Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HistoryofWindPower
PitstoneWindmill,believedtobetheoldest
windmillintheBritishIsles
TheGiantBrushWindmillinCleveland,Ohio
Duringthewinterof188788Brushbuiltwhatistodaybelievedtobethe
firstautomaticallyoperatingwindturbineforelectricitygeneration.
Itwasagiant theWorld'slargest witharotordiameterof17m(50ft.)
and144rotorbladesmadeofcedarwood.Notethepersonmowingthe
lawntotherightofthewindturbine.
Theturbineranfor20yearsandchargedthebatteriesinthecellarofhis
mansion.
Despitethesizeoftheturbine,thegeneratorwasonlya12kWmodel.
GrandpasKnob
Thefirstlargescaleelectricityproducing
windmill(theworld'slargestatthetime)was
installedin1941atGrandpa'sKnob,onthe
borderofCastletonandWestRutland,VT,to
takeadvantageofNewEngland'sstrongwind
energyregime.Theturbinerestartedon
March3,1945andoperatednormallyuntil
March26,whentheturbinesuffereda
massivefailure.Oneofthe75footblades
suddenlysnappedoffandhurled700feet
downthemountain.Theexperiment,still
largelyconsideredasuccess,endedwiththe
turbinebeingrazedinthesummerof1946.
WindTurbineGeneratorIntroduction
Asmallanemometerandwindvaneontopof
thewindturbineelectronicallytellacontroller
whichwaytopointtherotorintothewind.
Thenthe"yawdrive"mechanismturnsgears
topointtherotorintothewind.
NacelleDesign
NacelleDetails
1.
MaintenanceHoist.
2.
Generator:800kW,Induction,4poles,
690Volts.
3.
Coolingsystem(Air)
4.
TopControlunit.(PLC)
5.
Gearbox:ratio71.3
6.
Mainshaft
7.
MaintenanceRotorLockSystem.
8.
Blade.
9.
BladeHub
10.
Nosecone
11.
Bladebearing(forpitchcontrol)
12.
BaseFrame
13.
HydraulicUnit(diskbrakes,gearbox)
14.
Gearframeattachment
15.
YawRing
16.
Brake
17.
Tower(threesections)
18.
Yawmotordrive:2.2kW
19.
Cardan
20.
Windvaneforyawcontrol.
21.
Anemometerforpitchcontrol.
NacelleDetails
Induction(Asynchronous)Machine
InductionMachineReactivePower
WindTurbineInductionGenerator
InductionGeneratorIssues
Capacitorsrequiretoprovideexcitation
Fixedspeedoperationonly
Gearboxtorqueisofconcern
Cantprovidereactiveorvoltagecontrol
Uncompensatedwindfarmisaconsumerofreactivepower(seechart)
Reactivepowercompensationisneededtocontrolthevoltage
WoundRotorInductionMachine
WoundRotorInductionGenerator
SinglyFedInductionGenerator
RotorEnergyDissipated
DoublyFedInductionGeneratorConverter
AbsorbsOverspeedRotorEnergy&Provides
OutputEnergy
DoublyFedInductionGenerator
ConverterAbsorbsEnergyforUnderspeedRotor
&ProvidesOutputEnergy
WindTurbineGeneratorConstantSpeedSystems
SquirrelCageInductionGenerator
Cheap&Simple
Torquevariationsnotcompensated
Flicker
Capacitorstocompensatereactivepower
WindTurbineGeneratorVariableSpeedSystems
DoublyFed(WoundRotor)InductionGeneratorDFIG
Optimumpowercontrol
Convertersize
Restrictedspeedvariability
Expensive
WindTurbineGeneratorVariableSpeedSystems
SquirrelCageInductionGenerator
Optimumpowercontrol
100%speedvariability
Convertersize
Expensive
WindTurbineGeneratorVariableSpeed
Systems
PermanentMagnetSynchronousGenerator
Optimumpowercontrol
100%speedvariability
WithoutGearbox
Convertersize
Generatorcomplexity
Veryexpensive
WTGeneratorComparison
WindFarms
Awindfarmisacollectionofwindturbinesinthesamelocation.Windturbines
areoftengroupedtogetherinwindfarmsbecausethisisthemosteconomical
waytocreateelectricityfromthewind.
