OREGEO-01339; No of Pages 14

Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev

GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical

methods in the southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China
Wenlei Wang a, Jie Zhao b,c,, Qiuming Cheng b,d, Emmanuel John M. Carranza e
a

Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China

State Key Lab of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
d
Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, Department of Geography, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON M3J1P3, Canada
e
Department of Earth and Oceans, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Queensland, Australia
b
c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 31 May 2014
Received in revised form 15 September 2014
Accepted 23 September 2014
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Hydrothermal mineralization
Singularity
Geo-anomaly
Geographically weighted regression
Spatial non-stationarity

a b s t r a c t
This paper demonstrates a modeling procedure of mineral potential mapping based on singularity theory, and
further presents an idea to look into metallogeny of SnCu polymetallic deposits in southeastern Yunnan mineral
district, China by applying a localized regression method. Mineralization is a typical cascade process generally
accompanied by irregular geological, geochemical and geophysical signatures. Singularity index as an efcient
anomaly analytical tool helps to identify anomalies as well as characterize formation processes of these anomalies. In this study, the singularity-based mineral potential mapping method was utilized to characterize hydrothermal mineralization associated with magmatic, tectonic and sedimentary processes in this district. Based on
the results, a mineral prospectivity model was constructed to delineate target areas. In addition to mineral
prospectivity, controlling effects of geo-processes on mineralization are spatially non-stationary. Geographicallyweighted regression analysis was thus employed to investigate these spatially-varied controlling effects and it
has contributed to improve understanding to local metallogeny in the study area. Results of the spatial analysis
presented can be used to guide following stages of mineral exploration in the district.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China is well-known for
its world class SnCu polymetallic deposits and has attracted great
scientic attentions for decades. A prolonged history of mining activities
in this district can be dated back to 2000 years ago (i.e., the Han dynasty
of China). After the foundation of the P.R. of China, systematical exploration and investigations were signicantly undertaken. In the past
decades, knowledge on types, origins and distributions of SnCu
polymetallic deposits had been greatly improved by deep and detailed
researches (Qin and Li, 2008; Zhuang et al., 1996). Exploration of hydrothermal ore deposits especially the skarn type in this district has been
greatly benetted from improved knowledge on ore genesis and mineral prospectivity modeling (Cheng and Mao, 2010; Cheng et al., 2012,
2013; Liao et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2011, 2012, 2013a, 2013b). Hydrothermal mineralization as a cascade geological process includes migration of ore-bearing hydrothermal uids, metasomatic replacement
between uids and wall rocks, precipitation of minerals and consequent
accumulation of certain elements or metals (Cheng, 2007a; He et al.,
2013; Pirajno, 2009). Concerning the mineralization process discussed
Corresponding author at: State Key Lab of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources,
China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China. Tel.: +86 11 86 10 82323583.
E-mail address: zhaojie.ca@gmail.com (J. Zhao).

above, two main regional ore-controlling factors important to hydrothermal mineralization are tectono-magmatism and wall rocks. The former is crucial since magmatism can provide both ore-forming materials
and heat during mineralization, while tectonism creates spaces for
transportation of magma and/or hydrothermal uids and precipitation
of ore materials (Faulkner et al., 2010; Han et al., 2012; Micklethwaite
et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Yuan et al., 1979; Zhai et al.,
1999; Zhao et al., 2011). The latter, wall rock, is another key factor in hydrothermal mineralization, properties of which are important to types
of mineralization (e.g., skarn type ore deposits formed in contact
zones of felsic intrusions and carbonate rocks) (Chen et al., 2007;
Einaudi and Burt, 1982; Mao et al., 2011). Therefore, detailed researches
on these controlling factors and their controlling effects on mineralization are benecial for mineral potential mapping. Studies regarding to
these points are numerous and so as published literatures. However,
the long and continued exploitation of hydrothermal mineral deposits,
especially skarn-type, had led to the mine crisis in this district. With
the increasing pressure of mine production in recent years, it is necessary to utilize advanced prospectivity analytical techniques and current
knowledge of metallogenesis in the district to assist exploration of
deposits around existing occurrences and toward deeper levels.
Mineral exploration aims to nd economic mineral deposits through
a systematic process consisting of regional area selection, reconnaissance exploration and a series of follow-up surveys (Haldar, 2012;

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032
0169-1368/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

Hodgson, 1990; Woodall, 1994). Considering costbenet balance and

exploration strategies (Hodgson, 1990), regional area selection to depict
target areas with mineral potentials is signicant in mineral exploration.
Mineral prospectivity modeling (or potential mapping) is generally
composed of two principal modules: conceptual and empirical models.
A conceptual model is derived from geological theories on ore genesis,
deposit types, controlling factors, mineralization indicators, etc.
(Cheng, 2012; Hodgson, 1990; McCuaig et al., 2010), while an empirical
model relies on mathematical analysis and/or experiments to predict
with potential for mineralization (Bonham-Carter, 1994; Carranza,
2009; Edwards and Atkinson, 1986; Harris and Sanborn-Barrie, 2006;
Lusty et al., 2012; Misra, 2000; Woodall, 1994). To achieve better
prospecting results, these two models are often used jointly.
Nowadays, geographic information system (GIS)-based techniques
for data capture, manipulation, visualization, analysis and sharing are
frequently employed to extract and integrate mineralization related
geo-information for mineral prospectivity modeling (Agterberg, 1989,
1992, 1994; An et al., 1991; Bonham-Carter, 1994; Bonham-Carter
et al., 1989; Carranza, 2004, 2008, 2014; Carranza and Hale, 2001a,b;
Carranza and Laborte, 2014; Carranza and Sadeghi, 2010; Carranza
et al., 1999, 2009; Cheng, 2006; Cheng and Agterberg, 1999; Cheng
et al., 1994, 2010; Chung and Agterberg, 1980; Grunsky and Smee,
1999; Haldar, 2012; Harris, 1989; Harris et al., 2000, 2003; Hodgson,
1990; Luo and Dimitrakopoulos, 2003; Meja-Herrera et al., 2014; Pan
and Harris, 2000; Pereira et al., 2003; Porwal et al., 2003, 2004; Rencz
et al., 1994; Woodall, 1994; Xu and Cheng, 2001; Zhao, 1999). According
to the regional geological model of hydrothermal mineralization in
southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China, the current study demonstrates an improved GIS-based mineral prospectivity modeling process.
The singularity theory is here employed to characterize spatial variations of geological, geochemical and geophysical signatures, by which
hydrothermal mineralization-related geo-processes are investigated. In
addition, spatially non-stationary interrelations or interactions among
hydrothermal mineralization and its controlling factors are examined
for mapping of mineral potentials. It is demonstrated here that analysis
of spatially varied controlling effects of geo-processes on mineralization
can greatly enhance the understanding of metallogeny in a spatial
scenario and provide support to mineral exploration.
2. Study area and geo-exploratory datasets
Southeastern Yunnan district, China was chosen as the study area
because it is well-known for its world-class reserves of SnCu
polymetallic resources. Bounded to the north by the Wenshan fault,
to the south by the Red River fault, to the east by the Malipo area,
and to the west by the JianshuiYuanyang area, it covers an area
about 300 150 km2 within longitudes 1022510443E and latitudes 23502450N (Fig. 1). From a geological point of view, the
location of this district is in a mineralization-favored environment
benetting ore-forming element accumulation and metal mineralization (Chen et al., 1998; Li, 1998; Tan et al., 2004; Zhuang et al.,
1996). Located within the junction zone between the Tethyan and
the Pacic tectonic domains, fault/fold systems in the district were
well-developed by intensive tectonic activities, which provided favorable spaces for mineralization (Li, 1998; Tan et al., 2004;
Zhuang et al., 1996). Signicant to mineralization, the underlying
Yangtze craton is believed as a source of metals. Tension of the
Youjiang basin during the Hercynian (386257 Ma) to the IndoChina (257205 Ma) epochs caused widespread volcanic eruptions,
which triggered the earliest metallic mineralization in the district.
Subsequent plate subduction and collision in the late Indo-China
epoch led to the formation and emplacement of remelted granites
in the Yanshanian epoch (205135 Ma), which facilitated the
enrichment of ore materials. As shown in the simplied regional geological map of the southeastern Yunnan SnCu polymetallic
metallogenic belt (Fig. 1), the district is comprised of three main

