
t=0
2 k
C
Vm cos t
Vm = 1 V
f = 1 kHz
Vc (V)
0.2
0.5 F
Vc
0.2
4
6
time (ms)
10

* This is known as the sinusoidal steady state response since all quantities
(currents and voltages) in the circuit are sinusoidal in nature.
R
t=0
2 k
C
Vm cos t
Vm = 1 V
f = 1 kHz
Vc (V)
0.2
0.5 F
Vc
0.2
4
6
time (ms)
10

* This is known as the sinusoidal steady state response since all quantities
(currents and voltages) in the circuit are sinusoidal in nature.
* Any circuit containing resistors, capacitors, inductors, sinusoidal voltage and
current sources (of the same frequency), dependent (linear) sources behaves in a
similar manner, viz., each current and voltage in the circuit becomes purely
sinusoidal as t .
Sinusoidal steady state: phasors
* In the sinusoidal steady state, phasors can be used to represent currents and
voltages.
voltages.
* A phasor is a complex number,
X = Xm 6 = Xm exp(j) ,
with the following interpretation in the time domain.
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
= Re Xm e j e jt
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
= Re Xm e j e jt
= Re Xm e j(t+)
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
= Re Xm e j e jt
= Re Xm e j(t+)
= Xm cos (t + )
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
= Re Xm e j e jt
= Re Xm e j(t+)
= Xm cos (t + )
* Use of phasors substantially simplifies analysis of circuits in the sinusoidal steady
state.
voltages.
x(t) = Re X e jt
= Re Xm e j e jt
= Re Xm e j(t+)
= Xm cos (t + )
* Use of phasors substantially simplifies analysis of circuits in the sinusoidal steady
state.
* Note that a phasor can be written in the polar form or rectangular form,
X = Xm 6 = Xm exp(j) = Xm cos + j Xm sin .
The term t is always implicit.
Im (X)
X
Xm
Re (X)
Phasors: examples
Time domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
Frequency domain
Phasors: examples
Time domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
Frequency domain
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
Frequency domain
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
Frequency domain
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
V2 = 0.1 6 V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
V2 = 0.1 6 V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
= 0.18 cos (t /2) A
V2 = 0.1 6 V
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
V2 = 0.1 6 V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
= 0.18 cos (t /2) A
I2 = 0.18 6 (/2) A
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
V2 = 0.1 6 V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
I2 = 0.18 6 (/2) A
= 0.18 cos (t /2) A

I3 = 1 + j 1 A
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
V2 = 0.1 6 V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
I2 = 0.18 6 (/2) A
= 0.18 cos (t /2) A

I3 = 1 + j 1 A
= 2 6 45 A
Phasors: examples
Time domain
Frequency domain
v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V
V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V
i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A
I = 1.5 6 (2/3) A
= 1.5 cos (t + /3 ) A
= 1.5 cos (t 2/3) A
v2 (t) = 0.1 cos (t) V
V2 = 0.1 6 V
= 0.1 cos (t + ) V
i2 (t) = 0.18 sin (t) A
I2 = 0.18 6 (/2) A
= 0.18 cos (t /2) A

i3 (t) =
2 cos (t + 45 ) A
I3 = 1 + j 1 A
= 2 6 45 A
Addition of phasors
Consider addition of two sinusoidal quantities:

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
Now consider addition of the phasors corresponding to v1 (t) and v2 (t).
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
In the time domain, V corresponds to v (t), with
v (t) = Re Ve jt
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
v (t) = Re Ve jt
`
= Re Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2 e jt
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
v (t) = Re Ve jt
`
= Re Vm1 e j(t+1 ) + Vm2 e (t+j2 )
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
v (t) = Re Ve jt
`
= Re Vm1 e j(t+1 ) + Vm2 e (t+j2 )

= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
Addition of phasors

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
V = V1 + V2
= Vm1 e j1 + Vm2 e j2
v (t) = Re Ve jt
`
= Re Vm1 e j(t+1 ) + Vm2 e (t+j2 )