Ifmultiplewindturbinesareplacedtooclosetooneanother,theefficiencyofthe
turbineswillbereduced.Eachwindturbineextractssomeenergy fromthewind,
sodirectlydownwindofaturbinewindswillbeslowerandmoreturbulent.For
thisreason,windturbinesinawindfarmaretypicallyplaced35rotordiameters
apartperpendiculartotheprevailingwindand510rotordiametersapartparallel
totheprevailingwind.Energylossduetothe"WindParkEffect"maybe25%.
ThelargestwindfarmintheworldisinTexas.Ithas
421windturbinesspreadoutover47,000acres.
Thiswindfarmcanproduceatotalof735.5
Megawattsofelectricity.
WindFarmLayoutto
minimize"WindParkEffect"
ComparisonWindFarm&ConventionalPowerPlant
WindFarm
ConventionalPowerPlant
Configuration
Multiplesmallgenerators Onelargegenerator
Location
Determinateonwind
speed
Sitedforeconomics
(transmissionaccess)
Control
1st Generationhadno
voltageridethrough
Voltage&Frequency
ReactivePower
Capacitorbanksand
powerelectronics
Selfgenerated
Reliability
Outputvarieswithwind
Outputpredictable
Lagging
Lagging
MW
pf
+.95
MW
.95p
f
Lagging
Leading
SynchronousGenerator reactive
capability
MVar
Leading
Doublyfedinductiongenerators
+/ 0.95pf
MVar
Leading
Inductiongenerators noinherent
reactiveproductioncapability
MVar
GeneratorReactiveCapability
MW
FirstGenerationWindTurbines
SmallOutput(lessthan1MW)
FixedSpeedInductionGenerator
RequiredCapacitiveCompensationTo
Operate
NoLowVoltageRideThrough(LVRT);Tripped
OffForLowSystemVoltage
NoReactivePowerSupport
NoSCADAControl/DatatoSystemOperator
LowPenetrationLevelInGrid
August2003Blackout
HigherSystemPenetration(510%)
NoLVRT/ReactiveSupportAggravatedSituation
FERCOrderNo.661A,InterconnectionforWind
Energy(NERCMemberGridCodesAlso)
ThreeCommonComponentsToGridCodes:
1.LVRTRequirements
2.ReactivePower;Provide+/ 0.95PFand
DynamicReactiveSupportIfRequired
3.ProvideDatatoTransmissionOperator(SCADA)
LowVoltageRideThroughFERC661A
FirstGenerationWTG NoLVRT
1.Faultonutility
transmissiongrid
2.Transmissionsystem
voltagedropsrapidly.
3.Windgeneration
tripsofflinebecause
voltageisbelow
0.75puatgenerator
terminalsfor5cycles.
5.Voltagereturnsto
normal.
But,nogeneration
remainsonline.
4.Faultclears
in600mS.
WTGwithSVC(orenhancedDFIG)
1.Faultonutility
transmissiongrid
2.Transmissionsystem
voltagedropsrapidly.