sub-districts Gejiu, BainiuchangWenshang, and DulongMalipofrom the west to the east. Although the study area experienced
a long term geological evolution and its geological framework
is complicated, a general SnCu polymetallic deposit model was
summarized according to systematic studies on diagenesis and
metallogenesis, which greatly supports the mineral prospectivity
modeling (Yang, 1990).
2.1. Geological criteria for modeling
2.1.1. Mineralization process
In former studies (e.g., Guan, 1991; Yang, 1990), a magmatichydrothermal model once was commonly accepted to describe mineralization
of SnCu polymetallic deposits in this district: the Yanshanian granites
with ore-forming materials intruded into carbonate strata, and the
SnCu polymetallic deposits were formed near/in contract zones by
precipitation and crystallization of those ore-forming materials. In recent years, more detailed studies have been conducted, and a conclusion
that the SnCu polymetallic mineralization was related to a complex
metallogenic system dominated by interactions of multi-factor for
multi-stage was suggested (Chen et al., 1998; Li et al., 2005, 2006; Qin
an Li, 2008; Zhang et al., 2006). The SnCu polymetallic mineralization
was brought about by various processes including rift expansion, volcanic sedimentation, marine hydrothermal exhalation, and transformation by granitic intrusions (Fig. 1b). From the Hercynian to the late
Indo-China epochs, inuenced by deep-rooted syngenetic faulting in
the MileShizong and GejiuLuopingQinglong, the study area was in
a rift environment. The volcanic rocks comprise a bimodal suite and
the earliest stratiform Sn, Cu, Pb, and Zn syngenetic sedimentary ores
were formed during this period (Li, 1998; Qin and Li, 2008; Zhou
et al., 1997). In the middle Indo-China epoch, hydrothermal uids carrying ore-forming materials extracted from underlying basement were
developed (Liu et al., 2007a, 2007b; Qin and Li, 2008). Migrated through
fractures, marine volcanic exhalation occurred at the seaoor, which led
to the formation of stratiform and/or lenticular SnCu polymetallic ore
bodies. Tectonic activities during the middle to late Yanshanian epoch
caused large-scale emplacement of granitic magmas in this district,
which are believed to provide parts of ore-forming materials other
than carbonate strata (Li, 1998). In addition, the granitic emplacement
had contributed to the transformation (e.g., alteration, enrichment,
metamorphosis) of existing ore bodies, which caused the formation of
skarn-type sulde ore bodies in irregular and lenticular shapes within
the contact zones between the intrusions and carbonate rocks. Meanwhile, vein and stockwork ore bodies lled up spaces of fractures in
overlying strata as hydrothermal uids cooled down in those fractures
(Qin and Li, 2008).
2.1.2. Mineralization types and controlling factors
Minerals of SnCu polymetallic deposits in the study area are
generally formed following a sequence of early skarn, late skarn,
quartztourmaline (greisens), sulde, and carbonate stages (Yao and
Wu,1988), among which the sulde stage is believed as the main period
of ore-forming element enrichment. The stratiform cassiteritesulde
ore bodies with great economic value are broadly distributed in carbonate rocks. Genesis analysis on these ore bodies suggested the formation
of which are highly associated with the late Yanshanian granitic intrusions (Cheng et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2007a; Luo, 1995; Wang et al.,
2013a; Xiong and Shi, 1994; Zhang et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 1997).
Magmatic activities during the middlelate Yanshanian epoch are
signicant to Sn polymetallic mineralization in the study area. Emplacement of granitic magma dominated the activities and caused the formation of the Gejiu, Bozhushan and Laojunshan intrusions from the west to
the east in the study area (Guan, 1991). The SnCu polymetallic mineralization is annularly occurred around intrusions, intensity of which is
decreased by the distance to intrusions increasing (Guan, 1991; Yao
and Wu, 1988; Yang, 1989; Dai, 1990). Granitic apophyses are often

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 1. (a) A simplied geological map indicating major geological features of the study area (after Wang, 2004; Wang et al., 2012). F1 = Ailaoshan deep fault. F2 = Red River fault. F3 =
PingJianShi fault. F4 = Xiaojiang fault. F5 = ShizongMile fault. F6 = Nanpanjiang fault. F7 = MengziYanshan fault. F8 = WenshanMalipo fault. F9 = Lvzhijiang fault. (b) A geological map of the southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China. (c) 1 = the Gejiu Formation in the mid-Triassic series. 2 = diabase. 3 = altered granite. 4 = vein ore-bodies. 5 = the Late
Yanshanian granite. 6 = granite. 7 = placer tin deposit. 8 = skarn ore-body. 9 = carbonate rock. 10 = porphyritic granite. 11 = bedded ore-body. 12 = reticular ore-body (after Cheng
et al., 2008).

developed beneath stratiform ore bodies with economic value, and the
concaves between apophyses are favorable positions for mineralization
(Chen et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2007b; Zhou et al., 1997; Zhuang et al.,
1996). Granites in the study area are remelted, Sn contents of which
are much higher than the world average for granites (Li et al., 2005,
2006; Qin et al., 2006a; Zhang et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 1997). Prominent
negative Eu anomalies indicate that the granitic magma was probably
originated from the Crust (Luo, 1995; Mao et al., 2008) and experienced
various degrees of differentiation (Guan, 1993). With increased differentiation of the magma, intensity of Sn mineralization was enhanced
(Qin and Li, 2008; Qin et al., 2004). In other words, the granites in the
study area are highly acidic, strong in activity and prone to react with
wall rocks (Shi, 1984).

Being chemically active, carbonate strata are the main ore-bearing

strata in the study area. According to previous studies, stratiform and
banded sulde ore bodies often occur between two strata with signicant differences in physicalchemical properties (Li, 1998; Liu et al.,
2007b; Qin and Li, 2008; Zhou et al., 1997; Zhuang et al., 1996).
Examples include ore bodies within interlayers of quartzmica schist,
plagiogneiss and marbles in the Dulong sub-district, sandshale
carbonate buildups in the Wenshan sub-district, and interlayers of dolomite and limestone in the Gejiu sub-district (Luo, 1995; Shi, 1984).
Carbonate strata in contact with the granites had generally undergone
contact metamorphism and metasomatism (Guan, 1993). In addition,
the content of ore-forming elements in these carbonate rocks is several
times the world average (Liu et al., 2007a). Sulfur isotope measurements

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

indicate that a part of 34S correspond to the sulfur in meteorites, while

the others possess higher values (N 7.51) (Liu et al., 2007a, b). The
analysis indicates that both granitic magma from depth and gypsiferous
carbonate strata provided sulfur for SnCu polymetallic mineralization
(Li, 1998; Liu et al., 2007b; Zhou et al., 1997).
Faults contribute to SnCu polymetallic mineralization in two
aspects. First of all, regional faults, especially intersections of the
NWW trending faults and other tectonic systems control magmatic
activities and boundaries of intrusions, and further control the spatial distributions of mineralization (Mao et al., 2004; Shi, 1984;
Yang, 1988). Secondly, multi-stage magmatic emplacement caused
bulging of overlying strata, and produced numerous gaps and fractures in strata that provided spaces for migration of post-magmatic
hydrothermal uids. Development of lling, metasomatism, and
penetration of hydrothermal uids within fractures can lead to formation of vein and stratiform SnCu polymetallic ore bodies within
the strata (Zhang et al., 2006). In general, intersections of regional
faults control the spatial distribution of mineral deposits, while
local faults and interlayer fractures control the shapes and positions
of ore bodies (Li, 1998).
2.1.3. Modeling criteria
Recently, it has been broadly accepted that the SnCu polymetallic
mineralization in the southeastern Yunnan district was inuenced by
three main factors, namely carbonate strata (e.g., the Gejiu Formation),
fault systems and the Yanshanian granitic intrusions (Gao, 1996; Guan,
1991; Zhuang et al., 1996). The carbonate strata provided the trapping
mechanism, the Yanshanian granitic intrusions provided not only oreforming materials but also energy for hydrothermal alteration, largescale faults controlled the emplacement of granites and the spatial distribution of regional geochemical elds, whereas small-scale faults
and fractures cutting the carbonate strata supported the migration
and differentiation of hydrothermal uids. During the emplacement of
granites, interchanges of ore materials occurred between magma and
intruded rocks and/or between hydrothermal uids and wall rocks
along fracture zones, which benetted the enrichment of metal
elements. Small faults, especially intersections of faults provided favorable environment for precipitation of ore materials. Most of the
known mineralization in this district occurred around the intrusions
(i.e., outer contact zones of intrusions). In particular, concaves between apophyses of granite intrusions and fracture zones cutting
the sedimentary strata are the main places of mineral deposits formation. Therefore, descriptive geo-information of the carbonate
strata, granitic intrusions and faults are signicant geological mapping criteria often considered as the main components of mineral
prospectivity modeling (Fig. 1c) (Cheng et al., 2011; Wang et al.,
2011, 2012, 2013a,b).
2.2. Geo-exploratory datasets
To properly obtain geo-information of the three main factors of
SnCu polymetallic mineralization in the study area, multi-source geodatasets from ground-based gravity and airborne magnetic surveys,
stream sedimentary geochemical sampling, and geological surveys
were utilized to map granitic intrusions, ore-bearing strata and fault
systems as separate layers of evidence. These geo-datasets were
produced by the China Geology Survey during the past few decades.
Geochemical data from 1:200,000 scale geochemical database of concentration values of 39 element/compounds analyzed by X-ray uorescence. These data were used to analyze spatial distributions of oreforming chemical associations and ore-bearing carbonate strata. Gravity
and aeromagnetic data acquired from 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 scale
geophysical databases are employed to investigate both exposed and
buried granitic intrusions. The 1:500,000 scale geological map of China
was as source of geo-information for geological features (e.g., faults,
mineral deposits, outcrops of lithological units).