= Vm1 cos (t + 1 ) + Vm2 cos (t + 2 )
which is the same as v (t).
Addition of phasors
* Addition of sinusoidal quantities in the time domain can be replaced by addition

of the corresponding phasors in the sinusoidal steady state.
Addition of phasors
* Addition of sinusoidal quantities in the time domain can be replaced by addition

of the corresponding phasors in the sinusoidal steady state.
* The
P KCL and KVL equations,
P ik (t) = 0 at a node, and
vk (t) = 0 in a loop,
amount to addition of sinusoidal quantities and can therefore be replaced by the
corresponding
phasor equations,
P
P Ik = 0 at a node, and
Vk = 0 in a loop.
Impedance of a resistor
v(t)
i(t) R
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R
Let i(t) = Im cos (t + ).
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
Vm cos (t + ),
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
Vm cos (t + ),
which can be rewritten as,
Re Vm e j(t+) = Re R Im e j(t+) ,
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
Vm cos (t + ),
i.e., Re Vm e j e jt = R Re Im e j e jt ,
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
Vm cos (t + ),
corresponding to the phasor relationship,
V = R I.
V
I
v(t)
i(t) R
V
I

v (t) = R i(t)
= R Im cos (t + )
Vm cos (t + ),
corresponding to the phasor relationship,
V = R I.
Thus, the impedance of a resistor, defined as, Z = V/I, is
Z=R +j0
Impedance of a capacitor
v(t)
i(t)
V
I
v(t)
i(t)
Let v (t) = Vm cos (t + ).
V
I
v(t)
i(t)

dv
i(t) = C
= C Vm sin (t + ).
dt
V
I
v(t)
i(t)

dv
i(t) = C
= C Vm sin (t + ).
dt
Using the identity, cos ( + /2) = sin , we get
i(t) = C Vm cos (t + + /2).
V
I
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

dv
i(t) = C
= C Vm sin (t + ).
dt
i(t) = C Vm cos (t + + /2).
In terms of phasors, V = Vm 6 , I = CVm 6
(+/2).
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

dv
i(t) = C
= C Vm sin (t + ).
dt
i(t) = C Vm cos (t + + /2).
(+/2).
I can be rewritten as,

`
I = CVm e j(+/2) = CVm e j e j/2 = jC Vm e j = jC V
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

dv
i(t) = C
= C Vm sin (t + ).
dt
i(t) = C Vm cos (t + + /2).
(+/2).
I can be rewritten as,

`
I = CVm e j(+/2) = CVm e j e j/2 = jC Vm e j = jC V

Thus, the impedance of a capacitor, Z = V/I, is Z = 1/(jC ) ,
and the admittance of a capacitor, Y = I/V, is Y = jC .
Impedance of an inductor
v(t)
i(t)
V
I
v(t)
i(t)
V
I
v(t)
i(t)

di
v (t) = L
= L Im sin (t + ).
dt
V
I
v(t)
i(t)

di
v (t) = L
= L Im sin (t + ).
dt
v (t) = L Im cos (t + + /2).
V
I
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

di
v (t) = L
= L Im sin (t + ).
dt
v (t) = L Im cos (t + + /2).
In terms of phasors, I = Im 6 , V = LIm 6
(+/2).
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

di
v (t) = L
= L Im sin (t + ).
dt
v (t) = L Im cos (t + + /2).
(+/2).
V can be rewritten as,

`
V = LIm e j(+/2) = LIm e j e j/2 = jL Im e j = jL I
v(t)
i(t)
V
I

di
v (t) = L
= L Im sin (t + ).
dt
v (t) = L Im cos (t + + /2).
(+/2).
V can be rewritten as,

`
V = LIm e j(+/2) = LIm e j e j/2 = jL Im e j = jL I

Thus, the impedance of an indcutor, Z = V/I, is Z = jL ,
and the admittance of an inductor, Y = I/V, is Y = 1/(jL) .
Sources
is (t)
Is
vs (t)
Vs
Sources
is (t)
Is
vs (t)
Vs
* An independent sinusoidal current source, is (t) = Im cos (t + ), can be

represented by the phasor Im 6 (i.e., a constant complex number).
Sources
is (t)
Is
vs (t)
Vs

* An independent sinusoidal voltage source, vs (t) = Vm cos (t + ), can be
represented by the phasor Vm 6 (i.e., a constant complex number).
Sources
is (t)
Is
vs (t)
Vs