3.SVCdetectslow
voltageandinjects
reactiveenergyto
quicklyrebuildvoltage
atthewindgenerator
above0.75puthreshold
ReactivePowerCompensation
Shuntcapacitors,switchedinblocks,relatively
inexpensive, notgoodfortransientevents
Switchingblockofcapacitancecanswingthe
voltageupordownandthisvariationisfeltasan
abruptchangeintorqueontheturbinegearboxes
StaticvarCompensatorsProvideContinuously
AdjustableDynamic+/ PFControl,VeryExpensive
SVCConfiguration
CompensationCapBankvsSVC
StaticVarCompensatorwithCapBanks
SwitchedCapacitorBanks
TypicalUncompensatedWindFarmLosses
230kV
100MW
60/100MVA
9%Z
600V
34.5kV
0MVAR
ToUtility
Transmission
Grid
Power
Transformer
Losses
100%PF
Turbines
100MW
18MVAR
GSU
Losses
7.0MVAR
CollectorGrid
CollectorGrid
Losses
Charging
4.0MVAR
2.0MVAR
9MVAR
InductiveMVARs
CapacitiveMVARs
18MVAR
Losses
ReactivePowerBudget
Mendota Hills Reactive Power Calculation
18
15.92
16
14
34.5/138 Xformer I2X loss
12
10
MVAR
50MWWind
TurbineGeneration
0.99PF
7.12
8.2
6
4
0.7
Total
Compensation(leading)
0
-2
-2.1
-4
Transformer138kV 34.5kVMVARLosses
20milesof34.5kVXLPE133%Insulatedcable
63GSUTransformers34.5kV 0.69kVMVARLosses
WindFarmSCADA
ProvidesIntegratedControl&DataforEachWTG&WindFarmSystemVoltage&PF
LargerWindFarmSystem(Units>1MW)
Utility(115kV)
TieBreaker
Line
Transformer
SwitchgearorOpenSubstation
WindfarmSubstation(34.5kV)
CollectorFeederBreakers
CollectorBus
WindFarmTransformerWindingConfiguration
WTG
WTGGSUDeltaPrimary,Grounded
WyeSecondary&Tertiary
UtilityTieTransformerPrimaryGroundedWye,
SecondaryGroundedWye,TertiaryDelta;sometimes
PrimaryGroundedWye,SecondaryDelta
WTGGSU
CollectorSystemOneLine(Partial)
CollectorSystem
SitePlan
WindFarmGrounding
Cu 4/0 bare
conductors
SUBSTATION
WINDTURBINESGROUNDING
(gridwith3groundingrings,the
externaltwoareunderground)
ThegroundinggridsofalltheW.T.areconnectedwiththesubstationgridthrough bare
copperconductors,makingthewholeW.F.tobeaequipotentialspace,suchabigamount
of grounding conductors embedded in the ground produces a very low W.F. grounding
resistance<0,5 (typical).
CollectorSystemCabling
Collectorsystemcabledesignconsiderationsincludetheconductorsize(basedonsystem
ampacityrequirements)andtheinsulationtypeandlevel.Thetwocommoninsulation
typesaretreeretardant,crosslinkedpolyethylene(TRXLPE)andethylenepropylenerubber
(EPR).Theinsulationlevel(100%,133%or173%)dependsonthesystemgroundingaswell
asthemagnitudeanddurationoftemporaryphasetogroundovervoltagesunderfault
conditions.
Cableampacities,andtherefore
theconductorsize,aredirectlyrelated
tofivemajorfactors:
numberofcircuits,
cableinstallationgeometry
andmethod,
thermalresistivityandtemperature,
cableshieldvoltagesand
bondingmethodand
loadfactor.
CableSheathGrounding
MultibondedShield
SinglebondedShield
CrossbondedShield
Shieldstransposedateachjunction
CableSheathGroundingApplication
Multiplegroundedsheathsystemshavelowerampacitiesduetoheatingfromsheathcurrents
Singlegroundedsheathsystemsmayhaveexcessivesheathvoltage
Crossbondedsystemsrequirecrossbondingatabout7000 footintervals
WindFarmChallenges
Ifafeedercircuitbreakeropensduringoperation,thenthatfeederandtheoperatingWTGs
willbecomeisolatedandformanungroundedpowersystem.Thisconditionisespecially
troublesomeifaphasetogroundfaultdevelopsonthefeeder;ascenariothatcausesthe
unfaultedphasevoltagestorisetolinevoltagelevels.Thisfaultcanalsoresultinsevere
transientovervoltages,whichcaneventuallyresultinfailureofinsulationandequipment
damage.
Breaker
Opens
G
G
G
G
Oneremedyistodesignfortheungroundedsystem.Thisresultsin
increasedcostsduetothehighervoltageratings,higherBIL,andadded G
engineering.Anothersolutionistoinstallindividualgrounding transformersoneachfeeder.
Thisaddstoequipmentandengineeringcostsandincreasesthesubstationfootprint.