3. Methods of spatial modeling

3.1. Singularity theory
The singularity theory, a multifractal concept rstly proposed by
Cheng (1999) to characterize geo-anomalies in a spatial scenario has
served in many geological applications (Cheng and Agterberg, 2009;
Wang et al., 2011, 2012, 2013a, b; Zhao et al., 2012, 2013, 2014; Zuo
et al., 2009). Non-linear geo-processes featured by irregular energy release and material accumulation (e.g., mineralization, tectonism, and
magmatism) often produce anomalous and/or heterogeneous distributions of physical or chemical quantities. By investigating variations of
these quantities within narrow spatialtemporal intervals, the application of the singularity theory can characterize these natural phenomena,
quantitatively and qualitatively (Cheng et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2011,
2012, 2013a, b; Zhao et al., 2013; Zuo and Xia, 2009; Zuo et al., 2009).
In some cases (Cheng, 2008; Zuo et al., 2009), the singularity theory
was utilized to describe spatial variations of ore-forming element content to infer geochemical behaviors (e.g., accumulation or depletion) associated with mineralization. A general format of the singularity theory
to express powerlaw relationships between mass (A) and/or density
C(A) of a certain physical quantity and a spatialtemporal interval A
can be:
x

x1

h Ai cA

hC Ai cA

where c is a constant describing the magnitude of the function while

(x) is the exponent of powerlaw relationships expressed by a ratio
of singularity index and the Euclidian dimension E of the interval A
(i.e., /E). The singularity index is a scaling exponent preserving
shapes of the function and describing changes of certain physical quantities. Since powerlaw functions emphasize statistical relationships,
the symbol (i.e., expectation) is currently used. Taking hydrothermal
mineralization as an example, if is constant across space, geochemical
distributions are monofractal; if has multiple values, element concentrations follow a multifractal distribution. Based on that, geochemical
behaviors of ore-forming elements can be inferred according to singularity index : (1) = E implies that changes of element concentration
C(A) is independent on changes of area A (i.e., the interval), and distributions of ore-forming elements are homogeneous or linear; (2) b E
termed as positive singularity implies a convex property of C(A) within A, which means ore-forming elements are accumulated within narrow intervals (i.e., enrichment of ore-forming elements); and (3) N E
termed as negative singularity implies a concave property of C(A)
within A, which means ore-forming elements are diffused within narrow intervals (i.e., depletion).
In order to estimate the singularity index , several windows
A(i ) centered at a given location i are predened. Taking a logtransformation on both sides of Eq. (2), a linear relationship between
logC[A(i)] and log(i) can be obtained as:
log C Ai  c E log i :

Plotting element concentrations in different scales of C[A(i)] against

window sizes i on a loglog graph, singularity index for a location can
be estimated from the slope of the linear relationship (i.e., E). Applying the same procedure at each location across space, the spatial distribution of singularity indices describing geochemical behaviors of oreforming elements is modeled, and locations with element accumulations are consequently dened as indicators to mineral potentials.
Aside from spatial characterization of geochemical behaviors, spatial
variations of fault density and geophysical signatures caused by tectonic

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

and magmatic activities can be analyzed with singularity indices as well

(Wang et al., 2011, 2012, 2013a, b; Zhao et al., 2012).
For geophysical data analysis, estimation of singularity index is
equivalent to a high-pass lter transformation with an advantage of
scale independency in characterizing spatial variations of geophysical
elds.

d A 2

:
dA C A

It implies that the singularity index estimated by the windowbased method is related to the rst derivative transformation of
geophysical elds (A), and the estimation is independent to scales of
A unless the scale independency in Eqs. (1) and (2) does not exist
(Cheng, 2007b, 2008; Wang et al., 2013a).
3.2. Principal component analysis (PCA)
Principal component analysis (PCA) has been broadly used to
integrate geochemical anomalies to delineate spatial distributions of
geological features and mineralization (Carranza and Hale, 2002;
Carranza, 2010; Cheng et al., 2011; Ciampalini et al., 2013; Shahriari
et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011, 2012, 2013b, 2014a, 2014b; Zhao et al.,
2012, 2013, 2014). It is an efcient statistical technique to reduce
dimensionality of geo-exploratory datasets. Multi-source geo-variables
indicative of the presence of mineralization or its associated geological
features are interrelated in the contexts of both statistical and geological
theories. Based on a coefcient matrix, an orthogonal transformation
constitutes the main algorithm of PCA, by which a series of interrelated
geo-variables are transformed to several uncorrelated geo-variables
termed as principal components (PCs). Each PC is a weighted sum of
all input geo-variables, and the weights (i.e., loadings) of geo-variables
can be interpreted to achieve useful geo-information by geologists.
3.3. Geographically weighted regression (GWR)
Hydrothermal mineralization is a cascade process associated with
various complex geo-processes (i.e., controlling factors) (Cheng,
2008). Interactions among these factors control occurrence of mineralization, variations of which produce different types of ore deposits within certain circumstances. Knowledge regarding this geological issue
exerts inuences on choosing appropriate geological criteria for mineral
potential modeling. From a geo-statistical point of view, the interactions
can be explained by interrelations among geo-information layers descriptive to controlling factors. Regression analysis, which is efcient
in enhancing knowledge regarding dependent (i.e., mineralization)
and independent variables (i.e., controlling factors), can be implemented
to this geological issue (Carranza and Hale, 2001a; Carranza et al., 2008;
Zagayevsky and Deutsch, 2014; Zhao et al., 2013, 2014).
The ordinary least square (OLS) is one of the most popular and
frequently used regression analysis methods, by which interrelations
among controlling factors and mineralization can be expressed as:
Y i a0

ak X ik i

where Yi represents geo-information of mineralization (i.e., dependent

variable) at location i; Xik is geo-information of kth controlling factors
(i.e., independent variable) at location i; a0 is the intercept; and i is
randomly distributed geo-information of mineralization (i.e., error
term with zero means) (Brunsdon et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 2013,
2014). Regression coefcient ak by OLS can characterize interactions
(i.e., interrelations) among mineralization (Yi) and its controlling factors (Xk); however, controlling effects of these factors on mineralization
are spatially varied and non-stationary, since mineralization-related
geo-processes often interact with each other in different ways and

scales across space. Therefore, constant interrelations (ak) among mineralization and its controlling factors generated by OLS are global estimations rather than local ones, which cannot describe detailed and/or
localized situations (Fotheringham et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2013, 2014).
Focusing on remedying shortages of global regression analysis, geographically weighted regression (GWR), which was proposed to estimate spatially-varied interrelations among variables (Brunsdon et al.,
1996; Fotheringham et al., 1996, 1998), can be introduced to explore
spatially non-stationary controlling effects of geological factors on
mineralization across the space (ui, vi). Thus,
Y i a0 ui ; vi

ak ui ; vi X ik i

where ak(ui, vi) characterizes spatially-varied controlling effects

(i.e., coefcients) of the kth controlling factor (i.e., independent
variable) on mineralization (i.e., Yi) at location i; i is the error term;
and intercept a0 is varied across the space. By this local estimation,
more detailed spatially non-stationary interrelations (i.e., interactions)
among mineralization and its associated geo-processes are consequently investigated. In comparison with OLS regression, the estimation is
improved by employing a geographically weighted factor w(ui, vi):
h
i1