* An independent sinusoidal voltage source, vs (t) = Vm cos (t + ), can be
represented by the phasor Vm 6 (i.e., a constant complex number).
* Dependent (linear) sources can be treated in the sinusoidal steady state in the
same manner as a resistor, i.e., by the corresponding phasor relationship.
For example, for a CCVS, we have,
v (t) = r ic (t) in the time domain.
V = r Ic in the frequency domain.
Use of phasors in circuit analysis
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
Vk = 0 in the frequency domain.
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
* Resistors, capacitors, and inductors can be described by V = Z I in the frequency
domain, which is similar to V = R I in DC conditions (except that we are
dealing with complex numbers in the frequency domain).
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
* An independent sinusoidal source in the frequency domain behaves like a DC
source, e.g., Vs = constant (a complex number).
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
* For dependent sources, the time-domain relationships such as i(t) = ic (t)
translate to I = Ic in the frequency domain.
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
* Circuit analysis in the sinusoidal steady state using phasors is therefore very
similar to DC circuits with independent and dependent sources, and resistors.
P
P
* The time-domain
KCL and
ik (t) = 0 and
vk (t) = 0 can be
P
PKVL equations
written as
Ik = 0 and
* Circuit analysis in the sinusoidal steady state using phasors is therefore very
similar to DC circuits with independent and dependent sources, and resistors.
* Series/parallel formulas for resistors, nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenins
and Nortons theorems can be directly applied to circuits in the sinusoidal steady
state.
RL circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
jL
RL circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
jL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
R 2 + 2 L2
I=
RL circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
jL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
R 2 + 2 L2
I=
In the time domain, i(t) = Im cos (t ), which lags the source voltage since the
peak (or zero) of i(t) occurs t = / seconds after that of the source voltage.
RL circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
jL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
R 2 + 2 L2
I=
For R = 1 , L = 1.6 mH, f = 50 Hz, = 26.6 , tlag = 1.48 ms.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 rl ac 1.sqproj)
RL circuit
vs (t) (V)
V m 6 0
jL
R = 1
L = 1.6 mH
i(t) (A)
1
0
10
20
time (ms)
30
40
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
R 2 + 2 L2
I=
For R = 1 , L = 1.6 mH, f = 50 Hz, = 26.6 , tlag = 1.48 ms.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 rl ac 1.sqproj)
RL circuit
VR
I
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
jL
VL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
2
R + 2 L2
I=
RL circuit
VR
I
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
jL
VL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
2
R + 2 L2
I=
VR = I R = R Im () ,
VL = I jL = Im L ( + /2) ,
RL circuit
VR
I
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
jL
VL
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
2
R + 2 L2
I=
VR = I R = R Im () ,
VL = I jL = Im L ( + /2) ,
The KVL equation, Vs = VR + VL , can be represented in the complex plane by a
phasor diagram.
RL circuit
VR
Im (V)
I
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
jL
VL
VL
Vs
Re (V)
VR
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
2
R + 2 L2
I=
VR = I R = R Im () ,
VL = I jL = Im L ( + /2) ,
phasor diagram.
RL circuit
VR
Im (V)
I
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
jL
VL
VL
Vs
Re (V)
VR
Vm 0
Im (),
R + jL
Vm
where Im = p
, and = tan1 (L/R).
2
R + 2 L2
I=
VR = I R = R Im () ,
VL = I jL = Im L ( + /2) ,
phasor diagram.
If R |jL|, 0, |VR | ' |Vs | = Vm .
If R |jL|, /2, |VL | ' |Vs | = Vm .
RC circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
1/jC
RC circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
1/jC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
where Im = p
1 + (RC )2
I=
RC circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
1/jC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
where Im = p
1 + (RC )2
I=
In the time domain, i(t) = Im cos (t + ), which leads the source voltage since the
peak (or zero) of i(t) occurs t = / seconds before that of the source voltage.
RC circuit
R
I
Vm 6 0
1/jC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
where Im = p
1 + (RC )2
I=
For R = 1 , L = 5.3 mF, f = 50 Hz, = 31 , tlead = 1.72 ms.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 rc ac 1.sqproj)
RC circuit
vs (t) (V)
Vm 6 0
1/jC
R = 1
C = 5.3 mF
i(t) (A)
1
0
10
20
time (ms)
30
40
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
where Im = p
1 + (RC )2
I=
For R = 1 , L = 5.3 mF, f = 50 Hz, = 31 , tlead = 1.72 ms.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 rc ac 1.sqproj)
RC circuit
VR
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
1/jC
VC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
where Im = p
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
1 + (RC )2
I=
RC circuit
VR
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
1/jC
VC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
where Im = p
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
1 + (RC )2
I=
VR = I R = R Im ,
VC = I (1/jC ) = (Im /C ) ( /2) ,
RC circuit
VR
R
Vm 6 0
Vs
1/jC
VC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
where Im = p
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
1 + (RC )2
I=
VR = I R = R Im ,
VC = I (1/jC ) = (Im /C ) ( /2) ,
The KVL equation, Vs = VR + VC , can be represented in the complex plane by a
phasor diagram.
RC circuit
VR
R
Im (V)
VR
Vm 6 0
Vs
1/jC
VC
Vs
Re (V)
VC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
where Im = p
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
1 + (RC )2
I=
VR = I R = R Im ,
VC = I (1/jC ) = (Im /C ) ( /2) ,
phasor diagram.
RC circuit
VR
R
Im (V)
VR
Vm 6 0
Vs
1/jC
VC
Vs
Re (V)
VC
Vm 0
Im ,
R + 1/jC
CVm
where Im = p
, and = /2 tan1 (RC ).
1 + (RC )2
I=
VR = I R = R Im ,
VC = I (1/jC ) = (Im /C ) ( /2) ,
phasor diagram.
If R |1/jC |, 0, |VR | ' |Vs | = Vm .
If R |1/jC |, /2, |VC | ' |Vs | = Vm .
Series/parallel connections
0.25 H
100 F
Z1
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
0.25 H
100 F
Z1
Z = Z1 + Z2 = j 75
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
Z1 = j 100 0.25 = j 25
Z2 = j/(100 100 10-6 ) = j 100
0.25 H
100 F
Z1
Z = Z1 + Z2 = j 75
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
0.25 H
Z1
100 F
Z
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
Z1 = j 100 0.25 = j 25
Z2 = j/(100 100 10-6 ) = j 100
0.25 H
100 F
Z1
Z = Z1 + Z2 = j 75
Z2
Z1 = j 100 0.25 = j 25
Z2 = j/(100 100 10-6 ) = j 100
( = 100 rad/s)
0.25 H
Z1
100 F
Z
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
Z=
Z1 Z2
Z1 + Z2
(j 25) (j 100)
j 25 j 100
25 100
j 75
= j 33.3
Impedance example
Obtain Z in polar form.

