Professional Documents
Culture Documents
what you
know . . .!
How do!
you know?!
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Understanding is based on
knowledge that can be verified
through objective measurement,
and which others can verify
independently for themselves
MYTH OR FACT?
Opposites attract!
How were!
children!
affected by the events!
of September 11 ?!
RESEARCH
METHODS!
Two principles:!
2. Psychologists focus
on behavior in their
research -- even when
they are studying
internal processes (like
thoughts, memories, and
emotions)!
OPERATIONAL
DEFINITIONS!
Definitions of
psychological processes
that specify the
objective procedures for
measuring that process!
BASIC QUESTIONS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH!
1. Where should I do
the research?!
NATURALISTIC SETTING!
LABORATORY SETTING!
Naturalistic setting!
people act naturally: easy
to generalize to everyday
behavior (external validity)!
many different influences
on behavior run together!
Laboratory setting!
provides control over
many influences on
behavior (internal validity)!
sometimes people act
unnaturally!
2. What specific
methods for
gathering information
should I use?!
OBSERVATION!
Watching carefully and
recording what a person is
doing - without interfering!
INTERVIEWS OR
SURVEYS!
Asking people directly about
their experiences or opinions!
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
AND PERFORMANCE
MEASURES!
Standardized instruments
for systematically
discovering what a person
knows, thinks, or can do!
ARCHIVAL DATA!
Information has been gathered
prior to the beginning of the
study!
CASE STUDY!
An intensive, in-depth study
of the life of one individual,
gathering as many sources
of information as possible!
REPORTS FROM
SECONDARY SOURCES!
psychologists learn about
research subjects from other
people who know them well!
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
MEASURES!
ANIMAL STUDIES!
Used to study processes that
cannot be easily or ethically
studied in humans!
EXPERIMENT!
A procedure in which a
researcher measures the
reactions of individuals to
specific influences, as other
influences are controlled!
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE!
The variable a researcher
manipulates to study its
effects!
DEPENDENT VARIABLE!
The variable a researcher
thinks will be affected by
the independent variable!
CAUSE!
(independent variable)!
and!
EFFECT!
(dependent variable)!
EXPERIMENTAL
CONDITION!
Specific procedures that
manipulate the independent
variable !
(the experimental group)!
CONTROL
CONDITION!
The same procedures as the
experimental condition
except for the manipulation
of the independent variable!
(the control group)!
3. How do we
maintain objectivity?!
OBJECTIVE MEASURES!
OPERATIONAL
DEFINITIONS!
REPRESENTATIVE
SAMPLE!
(a sample that matches the broader!
population on important characteristics)!
STATISTICS!
calculations that!
provide a more objective
judgment of the meaning of
research results than our
intuitions allow!
Performance by Condition
Performance
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Experimental
Control
Condition
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS!
organize and summarize
research findings!
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS!
evaluate the reliability or !
meaningfulness of research!
findings!
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE!
is a statistical estimation !
of the reliability of research!
results!
(statistical significance --
fewer than 5 chances in 100
that findings could be random
or due to chance)!
CAUTIOUS
INTERPRETATIONS OF
FINDINGS!
4. How do we maintain
ethical standards?!
Minimizing stress!
Informed consent!
Confidentiality of all
research materials!
Freedom to withdraw!