T
T
a ui ; vi X wui ; vi X
X wui ; vi Y

and w(ui, vi) is a n n matrix:

wi1
0
wui ; vi 0
:
0

0
wi2
0
:
0

0
0
wi3
:
0

0
0
0 :

:
wi j

By using a weighting factor, the jth location is weighted geographically according to its distance to the calibration point i; location j close
to i is dened a higher weight than the ones far from i (Brunsdon
et al., 1996, 2002; Fotheringham et al., 1998, 2001). Meanwhile, a
weight assigned to the jth observation is dependent on a predened
bandwidth . The location j is given a weight exp(dij2/2) if the distance between j and the calibration point i is less than the bandwidth
; otherwise the weigh is 0. In general, a smaller bandwidth produces
more localized investigation on interrelations among mineralization
and its controlling factors, and vice versa. If the bandwidth is approaching innity, weights will become to 1 and estimated interrelations or controlling effects ak(ui, vi) by GWR are same as OLS. More
detailed introduction and geological applications of GWR can be found
in Brunsdon et al. (1996), Fotheringham et al. (2002), and Zhao et al.
(2013, 2014).
4. Mineral exploration modeling
Based on former studies (Zhuang et al., 1996), geo-information regarding the Yanshanian granitic intrusions, intensive faults and carbonate strata are necessary to be extracted and integrated for mineral
potential mapping for SnCu mineralization in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China. Furthermore, in order to investigate
spatially-varied interrelations among mineralization and its controlling
geo-processes, geochemical distributions of ore-forming element
assemblages as end products of hydrothermal mineralization were
characterized by geo-information of the three controlling factors.
4.1. Modeling component recognition
4.1.1. The Yanshanian granitic intrusions
Considering genetic relationships between the Yanshanian granitic
intrusions and SnCu polymetallic hydrothermal deposits in this area,

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

many former geological studies were conducted to nd exoskarn zones.

As a result, delineating spatial distributions of both exposed and buried
intrusive rocks had become the top issue in mineral exploration. In the
aspect of geophysical analysis, gradients of geophysical elds had been
investigated by various geophysical data processing techniques to identify causative geological bodies (Cheng et al., 2011). A classic band-pass
lter method consisting of upward continuation and the rst or second
order vertical derivatives were traditionally employed to delineate
causative geological features. As indicated by our former studies
(Wang et al., 2013a), the singularity technique with an advantage of
scale dependency had been proven to be superior to the classic bandpass lter in detecting boundaries of geological bodies, results of
which cannot be inuenced by changes of upward continuation distances. Therefore, singularity index mapping technique currently serves
to extract geo-information of the Yanshanian granitic intrusions from
gravity and aeromagnetic data.
Guidelines to distinguish rock types in this area had been proposed
by Xiong and Shi (1994): the Yanshanian granites are characterized by
low rock density and magnetism corresponding to negative gravity
and magnetic anomalies. According to the model introduced in
Eq. (4), a high-pass lter was implemented to Bouguer gravity and
reduced-to-pole (RTP) aeromagnetic anomalies. Spatial variations of
gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies can then be achieved (Fig. 2),
from which areas of depletion of rock density (Fig. 2a) and magnetism
(Fig. 2b) due to granite emplacement are identied by singularity indices greater than 2. Detail regarding the applications of singularity theory
to these geophysical data can be found in our former work (Wang et al.,
2011, 2013a). To further characterize spatial variations of physical

properties of granitic intrusions, spatial variations of rock density and

magnetism (Fig. 2) are integrated by means of PCA. By examining loadings of PCs, these two positively loaded variables in PC1 (Fig. 3a) satisfy
the fact that granitic intrusions are coincident with high singularity indices of both gravity and aeromagnetic data (i.e., depletion of density
and magnetism). Consequently, high PC1 scores can indicate spatial variations of geophysical properties of the Yanshanian granitic intrusions
(Fig. 3b).
4.1.2. Fault intensity
Fault systems as pathways of hydrothermal uids for mineralization
had been of broad concern in many case studies of mineral exploration
modeling (Wang et al., 2012, 2013b). As hydrothermal mineralization is
generally associated with fault systems, areas with well developed fault
systems are believed to have favorable spaces for hydrothermal mineralization (Faulkner et al., 2010; Micklethwaite et al., 2010; Zhai et al.,
1999). Geo-information of faults is often derived from density or complexity analysis (Xypolias and Koukouvelas, 2004; Zhao et al., 2011).
By analyzing fault traces, geo-information of fault length density
(i.e., I = L/A, L is the total length within an area A) can be dened as
an estimator of fault intensity to evaluate favorability of a given location
for occurrence of hydrothermal mineralization; however, the drastic
enhancement of fault intensity creating more cracks to release pressure
and temperature when ore-forming uids passing through may not be
described. Using singularity index mapping technique, spatial variations
of fault length density (i.e., accumulation and depletion) reecting
changes of fault systems can be interpreted (Fig. 4). Many discovered
hydrothermal mineral deposits are distributed in and/or near the

a)

b)

Fig. 2. Spatial distributions of singularity indices of geophysical elds (after Wang et al., 2013a). (a) Singularity index of Bouguer; (b) Singularity index of aeromagnetic anomalies.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

a)

0.5

Aeromagnetic data

Bouguer anomalies

b)

Fig. 3. Geo-information extracted from geophysical anomalies. (a) PC1 loadings of singularity indices of gravity and magnetic data supporting that the PC1 depict physical signatures of the
granitic intrusions. (b) Spatial distributions of PC1 scores of singularity indices of Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies.

areas with b 2; meanwhile these areas are coincident with well developed fault systems and intersections of faults trending along different
orientations. Details of applications of singularity theory to fault analysis
can be found in our former studies (Wang et al., 2012, 2013b; Zhao et al.,
2013).
4.1.3. Carbonate strata
Stages of hydrothermal mineralization include magmatic emplacement, migration of ore uids through fault systems, hydrothermal

metasomatism, and mineralization in wall rocks (Pirajno, 2009). As

pointed out by former researches (Zhuang et al., 1996), wall rocks favorable for SnCu polymetallic hydrothermal mineralization in the study
area are mainly composed of carbonate strata (e.g., dolostone and limestone) with high contents of CaO and MgO, and low contents of SiO2,
K2O and Na2O. Forced by cascade geo-processes, occurrences of mineralization in specic positions may cause variations of geochemical signatures of wall rocks. Therefore, mineralization-favored positions in
wall rocks can be characterized by spatial variations of geochemical

Fig. 4. Spatial distributions of singularity indices of fault density (after Wang et al., 2012). Areas with singularity indices less than 2 correspond to well-developed fault systems.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

signatures of ore-bearing strata (Cheng, 2007a; Wang et al., 2011, 2012,

2013a; Zhao et al., 2012; Zuo et al., 2009). Accumulated in ore-bearing
strata, concentrations of ore-forming elements (e.g., Sn, Cu, Pb, Zn and
Ag) are higher than in other rock formations in the study area. Similar
to geophysical and geological data processing, singularity index mapping technique was utilized to examine the geochemical behaviors of
selected oxides and elements (i.e., CaO, MgO, SiO2, K2O, Na2O, Sn, Cu,
Pb, Zn, and Ag), and the results are further integrated by PCA to indicate
the presence of mineralization within wall rocks. By singularity theory,
areas with accumulation of selected oxides and elements are coincident
with patterns having b 2. Due to limitation of space in this paper, spatial distributions of singularity indices of these oxides and elements are
not shown. By PCA, loadings in PC1 (Fig. 5a) support PC1 scores can represent spatial variations of geochemical signatures of the carbonate
strata. Patterns with low scores indicate specic positions of mineralization within ore-bearing strata (Fig. 5b).
4.2. Mineral potential mapping
Geo-anomalies of intrusions, fault intensity, and wall rocks indicative
to hydrothermal mineralization in the study area had been extracted by

singularity theory-based spatial analysis methods from geophysical,

geochemical, and geological data. PCA was utilized again to integrate
the extracted geo-information for mapping mineral potentials. Since
SnCu hydrothermal mineralization mostly occurred within contact
zones between intrusions and wall rocks, areas of outcropping granitic
intrusions are masked off for highlighting buried ones. Three sets of
geo-information integrated by PCA in this section are geo-information
of buried granitic intrusions, fault intensity, and ore-bearing strata
(i.e., wall rocks). According to their singularity features, high values of
granitic intrusions (Fig. 3b), low values of fault intensity (Fig. 4) and
ore-bearing strata (Fig. 5b) are indicative to mineralization-favored
locations. Based on that, low PC1 scores are considered indicators to
mineral potentials in this district (Fig. 6a). It can be noticed that
known deposits are well-coincident with low PC1 scores. The
singularity-based result, which characterizes spatially-varying behaviors of geochemical and geophysical signatures, is more interpretable
as regards hydrothermal mineralization process (Fig. 6b). From the patterns (Fig. 6b), spatial distributions of mineral potentials (i.e., low PC1
scores) satisfy a metallogenic model of the SnCu polymetallic deposits
that the Yanshanian granitic intrusions provided heat and metal resources; ore-forming uids migrated through spaces produced by faults;

a)

b)