A
10
Z1
j 10
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
Impedance example
Method 1:
A
10
Z1
Z=
j 10
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
j10
10 j10
=
10 + j10
1+j
j10
1j
1+j 1j
10 + j10
= 5 + j5
2
Convert to polar form Z = 7.07 6 45

B
Impedance example
Method 1:
A
10
Z1
Z=
j 10
Z2
( = 100 rad/s)
j10
10 j10
=
10 + j10
1+j
j10
1j
1+j 1j
10 + j10
= 5 + j5
2
Convert to polar form Z = 7.07 6 45

B
Method 2:
100 6 /2
10 j10
=
10 + j10
10 2 6 /4
= 5 2 6 (/2 /4) = 7.07 6 45
Z=
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
iL
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
IC
iL
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
Is
IC
iL
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
2 mF
15 mH
Is
IC
iL
Vs
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z2
Z1
Is
Z3
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Vs
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z2
Z1
Is
Z3
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
ZEQ = Z1 + Z3 k (Z2 + Z4 )
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Vs
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z2
Z1
Is
Z3
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z2
Z1
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Is
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
ZEQ = Z1 + Z3 k (Z2 + Z4 )
= 2 + (j 1.6) k (10 + j 4.7) = 2 +
(j 1.6) (10 + j 4.7)

j 1.6 + 10 + j 4.7
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z2
Z1
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Is
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
ZEQ = Z1 + Z3 k (Z2 + Z4 )
= 2 + (j 1.6) k (10 + j 4.7) = 2 +
=2+
(j 1.6) (10 + j 4.7)

j 1.6 + 10 + j 4.7
1.6 (90 ) 11.05 (25.2 )