AnothersolutionistousetransfertriptoopenfeederCBafter WTGCBsopen
TemporaryOvervoltageforSLGFault
CollectorSystemRelaying
Severalcollectorsystemdesignaspectsinfluenceovercurrentprotection,including:
longcircuitlengthsmaynotallowforeasydetectionofground faults,
systemgrounding(groundedversusungroundedorsystemsgroundedthrough
groundingtransformersoneachfeeder),
selectivecoordinationofcollectorsystemcircuitscanbequitechallenging,asitis
oftendifficulttodistinguishfaultsonfeederswhengroundingtransformersareused,
selectivecoordinationwithfusesindownstreampadmountedtransformersat
WTGs,
unfaultedphasescanbeelevatedtophasetophasevoltagelevelswithrespectto
groundduringgroundfaults,
lossofphaseduringfaultswithsinglephasetrippingandreclosing
onthetransmissionsystemordownedconductors
WTGmayfeedfaultsforseveralcycles(eventhoughthefeederbreakertripped
open)ifsympathetictrippingofWTGsisnotimplemented
CollectorFeederCoordination
Amps X 10 Bus2 (Nom. kV=34.5, Plot Ref. kV=34.5)
.5
10
30
50
100
300
500
1K
3K
5K
1K
10K
1K
F LA
500
OCR
Relay1
500
CB1
300
300
F use2
Cable1
3-1/C 4/0
100
100
50
Fuse2
50
30
Fuse1
30
T2
1.85 MVA
T2
10
10
F use1
R elay1 - P - 51
OC 1
.5
.5
.3
C able1
.1
.3
.1
Inrush
.05
.05
.03
.03
Relay 1 - 3P
.01
.01
.5
10
30
50
100
300
500
1K
Date: 11-16-2009
Location:
Contract:
E ngineer:
Filename: C:\ETAP\WIND FARM\WIND FARM.OTI
SN: POWERENGI2
Rev: Base
Fault: Phase
3K
5K
10K
Seconds
Seconds
CapacitorSwitchingIssues
138kV
50.4MW
34.5kV
CT
PT
VT
20mile34.5kV
collectorsystem
690V
138kV
Transmission
System
Switchgear
Breaker
Monitoringfor
VoltageRegulation
and/orPFControl
Cap
Switch
7.2MVAR
CapBank
7.2MVAR
CapBank
Capacitor
Control
4 MVA
SVC
CapacitorSwitchingOvervoltages&Resonances
CapacitorSwitchingTransients
TOVresonanceintransformerwindings
CapacitorSwitchingRemediation
Preinsertionresistors. Onetechniqueinvolvesinsertinga
temporaryimpedanceintothecircuitduringoneofthe
steps.Thisapproachbreaksonelargetransientintotwoor
moresmallerones.Circuitbreakerscanbebuiltwith
internalpreinsertionresistorstoreducethemagnitudeof
switchingtransients.
Pointonwaveswitching. Bypreciselycontrollingwhereonthevoltage
waveformthecontactstouch,it'spossibletogreatlyreducethe magnitudes
oftheswitchingtransients.
WTGTransformerFailures
VoltageTransformerFailureatWF
VTSecondaryRecordings
BladeLightningDamage
LightningProtection
LightningCurrentPath
GeneratorBearingsSubjected
ToLightningCurrent
Gearbox&MechanicalSystemFailures
WFCollectorFeederTransferTrip
USWindResourceMap
Questions?
GENERATORControlscheme
Rotor
GearBox
Asinchronous
Generator(DFIG)
Stator
Breaker
Stepup
Transformer
GRID
LV/MV
(3)
(1)
(2)
(C1)
PITCH
(bladeturn)
CAPACITORS
PFCONTROL
Inverter
(C2)
YAW
(nacelleturn)
Rectifier
RotorSpeed
ELECTRICALMEASURES(I,V)
BusVdc
Triggers
IGBT
(5kHZ)
(A)
EXCITATION
(3)
Generator
Current
POWER
CONTROL
WindDirection
WindSpeed
(1)
Generator
Voltage
(2)
Grid
Voltage
SYNCHRONIZATION