Fig. 5. Geochemical signatures of ore-bearing strata characterized by joint application of singularity theory and PCA. (a) PC1 loadings of singularity indices of selected elements and oxides
enriched in carbonate strata. (b) PC1 scores of singularity indices of selected elements and oxides indicating spatial variations of geochemical signatures of ore-bearing strata.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

a)

0.80

0.40

0.00

-0.40

-0.80

Granitic intrusions

Carbonate strata

Fault intensity

b)

Fig. 6. Application of PCA to integrate geo-information identied by singularity theory. (a) Loadings of controlling factors in PC1. (b) PC1 scores, sowing low values indicative of mineral
potentials.

and the hydrothermal mineralization occurred at mineralizationfavored positions within the contract zones between intrusions and
carbonate strata.
4.3. Spatially non-stationary interrelations among mineralization and
controlling factors
Ore-forming elements consisting of Sn, Cu, Pb, As, W, and Zn as end
products of hydrothermal mineralization in southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China are often discontinuously and heterogeneously distributed. To represent hydrothermal mineralization process, spatiallyvaried geochemical behaviors of these elements (i.e., depletion and accumulation) were characterized by singularity theory and further integrated by PCA (Fig. 7). Many discovered that SnCu polymetallic
deposits are located in areas with enrichment of ore-forming element
assemblages (i.e., low PC1 scores) (Fig. 7b). Based on the derived geoinformation regarding the Yanshanian granitic intrusions (Fig. 3b),
fault intensity (Fig. 4) and ore-bearing carbonate strata (Fig. 5b), a
GWR model was constructed to investigate spatially-varied interrelations among hydrothermal mineralization and its controlling factors.
Since high values in Fig. 3 and low values in Figs. 4, 5 and 7 are indicative
of the presence of mineralization, the latter three sets of values were
reclassied so that all high values are coincident with their causative
geological features and in order to facilitate interpretation of the results
of regression analysis. Using geo-anomalies of ore-forming element assemblage as a dependent geo-variable and geo-anomalies of the three

controlling factors as independent geo-variables, the GWR model can

be expressed as:
Y mineralization a0 ui ; vi a1 ui ; vi X intrusions a2 ui ; vi X strata
a3 ui ; vi X faults i ui ; vi :

The coefcient of determination R2 was evaluated to verify the

tness of the regression model (Fig. 8a) before interpreting the
spatially-varied interrelations. High values of R2 indicate that the regression model is explainable as regards metallogeny of this area and expected spatially non-stationary interrelations ai(ui, vi) are existent and
reasonable; while low values explain that these interrelations may not
be existent or doubtful. From the spatial distributions of R2 (Fig. 8a),
most discovered deposits are located in areas with high values. It proves
that the regression model is tenable within mineralized areas. On the
contrary, low values of R2 overlapping with few deposits indicate that
the GWR model could not perfectly reect reality. In other words, mineralization in these local areas may be weak or may not be dominated
by the controlling factors considered. Interrelations between mineralization and the controlling factors cannot be consequently estimated by
current GWR model. However, by examining the regression coefcients
ai(ui, vi), spatially non-stationary interrelations among mineralization
and its controlling factors can be investigated (Fig. 8). It is demonstrated
that inuences of these controlling factors on mineralization are
spatially-varied, and mineralization in local areas is dominated by anisotropic interactions among magmatism, tectonism and sedimentation.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

10

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

a)

b)

Fig. 7. Spatial distributions of hydrothermal mineralization in the southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China. (a) Loadings of the main ore-forming elements in PC1. (b) PC1 scores
indicative of geochemical behaviors of ore-forming element assemblage. Eight zones with accumulation of ore-forming element assemblage and high density of discovered deposits
are circled for further discussion in the text.

Most discovered deposits are located in areas with high regression

coefcients (i.e., a1, a2, and a3) indicating that hydrothermal mineralization in the southeastern Yunnan district is highly associated with the
three geological factors considered, localized inuences of which on
known mineral occurrences can be interpreted based on their
coincidence with the spatially-varied regression coefcients (i.e., a1, a2,
and a3).
By examining patterns for accumulation of ore-forming element assemblage and density of discovered deposits, eight zones are circled and
used as examples to discuss spatially-varied controlling effects of these
three factors. In the aspect of fault intensity (Fig. 8b), it can be found that
hydrothermal mineralization in the Gejiu sub-district (i.e., Zone 2) is
highly associated with fault. Furthermore, high coefcients in all of the
eight zones prove that mineralization was strongly structural controlled. In other words, mineralization tends to occur at locations
where faults intersect with each other. Specically, in these areas, faults
are mainly NW-oriented. It corresponds to the fact that NW-oriented
faults governed the local mineralization (Li, 1998; Qin and Li, 2008;
Shi, 1984). In the aspect of carbonate strata (Fig. 8c), most zones
(e.g., zones 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8) are highly associated with accumulation
of ore-forming element assemblage and in accordance with spatial
distributions of many known deposits. It implies that hydrothermal
mineralization was strata-controlled as well. In the aspect of granitic intrusions (Fig. 8d), high coefcients in many zones (e.g., zones 2, 4, 5 and
6) demonstrate that hydrothermal mineralization was highly associated
with granitic intrusions. Furthermore, the highest association between
intrusions and mineralization shown in zones 2, 4 and 5 well indicate

that mineralization is more prone to occur within the outer zones of intrusions in contact with carbonate rocks. Regression residuals depicted
along section YY* represent another signicant variable releasing information for interpretation. Residuals with high values in most zones
(Fig. 8e) imply underestimation of the GWR model as regards mineralization (i.e., dependent variable). In other words, content of ore-forming
element assemblage in high residual areas is much higher than the expectation. Two possible reasons are discussed here. The rst one is
that the residuals are due to intense accumulation of ore-forming element assemblage forced by anomalous geo-processes. It can be proved
by occurrences of known hydrothermal deposits within these areas.
Secondly, there are likely additional local controlling factors which
have not been considered in the GWR model but efciently impact
hydrothermal mineralization or accumulation of relative elements.
Information from either regression coefcients or residuals aids hydrothermal mineral exploration in the study area. Focusing on local
scale, coefcients provide qualitative and quantitative descriptions of
the spatially-varied interrelations among hydrothermal mineralization
and its controlling factors. It benets understanding the metallogeny
of SnCu polymetallic deposits in local areas. Based on these coefcients, the metallogeny can also be rectied in return. Residuals, especially the ones coincident with known mineral occurrences remind
insufciency of the employed model, implying that more localized
metallogeny and detailed exploration should be suggested in these
areas. Therefore, proper interpretation of both regression coefcients
and residuals is necessary and important for mineral exploration in
the study area.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

5. Summaries and discussions

In this paper, GIS-based geo-information extraction and integration
methods are well applied for mineral prospectivity modeling in the
southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China. For geo-information
extraction, the singularity theory was used to characterize spatial
variations of geological, geophysical and geochemical signatures of
mineralization-related geo-processes (i.e., controlling factors). In
comparison with traditionally used analytical methods, limitations

11

on scale dependency of band-pass ltering of geophysical data are

rectied and utilizations of geochemical anomaly are improved.
Geo-information of three controlling factors identied by applications
of the singularity theory is more quantitatively and qualitatively interpretable as regards spatial variations of physical or chemical properties
caused by ore-controlling geo-processes. Quantied description of controlling effects on hydrothermal mineralization can benet further mineral exploration around existing occurrences and, therefore, aid in
solving the problem of mine crisis in this district. In addition, geological

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 8. Spatially non-stationary interrelations between hydrothermal mineralization and its controlling factors investigated by GWR. (a) R2 used to evaluate the tness of the regression
model. (b) Regression coefcients of fault intensity descriptive of controlling effects of fault activities to mineralization. (c) Regression coefcients of ore-bearing strata descriptive of controlling effects of wall rocks on mineralization. (d) Regression coefcients of granitic intrusions descriptive to controlling effects of intrusions on mineralization. (e) Residuals of the GWR model.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