17.7 (64.8 )
=2+
10.47 (17.2 )
10.47 (17.2 )
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z2
Z1
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Is
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
ZEQ = Z1 + Z3 k (Z2 + Z4 )
= 2 + (j 1.6) k (10 + j 4.7) = 2 +
=2+
(j 1.6) (10 + j 4.7)

j 1.6 + 10 + j 4.7
1.6 (90 ) 11.05 (25.2 )

17.7 (64.8 )
=2+
10.47 (17.2 )
10.47 (17.2 )
= 2 + 1.69 (82 ) = 2 + (0.235 j 1.67)
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z3 =
Z2
Z1
Is
IC
iL
2 mF
15 mH
Is
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
1
= j 1.6
j 2 50 2 103
Z4 = 2 50 15 103 = j 4.7
ZEQ = Z1 + Z3 k (Z2 + Z4 )
= 2 + (j 1.6) k (10 + j 4.7) = 2 +
=2+
(j 1.6) (10 + j 4.7)

j 1.6 + 10 + j 4.7
1.6 (90 ) 11.05 (25.2 )

17.7 (64.8 )
=2+
10.47 (17.2 )
10.47 (17.2 )
= 2 + 1.69 (82 ) = 2 + (0.235 j 1.67)

= 2.235 j 1.67 = 2.79 (36.8 )
Vs
ZEQ
Circuit example (continued)
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
Is
IC
iL
Vs
Z3
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Is =
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
Vs
Z3
Vs
10 (0 )
=
= 3.58 (36.8 ) A
ZEQ
2.79 (36.8 )
Is
IC
iL
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
Vs
Z3
Is =
Vs
10 (0 )
=
= 3.58 (36.8 ) A
ZEQ
2.79 (36.8 )
IC =
(Z2 + Z4 )
Is = 3.79 (44.6 ) A
Z3 + (Z2 + Z4 )
Is
IC
iL
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
is
10
iC
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
2 mF
15 mH
Z2
Z1
Is
Vs
Z3
Is =
Vs
10 (0 )
=
= 3.58 (36.8 ) A
ZEQ
2.79 (36.8 )
IC =
(Z2 + Z4 )
Is = 3.79 (44.6 ) A
Z3 + (Z2 + Z4 )
IL =
Z3
Is = 0.546 (70.6 ) A
Z3 + (Z2 + Z4 )
Is
IC
iL
IL
Z4
Vs
ZEQ
is
10
10 6 0 V
f = 50 Hz
Z2
Z1
Is
2 mF
15 mH
Is
IC
iL
iC
Vs
IL
Z3
Vs
Z4
ZEQ
10 (0 )
Vs
=
= 3.58 (36.8 ) A
ZEQ
2.79 (36.8 )
IC =
(Z2 + Z4 )
Is = 3.79 (44.6 ) A
Z3 + (Z2 + Z4 )
IL =
Z3
Is = 0.546 (70.6 ) A
Z3 + (Z2 + Z4 )
Im(I)
Is =
IC
Is
IL
Re(I)
Sinusoidal steady state: power computation
V
I
V
I
Let v (t) = Vm cos (t + ), i.e., V = Vm ,

i(t) = Im cos (t + ), i.e., I = Im .
V
I

i(t) = Im cos (t + ), i.e., I = Im .
The instantaneous power absorbed by Z is,
P(t) = v (t) i(t)
= Vm Im cos (t + ) cos (t + )
1
= Vm Im [cos (2t + + ) + cos ( )]
2
(1)
V
I

i(t) = Im cos (t + ), i.e., I = Im .
P(t) = v (t) i(t)
1
= Vm Im [cos (2t + + ) + cos ( )]
2
The average power absorbed by Z is
Z T
1
P(t) dt, where T = 2/.
P=
T 0
(1)
V
I

i(t) = Im cos (t + ), i.e., I = Im .
P(t) = v (t) i(t)
1
= Vm Im [cos (2t + + ) + cos ( )]
(1)
2
Z T
1
P=
T 0
The first term in Eq. (1) has an average value of zero and does not contribute to P.
Therefore,
V
I