12

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

d)

e)

Fig. 8 (continued).

features measured by different observations are expressed in various

units. By applications of the singularity theory, characterized geological
features can be described uniformly according to changing behaviors of
their signatures that greatly improves interpretability of geo-datasets.
For geo-information integration, a great number of approaches can be
used; however, as a mature statistical method, PCA, which can provide
explicit and easy understanding of geological meanings, was rstly utilized to integrate geo-information of controlling factors for mineral
potential mapping in southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China. In
addition, spatially non-stationary interrelations among hydrothermal
mineralization and its controlling factors were investigated by a GWR
model. As a commonly noticed characteristic of geological issue, interactions or interrelations among geological activities are spatiallyvaried, but the variations were not frequently concerned (or analyzed)
and further characterized in a spatial scenario. Inspiring results
achieved from the GWR modeling provide an innovational application
of spatial analysis in the study area because they provide description
of spatially-varied interrelations among mineralization and its controlling factors. Moreover, valuable information for future mineral exploration is released as well by modeling showing its advantages in
understanding the local metallogeny, rectifying the existing geological
model and qualitatively and quantitatively describing interactions
among complex geo-processes. This paper suggests that GIS-based
mineral potential mapping will not only delineate areas with mineral
potentials but also provide strategies for following mineral exploration
stages. All of these experiences can be suggested to future mineral
exploration not only in the study area but also in other regions.

Acknowledgment
The authors sincerely thank two anonymous reviewers for their
critical reviews and constructive comments which have improved the
manuscript. This research has been jointly supported by China Geological Survey on New methods for mineral resource potential assessment
(1212010733811) and on Quantitative models for prediction of strategic mineral resources in China (201211022) and Canadian Grants
supported by a NSERC Discovery Research Grant (ERC-OGP0183993).

References
Agterberg, F.P., 1989. Computer programs for mineral exploration. Sci. 245, 7681.
Agterberg, F.P., 1992. Combining indicator patterns in weights of evidence modeling for
resource evaluation. Nat. Resour. Res. 1, 3950.
Agterberg, F.P., 1994. Fractals, multifractals and change of support. In: Dimitrakopoulos, R.
(Ed.), Geostatistics for the Next Century. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 223234.
An, P., Moon, W.M., Rencz, A.N., 1991. Application of fuzzy theory for integration of
geological, geophysical and remotely sensed data. Can. J. Explor. Geophys. 27, 111.
Bonham-Carter, G.F., 1994. Geographic Information Systems for Geoscientists: Modelling
with GIS. Computer Methods in the Geosciences, rst ed. Pergamon, New York.
Bonham-Carter, G.F., Agterberg, F.P., Wright, D.F., 1989. Weights of evidence modelling: a
new approach to mapping mineral potential. In: Agterberg, F.P., Bonham-Carter, G.F.
(Eds.), Statistical Applications in the Earth Sciences. Geological Survey of Canada, pp.
171183.
Brunsdon, C., Fotheringham, A.S., Charlton, M.E., 1996. Geographically weighted regression:
a method for exploring spatial nonstationarity. Geog. Anal. 28, 281298.
Brunsdon, C., Fotheringham, A.S., Charlton, M., 2002. Geographically weighted summary
statistics a framework for localised exploratory data analysis. Comput. Environ.
Urban. Syst. 26, 501524.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

Carranza, E.J.M., 2004. Weights of evidence modeling of mineral potential: a case study
using small number of prospects, Abra Philippines. Nat. Resour. Res. 13, 173187.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2008. Geochemical anomaly and mineral prospectivity mapping in GIS.
Handbook of Exploration and Environmental Geochemistry vol. 11. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2009. Controls on mineral deposit occurrence inferred from analysis of
their spatial pattern and spatial association with geological features. Ore Geol. Rev.
35, 383400.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2010. Improved wildcat modelling of mineral prospectivity. Resour. Geol.
60, 129149.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2014. Evidential belief predictive modeling of mineral prospectivity using
few prospects and evidence with missing values. Nat. Resour. Res. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s11053-014-9250-z.
Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., 2001a. Logistic regression for geologically constrained mapping
of gold potential, Baguio district, Philippines. Explor. Min. Geol. 10, 165175.
Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., 2001b. Geologically constrained fuzzy mapping of gold mineralization potential, Baguio district, Philippines. Nat. Resour. Res. 10, 125136.
Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., 2002. Wildcat mapping of gold potential, Baguio district,
Philippines. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B Appl. Earth Sci. 111, B100B105 (MayAugust
2002).
Carranza, E.J.M., Laborte, A.G., 2014. Data-driven predictive mapping of gold prospectivity,
Baguio district, Philippines: application of Random Forests algorithm. Ore Geol. Rev.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.08.010.
Carranza, E.J.M., Sadeghi, M., 2010. Predictive mapping of prospectivity and quantitative
estimation of undiscovered VMS deposits in Skellefte district (Sweden). Ore Geol.
Rev. 38, 219241.
Carranza, E.J.M., Mangaoang, J.C., Hale, M., 1999. Application of mineral deposit models
and GIS to generate mineral potential maps as input for optimum land-use planning
in the Philippines. Nat. Resour. Res. 8, 165173.
Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., Faassen, C., 2008. Selection of coherent deposit-type locations
and their application in data-driven mineral prospectivity mapping. Ore Geol. Rev.
33, 536558.
Carranza, E.J.M., Owusu, E.A., Hale, M., 2009. Mapping of prospectivity and estimation of
number of undiscovered prospects for lode gold, southwestern Ashanti Belt, Ghana.
Mineral. Deposita 44, 915938.
Chen, X., Lin, Z., Xie, F., 1998. Geological and geochemical characteristics of the
Bainiuchang superlarge silver polymetallic deposits of superimposed mineralization,
Yunnan province. Sci. Geol. Sin. 33, 115123 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Chen, Y., Chen, H., Zaw, K., Pirajno, F., Zhang, Z., 2007. Geodynamic settings and tectonic
model of skarn gold deposits in China: an overview. Ore Geol. Rev. 31, 139169.
Chen, S., Zhao, P., Zhang, S., Tong, X., Wu, J., Mo, G., 2009. Mineralizing multi-formity and
deep prospecting of Gejiu super SnCu multi-metal deposit, Yunnan, China. Earth Sci.
J. China Univ. Geosci. 34, 319324 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Cheng, Q., 1999. Multifractality and spatial statistics. Comput. Geosci. 25, 949961.
Cheng, Q., 2006. GIS based fractal/multifractal anomaly analysis for modeling and prediction of mineralization and mineral deposits. In: Harris, J.R. (Ed.), GIS for the Earth
Sciences. Geological Association of Canada, St. John's, Newfoundland, pp. 285296.
Cheng, Q., 2007a. Mapping singularities with stream sediment geochemical data for prediction of undiscovered mineral deposits in Gejiu, Yunnan Province, China. Ore Geol.
Rev. 32, 314324.
Cheng, Q., 2007b. Multifractal imaging ltering and decomposition methods in space,
Fourier frequency, and eigen domains. Nonlinear Process. Geophys. 14, 293303.
Cheng, Q., 2008. Non-linear theory and powerlaw models for information integration
and mineral resources quantitative assessments. Math. Geosci. 40, 503532.
Cheng, Q., 2012. Singularity theory and methods for mapping geochemical anomalies
caused by buried sources and fore predicting undiscovered mineral deposits in
covered areas. J. Geochem. Explor. 122, 5570.
Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., 1999. Fuzzy weights of evidence method and its application in
mineral potential mapping. Nat. Resour. Res. 8, 2735.
Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., 2009. Singularity analysis of ore-mineral and toxic trace
elements in stream sediments. Comput. Geosci. 35, 234244.
Cheng, Y., Mao, J., 2010. Age and geochemistry of granites in Gejiu area, Yunnan province,
SW China: constraints on their petrogenesis and tectonic setting. Lithos 120, 258276.
Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., Ballantyne, S.B., 1994. The separation of geochemical anomalies
from background by fractal methods. J. Geochem. Explor. 51, 109130.
Cheng, Y., Mao, J., Xie, G., Chen, M., Zhao, C., Yang, Z., Zhao, H., Li, X., 2008. Preliminary
study of the petrogenesis of LaochangKafang granite in the Gejiu area, Yunnan
province: constraints from geochemistry and zircon UPb dating. Acta Geol. Sin. 81,
14781493 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Cheng, Q., Li, L., Wang, L., 2009. Characterization of peak ow events with local singularity
method. Nonlinear Process. Geophys. 16, 503513.
Cheng, Q., Xia, Q., Li, W., Zhang, S., Chen, Z., Zuo, R., Wang, W., 2010. Density/area powerlaw
models for separating multi-scale anomalies of ore and toxic elements in stream sediments in Gejiu mineral district, Yunnan Province, China. Biogeosciences 7, 30193025.
Cheng, Q., Bonham-Carter, G., Wang, W., Zhang, S., Li, W., Xia, Q., 2011. A spatially weighted
principal component analysis for multi-element geochemical data for mapping locations of felsic intrusions in the Gejiu mineral district of Yunnan, China. Comput. Geosci.
37, 662669.
Cheng, Y., Mao, J., Rusk, B., Yang, Z., 2012. Geology and genesis of Kafang CuSn deposit,
Gejiu district, SW China. Ore Geol. Rev. 48, 180196.
Cheng, Y., Mao, J., Chang, Z., Pirajno, F., 2013. The origin of the world class tin-polymetallic
deposits in the Gejiu district, SW China: constraints from metal zoning characteristics
and 40Ar39Ar geochronology. Ore Geol. Rev. 53, 5062.
Ciampalini, A., Garfagnoli, F., Devl Ventisette, C., Moretti, S., 2013. Potential use of remote
sensing techniques for exploration of iron deposits in western Sahara and southwest
of Algeria. Nat. Resour. Res. 22, 179190.

13

Chung, C.F., Agterberg, F.P., 1980. Regression-models for estimating mineral-resources

from geological map data. J. Int. Assoc. Math. Geol. 12, 473488.
Dai, F., 1990. Regional distribution pattern of Sn-bearing polymetal deposits in southeastern
Yunnan. Geol. Prospect. 1990, 1721 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Edwards, R., Atkinson, K., 1986. Ore Deposit Geology and Its Inuence on Mineral Exploration, rst ed. Chapman and Hall, London.
Einaudi, M.T., Burt, D.M., 1982. Introduction, terminology, classication and composition
of skarn deposits. Econ. Geol. 77, 745754.
Faulkner, D.R., Jackson, C.A.L., Lunn, R.J., Schlische, R.W., Shipton, Z.K., Wibberley, C.A.J.,
Withjack, M.O., 2010. A review of recent developments concerning the structure,
mechanics and uid ow properties of fault zones. J. Struct. Geol. 32, 15571575.
Fotheringham, A.S., Charlton, M., Brunsdon, C., 1996. The geography of parameter space:
an investigation of spatial non-stationarity. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 10, 605627.
Fotheringham, A.S., Charlton, M., Brunsdon, C., 1998. Geographically weighted regression:
a natural evolution of the expansion method for spatial data analysis. Environ. Plan. A
30, 19051927.
Fotheringham, A.S., Charlton, M., Brunsdon, C., 2001. Spatial variations in school performance: a local analysis using geographically weighted regression. Geogr. Environ.
Model. 5, 4366.
Fotheringham, A.S., Brunsdon, C., Charlton, M., 2002. Geographically Weighted Regression: The Analysis of Spatially Varying Relationships, rst ed. Wiley, Chichester.
Gao, Z., 1996. On the genesis of the Bainiuchang Ag polymetallic deposit in Mengzi.
Yunnan Geol. 15, 4058 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Grunsky, E.C., Smee, B.W., 1999. The differentiation of soil types and mineralization from
multi-element geochemistry using multivariate methods and digital topography. J.
Geochem. Explor. 67, 287299.
Guan, R., 1991. An approach of mineralization of granite mass in the structure tectonic
magmatic belt in the Southeast of Yunnan. Mineral. Petrol. 11, 92101 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Guan, R., 1993. Basic characteristics and correlation of main granite bodies in southeast
Yunnan. Yunnan Geol. 12, 373382 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Haldar, S.K., 2012. Mineral Exploration: Principles and Applications, rst ed. Elsevier,
Oxford.
Han, R.S., Liu, C.Q., Carranza, E.J.M., Hou, B., Huang, Z.L., Wang, X.K., Hu, Y.Z., Lei, L., 2012.
REE geochemistry of altered tectonites in the Huize base-metal district, Yunnan,
China. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal. 12, 127146.
Harris, J.R., 1989. Data integration for gold exploration in eastern Nova Scotia using a GIS.
Remote Sensing for Exploration Geology, pp. 233249, (Calgary, Alberta).
Harris, J.R., Sanborn-Barrie, M., 2006. Mineral potential mapping: examples from the Red
Lake Greenstone Belt, Northwest Ontario. In: Harris, J.R. (Ed.), GIS for the Earth
Sciences. Geological Association of Canada, pp. 121.
Harris, J.R., Wilkinson, L., Grunsky, E.C., 2000. Effective use and interpretation of
lithogeochemical data in regional mineral exploration programs: application of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology. Ore Geol. Rev. 16, 107143.
Harris, D., Zurcher, L., Stanley, M., Marlow, J., Pan, G., 2003. A comparative analysis of
favorability mappings by weights of evidence, probabilistic neural networks, discriminant analysis, and logistic regression. Nat. Resour. Res. 12, 241255.
He, J., Yao, S., Zhang, Z., You, G., 2013. Complexity and productivity differentiation models
of metallogenic indicator elements in rocks and supergene media around Daijiazhuang
PbZn deposit in Dangchang County, Gansu Province. Nat. Resour. Res. 22, 1936.
Hodgson, C.J., 1990. Uses (and Abuses) of ore deposit models in mineral exploration.
Geosci. Can. 17, 7989.
Li, S., 1998. Metallogenic analysis of SnCu rich orebodies in the Gejiu mining area,
Yunnan. Geotecton. Metallog. 22, 148155 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li, Y., Qin, D., Dang, Y., Yang, J., 2005. Research on relation between tin ore deposit
and (Ultra) ferromagnesian rock. Eng. Sci. 7, 269274 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Li, Y., Qin, D., Dang, Y., Xue, C., Tan, S., Hong, T., 2006. Mineralizations in basalts of the
Gejiu tin deposit in Yunnan Province. J. Jilin Univ. (Earth Sci. Ed.) 36, 326335 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Liao, S., Chen, S., Deng, X., Li, P., Zhao, J., Liao, R., 2014. Fluid inclusion characteristics and
geological signicance of the Xi'ao coppertin polymetallic deposit in Gejiu, Yunnan
Province. J. Asian Earth Sci. 79, 455467.
Liu, M., Ouyang, H., Peng, X., 2007a. Structural and mechanism ore-controlling in the
contact-depression zones of LaochangKafang rockbodies. Nonferrous Miner. Met.
23, 14 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Liu, M., Peng, X., Wang, L., Yang, B., 2007b. Geological characteristics of SnCu
polymetallic deposit in the contact-depression zone of the LaochangKafang
rockbody in Gejiu. Mineral Resour. Geol. 21, 395403 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Luo, J., 1995. The metallogenic model of tin, lead, zinc and silver deposits in southeastern
Yunnan, China. Yunnan Geol. 14, 319332 (in Chinese).
Luo, X., Dimitrakopoulos, R., 2003. Data-driven fuzzy analysis in quantitative mineral
resource assessment. Comput. Geosci. 29, 313.
Lusty, P.A.J., Scheib, C., Gunn, A.G., Walker, A.S.D., 2012. Reconnaissance-scale prospectivity
analysis for gold mineralisation in the southern Uplands-Down-Longford Terrane,
Northern Ireland. Nat. Resour. Res. 21, 359382.
Mao, Z., Peng, X., Lai, J., Wang, L., 2004. Fractal studies of fracture and metallogenic prediction in the east area of Gejiu ore district. Contrib. Geol. Miner. Resour. Res. 19, 1719
(in Chinese with English abstract).
Mao, J., Cheng, Y., Guo, C., Yang, Z., Feng, J., 2008. Gejiu tin polymetallic ore-eld: deposit
model and discussion for several points concerned. Acta Geol. Sin. 82, 14551467 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Mao, J., Xie, G., Duan, C., Pirajno, F., Ishiyama, D., Chen, Y., 2011. A tectono-genetic model for
porphyry-skarn-stratabound CuAuMoFe and magnetiteapatite deposits along the
MiddleLower Yangtze River Valley, Eastern China. Ore Geol. Rev. 43, 294314.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032