i(t) = Im cos (t + ), i.e., I = Im .
P(t) = v (t) i(t)
1
= Vm Im [cos (2t + + ) + cos ( )]
(1)
2
Z T
1
P=
T 0
The first term in Eq. (1) has an average value of zero and does not contribute to P.
Therefore,
P=
1
Vm Im cos ( ) gives the average power absorbed by Z.
2
Average power for R, L, C
V
I
General formula:
V = Vm 6 , I = Im 6
1
Vm Im cos ( )
2
P=
V
I
General formula:
V = Vm 6 , I = Im 6
1
Vm Im cos ( )
2
P=
V = RI
V
I
For I = Im 6 , V = R Im 6 ,
P=
1
1
1
(R Im ) Im cos ( ) = I2m R = V2m /R
2
2
2
V
I
General formula:
V = Vm 6 , I = Im 6
1
Vm Im cos ( )
2
P=
V = RI
V
I
For I = Im 6 , V = R Im 6 ,
P=
1
1
1
2
2
2
V = jL I
V
I
For I = Im 6 , V = L Im 6 ( + /2) ,
P=
1
Vm Im cos [( + /2) ] = 0
2
V
I
General formula:
V = Vm 6 , I = Im 6
1
Vm Im cos ( )
2
P=
V = RI
V
I
For I = Im 6 , V = R Im 6 ,
P=
1
1
1
2
2
2
V = jL I
V
I
For I = Im 6 , V = L Im 6 ( + /2) ,
P=
1
Vm Im cos [( + /2) ] = 0
2
I = jC V
V
I
For V = Vm 6 , I = C Vm 6 ( + /2) ,
P=
1
Vm Im cos [ ( + /2)] = 0
2
Average power: example
Given: I = 2 6 45 A
Find the average power absorbed.
50
j25
Given: I = 2 6 45 A
50
j25
Method 1:
V = (50 + j25) 2 45
= 55.9 26.6 2 45
= 111.8 (45 + 26.6 )
Given: I = 2 6 45 A
50
j25
Method 1:
V = (50 + j25) 2 45
= 55.9 26.6 2 45
= 111.8 (45 + 26.6 )
1
P = 111.8 2 cos (26.6 ) = 100 W .
2
Given: I = 2 6 45 A
50
j25
Method 1:
V = (50 + j25) 2 45
= 55.9 26.6 2 45
= 111.8 (45 + 26.6 )
1
P = 111.8 2 cos (26.6 ) = 100 W .
2
Method 2:
No average power is absorbed by the inductor.
P = PR (average power absorbed by R)
Given: I = 2 6 45 A
50
j25
Method 1:
V = (50 + j25) 2 45
= 55.9 26.6 2 45
= 111.8 (45 + 26.6 )
1
P = 111.8 2 cos (26.6 ) = 100 W .
2
Method 2:
No average power is absorbed by the inductor.
P = PR (average power absorbed by R)
1
1 2
R = 22 50
= Im
2
2
= 100 W .
Maximum power transfer
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL
Let ZL = RL + jXL , ZTh = RTh + jXTh , and I = Im .
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL

The power absorbed by ZL is,
1 2
P = Im
RL
2
1 VTh 2
=
RL
2 ZTh + ZL
=
|VTh |2
1
RL .
2 (RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL

1 2
P = Im
RL
2
1 VTh 2
=
RL
2 ZTh + ZL
=
|VTh |2
1
RL .
2 (RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2
For P to be maximum, (XTh + XL ) must be zero. XL = XTh .
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL

1 2
P = Im
RL
2
1 VTh 2
=
RL
2 ZTh + ZL
=
|VTh |2
1
RL .
2 (RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2

With XL = XTh , we have,
1
|VTh |2
RL ,
2 (RTh + RL )2
which is maximum for RL = RTh .
P=
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL

1 2
P = Im
RL
2
1 VTh 2
=
RL
2 ZTh + ZL
=
|VTh |2
1
RL .
2 (RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2

With XL = XTh , we have,
1
|VTh |2
RL ,
2 (RTh + RL )2
which is maximum for RL = RTh .
P=
Therefore, for maximum power transfer to the load ZL , we need,

RL = RTh , XL = XTh , i.e., ZL = ZTh .
ZTh
VTh
I
ZL
Maximum power transfer: example
4
16 6 0 V
j3
-j6
ZL
4
16 6 0 V
ZTh
-j6
ZL
j3
VTh
ZL
4
16 6 0 V
j3
ZTh
-j6
ZL
ZTh = (j 6) k (4 + j 3) = 5.76 j 1.68 .
VTh
ZL
4
16 6 0 V
j3
ZTh
-j6
ZL
VTh
ZL
ZTh = (j 6) k (4 + j 3) = 5.76 j 1.68 .

For maximum power transfer, ZL = ZTh = 5.76 + j 1.68 RL + j XL .
4
16 6 0 V
j3
ZTh
-j6
ZL
VTh
ZL
ZTh = (j 6) k (4 + j 3) = 5.76 j 1.68 .

VTh = 16 0
j 6
= 19.2 (53.13 ) .
(4 + j 3) + (j 6)
4
16 6 0 V
j3
ZTh
-j6
ZL
VTh
ZL
ZTh = (j 6) k (4 + j 3) = 5.76 j 1.68 .

j 6
= 19.2 (53.13 ) .
(4 + j 3) + (j 6)
VTh
VTh
=
.
I=
ZTh + ZL
2 RL
VTh = 16 0
4
16 6 0 V
j3
ZTh
-j6
ZL
VTh
ZL
ZTh = (j 6) k (4 + j 3) = 5.76 j 1.68 .

j 6
= 19.2 (53.13 ) .
(4 + j 3) + (j 6)
VTh
VTh
=
.
I=
ZTh + ZL
2 RL
1 2
1 19.2 2
1 (19.2)2
P = Im
RL =
RL =
= 8 W.
2
2 2 RL
2 4 RL
VTh = 16 0
Effective (rms) values of voltage/current
v(t)
i(t) R
time-varying v and i
Veff
Ieff R
constant v and i
Consider a periodic current i(t) passing through R.
v(t)
i(t) R
Veff
Ieff R
constant v and i

The average power absorbed by R is,
Z t0 +T
1
[i(t)]2 R dt ,
P1 =
T t0
where t0 is some reference time (we will take t0 to be 0).
v(t)
i(t) R
Veff
Ieff R
constant v and i

Z t0 +T
1
[i(t)]2 R dt ,
P1 =
T t0
The average power absorbed by R in the DC case is,
2 R.
P2 = Ieff
v(t)
i(t) R
Veff
Ieff R
constant v and i

Z t0 +T
1
[i(t)]2 R dt ,
P1 =
T t0
The average power absorbed by R in the DC case is,
2 R.
P2 = Ieff
Ieff , the effective value of i(t), is defined such that P1 = P2 , i.e.,

Z T
2 R = 1
Ieff
[i(t)]2 R dt ,
T 0
s
Z T
1
Ieff =
[i(t)]2 dt .
T 0
v(t)
Veff
i(t) R
s
Ieff =
1
T
Ieff R
constant v and i
[i(t)]2 dt .
Ieff is called the root-mean-square (rms) value of i(t) because of the operations
(root, mean, and square) involved in its computation.
v(t)
Veff
i(t) R
s
Ieff =
1
T
Ieff R
constant v and i
[i(t)]2 dt .
If i(t) is sinusoidal, i.e., i(t) = Im cos (t + ),
s
s
Z T
Z T
1
1
1
2
Ieff =
Im
cos2 (t + ) dt = Im
[1 + cos (2t + )] dt
T 0
T 0 2
r
1 1
= Im
T = Im / 2 .
T 2
v(t)
Veff
i(t) R
s
Ieff =
1
T
Ieff R
constant v and i
[i(t)]2 dt .
If i(t) is sinusoidal, i.e., i(t) = Im cos (t + ),
s
s
Z T
Z T
1
1
1
2
Ieff =
Im
cos2 (t + ) dt = Im
[1 + cos (2t + )] dt
T 0
T 0 2
r
1 1
= Im
T = Im / 2 .
T 2
Similarly, Veff = Vm / 2 .
Apparent power, real power, and power factor
V
I
V = Vm 6
I = Im 6
The average (real) power absorbed by Z is,