14

W. Wang et al. / Ore Geology Reviews xxx (2014) xxxxxx

McCuaig, T.C., Beresford, S., Hronsky, J., 2010. Translating the mineral systems approach
into an effective targeting system. Ore Geol. Rev. 38, 128138.
Meja-Herrera, P., Royer, J.J., Caumon, G., Cheilletz, A., 2014. Curvature attribute from surface restoration as predictor variable in Kupferschiefer copper potentials. Nat. Resour.
Res. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11053-014-9247-7.
Micklethwaite, S., Sheldon, H.A., Baker, T., 2010. Active fault and shear processes and their
implications for mineral deposit formation and discovery. J. Struct. Geol. 32, 151165.
Misra, K., 2000. Understanding Mineral Deposits, rst ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Norwell.
Pan, G.C., Harris, D.P., 2000. Information Synthesis for Mineral Exploration, rst ed. Oxford
University Press, New York.
Pereira, H.G., Renca, S., Saraiva, J., 2003. A case study on geochemical anomaly identication through principal components analysis supplementary projection. Appl.
Geochem. 18, 3744.
Pirajno, F., 2009. Hydrothermal Processes and Mineral Systems, rst ed. Springer, Berlin.
Porwal, A., Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., 2003. Articial neural networks for mineral potential
mapping. Nat. Resour. Res. 12, 155171.
Porwal, A., Carranza, E.J.M., Hale, M., 2004. A hybrid neuro-fuzzy model for mineral potential
mapping. Math. Geol. 36, 803826.
Qin, D., Li, Y., 2008. Researches of Gejiu TinCopper Polymetallic Deposits, rst ed. Science
Press, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
Qin, D., Tan, S., Fan, Z., Li, Y., Chen, A., Li, L., Liu, G., Dang, Y., Tong, X., Wu, J., Li, Y., 2004.
Geotectonic evolution and tin-polymetallic metallogenesis in GejiuDachang area.
Acta Mineral. Sin. 24, 117123 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Qin, D., Li, Y., Fan, Z., Hong, T., Li, L., Lin, X., 2006. The geochemistry and mineralization evolvement of Gejiu tin ore deposits. Eng. Sci. 8, 1927 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Rencz, A.N., Harris, J.R., Watson, G.P., Murphy, B., 1994. Data integration for mineral exploration in the Antigonish Highlands, Nova Scotia. Can. J. Remote. Sens. 20, 258267.
Shahriari, H., Ranjbar, H., Honarmand, M., 2013. Image segmentation for hydrothermal alteration mapping using PCA and concentrationarea fractal model. Nat. Resour. Res.
22, 191206.
Shi, Q., 1984. Metallogeny of cassiterite sulphide deposits in southeast Yunnan, China.
Yunnan Geol. 3, 159164.
Tan, S., Qin, D., Chen, A., Fan, Z., Xue, C., Li, J., Xia, J., Pu, C., 2004. Regional crust evolution
and metallogenesis of Gejiu tin deposit a discussion. Acta Mineral. Sin. 24, 157163
(in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, L., 2004. Researches on Metallogenic Series, Metallogenic Evolution and
Metallogenic Prognosis in the Gejiu TinCopper Polymetallic Ore-Concentrating
DistrictPh.D. Thesis Central South University, (132 pp.).
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q., 2011. Analysis and integration of geo-information to identify granitic intrusions as exploration targets in southeastern Yunnan district, China.
Comput. Geosci. 37, 19461957.
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q., Liu, J., 2012. Tectonic-geochemical exploration modeling for
characterizing geo-anomalies in southeastern Yunnan district, China. J. Geochem.
Explor. 122, 7180.
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q., 2013a. Application of singularity index mapping technique
to gravity/magnetic data analysis in southeastern Yunnan mineral district, China. J.
Appl. Geophys. 92, 3949.
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q., 2013b. Fault trace-oriented singularity mapping technique
to characterize anisotropic geochemical signatures in the Gejiu mineral district,
China. J. Geochem. Explor. 134, 2737.
Wang, C., Deng, J., Carranza, E.J.M., Wang, Q., Ma, N., Lai, X., 2014a. Tin metallogenesis associated with granitoids in the southwestern Sanjiang Tethyan Domain: nature,
types, and tectonic setting. Gondwana Res. 26, 576593.
Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q., 2014b. Mapping of Fe mineralization-associated geochemical signatures using logratio transformed stream sediment geochemical data in eastern Tianshang, China. J. Geochem. Explor. 141, 614.

Woodall, 1994. Empiricism and concept in successful mineral exploration. Aust. J. Earth
Sci. 41, 110.
Xiong, G., Shi, S., 1994. Physicalgeological model of the Gejiu tin district and its application. Geol. Rev. 40, 1927 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Xu, Y., Cheng, Q., 2001. A fractal ltering technique for processing regional geochemical
maps for mineral exploration. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal. 1, 147156.
Xypolias, P., Koukouvelas, I.K., 2004. Fault trace parameters as a tool for analysing remotely
sensed fault arrays: an example from the eastern Gulf of Corinth, Greece. Int. J. Remote
Sens. 25, 46854699.
Yang, S., 1988. Annular block structure, arched structure and tin-bearing structure in
southeast Yunnan. Geol. Prespect. 24, 512 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Yang, S., 1989. The tin deposit exploration model in a metallogenic province of the southeastern Yunnan tin metallogenic belt. Geol. Rev. 35, 262270 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Yang, S., 1990. Types and associations of ore deposits along the Southeastern Yunnan tin
ore belt. Miner. Deps. 9, 3748 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Yao, J., Wu, M., 1988. The regional distribution characteristics and the exploration and
evaluation criteria of tin deposits from south-east of Yunnan to the east of Guangxi,
Mineral Resour. Geol. 2, 3239 (in Chinese).
Yuan, J., Zhu, S., Zhai, Y., 1979. Mineral Deposits, rst ed. Geological Publishing House,
Beijing (in Chinese).
Zagayevsky, Y., Deutsch, C.V., 2014. A methodology for sensitivity analysis based on regression: applications to handle uncertainty in natural resources characterization.
Nat. Resour. Res. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11053-014-9241-0.
Zhai, Y., Deng, J., Li, X., 1999. Essentials of Metallogeny, rst ed. Geological publishing
house, Beijing, China (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang, H., Liu, J., Li, X., Zhang, X., 2006. Relationship of granites to tin, silver, copper, lead,
zinc, polymetallic deposits in southeastern Yunnan, China. Contrib. Geol. Miner.
Resour. Res. 21, 8790 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhao, P., 1999. Theory and Practice of Geoanomaly in Mineral Exploration, rst ed.
China University of Geosciences Press, Wuhan, China (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Zhao, J., Chen, S., Zuo, R., Carranza, E.J.M., 2011. Mapping complexity of spatial distribution
of faults using fractal and multifractal models: vectoring towards exploration targets.
Comput. Geosci. 37, 19581966.
Zhao, J., Wang, W., Dong, L., Yang, W., Cheng, Q., 2012. Application of geochemical anomaly identication methods in mapping of intermediate and felsic igneous rocks in
eastern Tianshan, China. J. Geochem. Explor. 122, 8189.
Zhao, J., Wang, W., Cheng, Q., 2013. Investigation of spatially non-stationary inuences of
tectono-magmatism on Fe mineralization in eastern Tianshan, China with geographically weighted regression. J. Geochem. Explor. 134, 3850.
Zhao, J., Wang, W., Cheng, Q., 2014. Application of geographically weighted regression to
identify spatially non-stationary relationships between Fe mineralization and its
controlling factors in eastern Tianshan, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 57, 628638.
Zhou, J., Xu, K., Hua, R., Zhao, Y., 1997. A discussion on genesis of the tin polymetallic
sulde deposits of Southeastern Yunnan. Yunnan Geol. 16, 4058 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Zhuang, Y., Wang, R., Yang, S., Yi, J., 1996. Geology of Gejiu TinCopper Polymetallic
Deposit. Earthquake publishing house, Beijing, China (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Zuo, R., Xia, Q., 2009. Application fractal and multifractal methods to mapping
prospectivity for metamorphosed sedimentary iron deposits using stream sediment
geochemical data in eastern Hebei province, China. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73
(A1540-A1540).
Zuo, R., Cheng, Q., Xia, Q., Agterberg, F.P., 2009. Application of singularity mapping technique to identify local anomalies using stream sediment geochemical data, a case
study from Gangdese, Tibet, western China. J. Geochem. Explor. 101, 225235.

Please cite this article as: Wang, W., et al., GIS-based mineral potential modeling by advanced spatial analytical methods in the southeastern
Yunnan mineral district, China, Ore Geol. Rev. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.09.032