1
V m Im
P = Vm Im cos ( ) = cos ( )
2
2 2
= Veff Ieff cos ( ) (Watts)
V
I
V = Vm 6
I = Im 6

1
V m Im
2
2 2
Apparent power is defined as Papp = Veff Ieff (Volt-Amp).
V
I
V = Vm 6
I = Im 6

1
V m Im
2
2 2
Power factor is defined as P. F . =
Average power
= cos ( ).
Apparent power
V
I
V = Vm 6
I = Im 6

1
V m Im
2
2 2
Average power
= cos ( ).
Apparent power
( ) > 0: i(t) lags v (t), the P. F. is called a lagging P. F.

(inductive impedance)
V
I
V = Vm 6
I = Im 6

1
V m Im
2
2 2
Average power
= cos ( ).
Apparent power
( ) > 0: i(t) lags v (t), the P. F. is called a lagging P. F.

(inductive impedance)
( ) < 0: i(t) leads v (t), the P. F. is called a leading P. F.
(capacitive impedance)
Power factor: examples
V
I
1. Given: V = 120 0 V (rms), I = 2 (36.9 ) A (rms).

Find Papp , P.F., and P.
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P.F. = cos (0 (36.9 )) = 0.8 lagging (since I lags V).
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
2. Given: P = 50 kW , P.F. = 0.95 (lagging), V = 480 0 V (rms).
Find I.
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
Find I.
Veff Ieff P.F = 50 103
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
Find I.
50 103
Ieff =
= 109.6 A.
480 0.95
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
Find I.
50 103
Ieff =
= 109.6 A.
480 0.95
Since P.F. is 0.95 (lagging), I lags V by cos1 (0.95) = 18.2 .
V
I

Papp = 120 2 = 240 V-A.
P = Papp P.F. = 192 W .
Find I.
50 103
Ieff =
= 109.6 A.
480 0.95
Since P.F. is 0.95 (lagging), I lags V by cos1 (0.95) = 18.2 .
I = 109.6 (18.2 ) A (rms).
Why is power factor important?
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL
Consider a simplified model of a power system consisting of a generator (Vs ),

transmission line (R), and load (ZL ).
The load is specified as P = 50 kW , P.F.= 0.6 (lagging), VL = 480 0 V (rms).
Note: lagging power factors are typical of industrial loads (motors).
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL

50 103
P = 50 103 W = |VL | |IL | P.F. |IL | =
= 173.6 A (rms).
480 0.6
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL

50 103
P = 50 103 W = |VL | |IL | P.F. |IL | =
= 173.6 A (rms).
480 0.6
2
Power loss in the transmission line Ploss = |IL | R = (173.6)2 0.1 = 3 kW .
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL

50 103
P = 50 103 W = |VL | |IL | P.F. |IL | =
= 173.6 A (rms).
480 0.6
2
If the load power factor was 0.95 (lagging), we would have
50 103
|IL | =
= 109.6 A (rms), and Ploss = (109.6)2 0.1 = 1.2 kW .
480 0.95
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL

50 103
P = 50 103 W = |VL | |IL | P.F. |IL | =
= 173.6 A (rms).
480 0.6
2
50 103
|IL | =
= 109.6 A (rms), and Ploss = (109.6)2 0.1 = 1.2 kW .
480 0.95
Thus, a higher power factor can substantially reduce transmission losses.
R = 0.1
IL
Vs
VL
ZL
IC
C

50 103
P = 50 103 W = |VL | |IL | P.F. |IL | =
= 173.6 A (rms).
480 0.6
2
50 103
|IL | =
= 109.6 A (rms), and Ploss = (109.6)2 0.1 = 1.2 kW .
480 0.95
Thus, a higher power factor can substantially reduce transmission losses.
The effective power factor of an inductive load can be improved by connecting a
suitable capacitance in parallel.
Power computation: home work
Is
10
2
I1
10 6 0 V
j2
I2
j5
* Find I1 , I2 , Is .
* Compute the average power absorbed by each element.
* Verify power balance.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 phasors 2.sqproj)

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EE101: Sinusoidal steady state analysis

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

The solution Vc (t) is made up of two components, Vc (t) =

Sinusoidal steady state

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

* The complete solution is Vc (t) = A exp(t/ ) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

* The complete solution is Vc (t) = A exp(t/ ) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

* The complete solution is Vc (t) = A exp(t/ ) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state

* The complete solution is Vc (t) = A exp(t/ ) + C1 cos t + C2 sin t .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Sinusoidal steady state: phasors

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V

i(t) = 1.5 cos (t + 60 ) A

v1 (t)=3.2 cos (t+30 ) V

V1 = 3.2 6 30 = 3.2 exp (j/6) V